1 Electric Motors

Professor Mohamed A. El-Sharkawi

Electric motors have a variety of speed-torque characteristics during steady state and transient
operations. For a given drive application, engineers often select motors with characteristics
matching the needed operation, and which can be driven by existing power sources. Due to the
advances in power electronic devices and circuits, such a stringent restriction no longer exists.
The characteristics of most motors can now be altered to match the desired performance when
external power converters are used and advanced control strategies are employed.
In this Chapter, the speed-torque characteristics of major types of electric motors are presented.
Models and formulas of speed equations as related to the torque are explained from the electric
drives prospective. These characteristics form the basis for the speed control and braking of
electric motors that are discussed in following chapters. Three types of electric motors are
discussed here: dc, induction and synchronous. Although there are several other types of
motors such as the brushless, reluctance, linear and stepper motors, they all share a common
features with the three presented here. For example, the brushless machines can be considered a
special form of a synchronous machine switched to imitate the dc motors. The linear motor is
also considered a special form of the induction motor.
1.1 dc Motors
The dc machine is very popular in a number of drive applications. Its popularity is due to its
simple operation and control. The starting torque of dc machines is large which is the main
reason for using it in several traction applications. A special form of dc machines can also be
used with either ac or dc supply. As a matter of fact, a large number of appliances and power
tools used at home, such as circular saw and blenders, are dc machines.
Figure 5.1 shows a picture of the main components of the dc machine - the field circuit,
armature circuit, commutator, and brushes. The field is normally an electric magnet fed by a dc
power source. In small machines, the field is often a permanent magnet.
The armature circuit is composed of the windings, commutator and brushes. The windings and
the commutator are mounted on the rotor shaft and, therefore, rotating. The brushes are
mounted of the stator and are stationary, but in contact with the rotating commutator segments.
The windings are composed of several coils; each has two terminals connected to opposite sides
of the commutator segments. The commutator segments are electrically isolated from one
another. The segments are exposed, and the brushed touch two opposing segments. The
brushes allow the commutator segments to be connected to an external dc source.
Field windings mounted on stator Brush
Rotating armature with commutator Rotating armature with commutator and
brushes
Figure 5.1: Photos of a dc machine
The diagram in Figure 5.2 can illustrate the operation of the dc machine. The stator field
produces flux from the N pole to the S pole. The brushes touch the terminals of the rotor
coil under the pole. When the brushes are connected to an external dc source of potential V, a
current I enters the terminal of the rotor coil under the N pole and exit from the terminal under
the S pole. The presence of the stator flux and rotor current produces a force F on the coil
known as the Lorentz force The direction of F is shown in the figure. This force produces
torque that rotates the armature counter clockwise. The coil that carried the current moves away
from the brush and is disconnected from the external source. The next coil moves under the
brush and carries the current I. This produces a continuous force F and continuos rotation.
Notice that the function of the commutator and brushes is to switch the coils mechanically.
S

F
F
I
N
Brush
V

Rotor
Armature
windings
Figure 5.2: Basic components of a dc machine
The rotation of the machine is dependent on the magnetomotive force MMF of the field circuit,
which is described by
I N MMF
wher N is the number of turns and I is the field current. The desired MMF can be achieved by
the design of the field windings. There are basically two types of field windings: the first has a
large number of turns and low current; and the second type has a small N and high current.
Both types achieve the desired range of MMF. Actually, any two different windings can
produce identical amount of MMF if their current ratio is inversely proportional to their turns
ratio. The first type of windings can handle higher voltage than the second type. Moreover, the
cross section of the wire is smaller for the first type since it carries a smaller current.
Direct current motors can be classified into four groups based on the arrangement of their field
windings. Motors in each group exhibit distinct speed-torque characteristics, and are controlled
by different means. These four groups are:
1) Separately excited machines: The field winding is composed of a large number of turns
with small cross section wire. It is designed to withstand the rated voltage of the motor.
The field and armature circuits are excited by separate sources.
2) Shunt machines: The field circuit is the same as that for the separately excited machine,
but the field winding is connected in parallel with the armature circuit. A common source
is used for the field and armature windings.
3) Series machines: The field winding is composed of a small number of turns with a large
cross section wire. It is designed to carry large currents and is connected in series with
the armature winding.
4) Compound machines: The machine uses the shunt and series windings.
1.1.1 Separately Excited Motors
The circuit of a separately excited motor is shown in Figure 5.3. The motor consists of two
circuits: field and armature. The field circuit is mounted on the stator of the motor and is
energized by a separate dc source of voltage f
V
. The field has a resistance R
f
and a high
inductance of f
L
. The field inductance has no impact in the steady state analysis since the
source is a dc type. The field current f
L
can then be represented by
f
f
f
R
V
= I
(5.1)
For small size motors (up to a few hundred watts), the field circuit is a permanent magnet. In
such a case, the flux of the field is constant and cannot be adjusted.
The armature circuit, mounted on the rotor, is composed of a rotor winding and commutator
segments. An external source of voltage V
t
is connected across the armature to provide the
electric energy needed to drive the load. The source is connected to the armature circuit via the
commutator segments and brushes. The direction of the current in the armature winding is
dependent on the location of the winding with respect to the field poles.
Relative to the field circuit, the armature carries a much higher current. Therefore, the wire
cross section of the armature winding is much larger than that for the field circuit. The armature
resistance
a
R

is, therefore, much smaller than the field resistance f
R
.
a
R is in the range of
a few ohms, and is smaller for larger horsepower motors. The field resistance is a hundred
times larger than the armature resistance. The field current is usually in the neighborhood of 1-
10% of the rated armature current. The field voltage is usually in the same order of magnitude
as the armature voltage.
R
a
I
a
I
f
R
f
V
t
V
f E
a
Figure 5.3 Equivalent circuit of dc motor in steady-state operation.
The back electromagnetic force
a
E
shown in Figure 5.3 is equal to the voltage of the source
minus the voltage drop due of the armature resistance. The armature current
a
I
can then be
expressed by
a
a t
a
R
E - V
= I
(5.2)
The multiplication of
a
I
by
a
E
represents the developed power
d
P
. In mechanical
representation, the developed power is also equal to the developed torque multiplied by the
angular speed.

d a a d
T I E P (5.3)
The developed power
d
P
is equal to the output power consumed by the mechanical load plus
rotational losses (frictional and windage). Similarly, the developed torque
d
T
is equal to the
load torque plus the rotational torque. The angular speed in equation (5.3) is in
radians/second.
Using the Faradays law and the Lorentz force expressions, the relationships that governs the
electromechanical motion are:
i l B F
v l B e

Where B is the flux density, l is the length of a conductor carrying the armature current, v is the
speed of the conductor relative to the speed of the field, and i is the conductor current. F and e
are the force and the induced voltage on the conductor, respectively. If we generalize these
equations by including all conductors, using the torque expression instead of the force F, and
using the angular speed instead of v, we can rewrite
a
E
and
d
T
as
K E
e E
a
a

(5.4)
a d
d
I K T
F T

(5.5)
Where

is the flux, which is almost proportional to f

I
for separately excited motors. The
constant K is dependent on design parameters such as the number of poles, number of
conductors and number of parallel paths.
The speed-torque equation can be obtained by first substituting
a
I
of equation (5.2) into
equation (5.5)
a
a t
d
R
E V
K T


(5.6)
Then, by substituting
a
E
of equation (5.4) into equation (5.6), we get
a
t
d
R
K V
K T

(5.7)
or
d
2
a t
T
) K (
R
K
V

(5.8)
The speed-current equation can be obtained if
K
T
d
of equation (5.8) is substituted by
a
I

K
I R
K
V
a a t

(5.9)
If you ignore the rotational losses, the developed torque
d
T
is equal to the shaft torque, and
the no load armature current is equal to zero. Hence, the no load speed can be calculated from
equation (5.8) or (5.9) by setting the armature current and load torque equal to zero.
K
V
=
t
o
(5.10)
In reality, the mass of the drive system and the rotational losses are the base load of the motor.
The no load speed
o

is therefore slightly smaller than the value computed in equation (5.10).

Nevertheless, equation (5.10) is an acceptable approximation.
In the steady state, the developed torque
d
T
is equal to the load torque
m
T
. At a given value
of load torque
m
T
, the speed of the motor drops by an amount of that is equal to the
second term of the right side of equation (5.8)
m
2
a
T
) K (
R

(5.11)
The speed of the motor can then be expressed by using the no load and speed drop.

o
(5.12)
Figures 5.4 and 5.5 show the speed-torque and speed-current characteristics when the field and
armature voltages are kept constants.
Tm Torque
Speed

Load
Motor
Operating
Point
Figure 5.4 Speed-torque characteristics of dc separately excited motor
For large motors (greater than 10 hp), the armature resistance
a
R
is very small. This is
because the armature carries higher currents, and the cross section of the wire must then be
larger. For these motors, the speed drop is small, and can be considered constant speed
machines.
Ia Current
Speed

Motor
Operating
Point
Figure 5.5 Speed-current characteristics of dc separately excited motor
The developed torque at starting
st
T
and the starting armature current
st
I
can be calculated
from equations (5.8) and (5.9) by setting the motor speed to zero
a
t
st
R
V
K T
(5.13)
a
t
st
R
V
I
(5.14)
Equations (5.13) and (5.14) provide important information about the starting behavior of the dc
separately excited motor. As we stated earlier,
a
R
is usually small. Hence, the starting torque
of the motor is very large when the source voltage is equal to the rated value. This is an
advantageous feature, and is highly desirable when motors start under heavy loading conditions.
The problem, however, will arise from the fact that the starting current is also very large, as
seen in equation (5.14). Large currents at starting might have a damaging effect on the motor
windings. Excessive currents flowing inside a winding will result in large losses due to the
winding resistance. These losses when accumulated over a period of time may result in
excessive heat that could melt the insulations of the winding causing an eventual short circuit.
This is illustrated by the next example.
Example 5.1
A dc separately excited motor has the following data:
K
= 3.0 Vs (Volt second)
t
V
= 600.0 V
a
R
= 2.0
a
I
= 5.0 A (armature current at full load)
Calculate the rated torque, starting torque and starting current at full voltage.
Solution:
Rated torque =
15 5 3 I K T
a d

NM (Newton Meter)
Starting torque =
900.0
2.0
3.0
600.0
R
K
V T
a
t st

NM
Starting current =
300.0
R
V
I
a
t
st

A
As seen from the above results, the starting torque is 60 times the rated torque, and the starting
current is also 60 times the rated current. Such a high current over a period of time is very
damaging to the motor winding.
One important parameter missing in this example is the inductance of the armature winding.
This inductance reduces the value of the current during transient conditions such as starting or
braking. Nevertheless, the starting current under full voltage conditions is excessively large,
and methods must be implemented to bring this current to a lower and safer value.
By examining equation (5.14), the starting current can be reduced by lowering the terminal
voltage or inserting a resistance in the armature circuit.
Let us assume that the starting current must be limited to 6 times the rated value. This can be
achieved by reducing the terminal voltage at starting to
60.0 2.0 5.0 6 R I V
a st st

V
Figure 5.6 illustrates the effect of reducing the terminal voltage during starting. When the
voltage is reduced from
1 t
V
to
2 t
V
, the slope of the speed-current characteristic remains
unchanged, while the no load speed is reduced. Notice that the starting current
2 st
I
is less
than
1 st
I
.
V
t1
V
t2
I
st2
I
st1
I
a

Figure 5.6 Effect of reducing source voltage at starting

Another method to reduce the starting current is by adding a resistance R to the armature circuit.
18 2.0 -
30.0
600.0
R -
I
V
R
I
V
R R
a
st
t
st
t
a

+
Figure 5.7 illustrates the effect of reducing the starting current by adding a resistance to the
armature circuit. The resistance increases the slope of the speed-current characteristic, but
keeps the no load speed unchanged.
I
st2
I
st1
R
a
R
a
+ R
I
a

Figure 5.7 Effect of inserting a resistance in the armature circuit at starting

1.1.2 Shunt Motors
A shunt motor has its field winding connected across the same voltage source used for the
armature circuit as shown in Figure 5.8. The current of the source I is equal to the sum of the
armature current
a
I
and the field current f
I
. The shunt motor exhibits identical
characteristics to the separately excited motor.
R
a
I
I
f R
f
V
t
E
a
I
a
Figure 5.8 Equivalent circuit of a dc shunt motor
1.1.3 Series Motors
The field winding of a series motor is connected in series with the armature circuit as shown in
Figure 5.9. There are several distinct differences between the field winding of a series machine
and that of a shunt machine, among them are:
1. The series field winding is composed of a small number of turns as compared to the shunt
field winding.
2. The current of the series winding is equal to the armature current, while the current of the
shunt field is equal to the supply voltage divided by the field resistance. Hence, the series
field winding carries a much larger current than the shunt field winding.
3. The field current of the shunt machine is constant regardless of loading conditions
(armature current). The series machine, on the other hand, has a field current varying with
the loading of the motor - the heavier the load, the stronger the field. At light or no load
conditions, the field of the series motor is very small.
a
E
a
R
f
R
a
I
Vt
Figure 5.9: Equivalent circuit of dc series motor
When analyzing series machines, one should keep in mind the effect of the flux saturation due
to high field currents. The flux saturation curve is similar to the one shown in Figure 5.10. The
field coil is wound around the metal core of the stator. The current of the field winding
produces the flux inside the core. When the current increases, the flux increases in a linear
proportion unless the core is saturated. At saturation, the flux tends to increase at a
progressively diminishing rate when the field current increases.
I
f

Figure 5.10: Saturation curve.

The series motor has the same basic equations used for shunt motors: equations (5.4) and (5.5).
The armature current is calculated by using the loop equation of the armature circuit.
I
a
=
V
t
-E
a
R
a
R
f
(5.15)
Notice that f
R
is now present in the current equation. A similar process to that in equation
(5.7) can compute the torque of the machine.
f a
a t
d
R R
E - V
K T
+

(5.16)
f a
t
d
R R
K - V
K T
+

(5.17)
or
d
2
f a
t
T
(K)
R R
K
V
+

(5.18)
Let us assume that the motor operates in the linear region of the saturation curve, i.e.,
a
I C (5.19)
where C is a proportionality constant. The developed torque in this case can be represented by
T
d
= K I
a
= KC I
a
2
(5.20)
Substitute equations (5.19) and (5.20) into equation (5.18), yields
KC
R R
I KC
V f a
a
t
+
(5.21)
Equation (5.21) can also be obtained as a function of the developed torque.
KC
R R
T KC
V f a
d
t
+

(5.22)
Equations (5.21) and (5.22) show that the speed at no load or light loads is excessively high.
Such a high speed may be damaging due to excessive centrifugal forces exerted on the rotor.
For this reason, series motors must always be connected to a mechanical load.
The speed torque characteristic of a series motor is shown in Figure 5.11. Notice that the speed
of the motor is rapidly decreasing when the load torque increases. This can be explained by
equation (5.22) where the motor speed is inversely proportional to the square root of the load
torque.
Torque

Figure 5.11 Speed-torque characteristic of dc series motor.

The starting current of a series motor is calculated by setting
a
E
equal to zero, since .is
equal to zero.
f a
t
st
R R
V
I
+

(5.23)
Compare equation (5.23) to equation (5.14). Notice that, for the same terminal voltage, the
starting current of a series motor is smaller than the starting current of the shunt motor due to
the presence of f
R
in equation (5.23).
If we ignore the core saturation, the starting torque of the series motor is
2
f a
t 2
st st st
R R
V
KC I KC I K T

,
_

+
(5.24)
To compare the starting torque of a series motor to that of a shunt motor, let us rewrite equation
(5.13) assuming that the flux is proportional to the field current.
shunt f a
2
t
a
t
shunt f
t
a
t
shunt st
R R
V
KC
R
V
R
V
KC
R
V
K T
(5.25)
where shunt f
R
is the resistance of the shunt field winding. It is usually a few hundred times
larger than the resistance of the series field f
R
. If we assume that KC in equations (5.24) and
(5.25) are of comparable values, one can conclude that the starting torque of a series motor is
much larger than that for a shunt motor. Also, keep in mind that the starting current of a series
motor is lower than that for a shunt motor. These features make the series motor a very popular
machine in applications such as traction and transportation. A trolley bus, for example, requires
a high starting torque, especially when loaded with passengers.
Another great feature of series motors is their ability to be directly driven by ac supplies. To
explain this let us examine Figure (5.9) where
a
E
is equal to the source voltage minus the
voltage drop across the armature and field resistances. When the source voltage reverses its
polarity,
a
E
follows. Since the field and armature inductances of series motors are small,
a
E

reverses its polarity without any tangible delay. Hence,
a
E
always in phase with the supply
voltage, and the field current is also in phase with the supply voltage. Since

K
E
a

,
the speed of the motor remains unchanged when both
a
E
and reverse their polarities.
Because of this important feature, we can find dc series motors used in household appliances
and tools such as blenders, food processors, washing machines, drills and circular saws. Notice
that high starting torque is also needed in all these applications, and this is another good feature
of series motors.
1.1.4 Compound Motors
A compound motor is composed of shunt and series windings. Two types of compound
configurations can be used. One is called cumulative compound, where the airgap flux is the
sum of the flux of the two field windings. The second is subtractive compound, where the
airgap flux is the difference between the flux of the two field windings. The subtractive
compound may result in a very low flux in the airgap leading to excessive speeds. It is
therefore considered unstable in operation and is not widely used.
The cumulative compound motor (hereafter called compound motor) has the schematic shown
in Figure 5.12. The direction of the currents with respect to the windings dots represents flux
polarities that are cumulative.
E
a
R
a
R
f
I
V
Ia
I
f
R
f shunt
t
Figure 5.12 Equivalent circuit of a compound motor
Equations (5.4) and (5.5) are also valid for compound motors. The flux in these equations can
represent the compound machine by setting
shunt series
+
The speed equation of a compound machine is similar to that given in equation (5.9), but the
resistive term and the flux are modified to reflect the parameters of the compound machine.
) ( K
I ) R R (
) ( K
V
shunt series
a f a
shunt series
t

+
+

+
(5.26)
By assuming that the terminal voltage is constant, so
shunt

is constant, and
a series
I C
,
the speed-current equation can be modified as follows:
shunt a
a f a
shunt a
t
K I KC
I ) R R (
K I KC
V

+
+

+
(5.27)
Also since the motor torque is a function of the armature current and the total flux, it can be
represented by
a shunt series d
I ) ( K T +
[ ]
2
shunt series
d f a
shunt series
t
) ( K
T ) R R (
) ( K
V

+
+

(5.28)
Notice that at no load (
0 T
d

), the armature current is zero, and
series

is also zero. In this

case, the no load speed of the compound motor is
shunt
t
o
K
V

(5.29)
which is the same as the no load speed of the shunt machine. By using the compound
connection, the excessive no load speed of the series motors does no longer exist.
The speed-torque characteristic of the compound motor is shown in Figure 5.13. For a
comparison purpose, the figure also shows the characteristics of the shunt and series motors.

Shunt
Series
Compound
Torque
Figure 5.13 Characteristics of compound, series and shunt motors.
The starting current of the compound machine can be calculated using the circuit in Figure 5.12.
shunt f
t
f a
t
st
R
V
R R
V
I +
+

(5.30)
Since the resistance of the shunt field shunt f
R
is very high, the starting current of the
compound motor is in the same order of magnitude as that for the series motor.
The starting torque of the compound motor is

,
_

+
+
+

,
_

+
+

+
shunt f
t
f a
t
shunt
2
shunt f
t
f a
t
st
st shunt series st
R
V
R R
V
K
R
V
R R
V
KC T
I ) ( K T

(5.31)
which is higher than the starting torque of the series motor given in equation (5.24).
1.2 Induction Motors
About 65% of the electric energy in the United States is consumed by electric motors. In the
industrial sector alone, about 75% of the total energy is consumed by motors and over 90% of
them are induction machines. The reason for the popularity of the induction machines is
primarily due to the fact that they are rugged, reliable, easy to maintain, and relatively
inexpensive. Their power densities (output power to weight) are higher than those for dc
motors.
A picture of the induction machine is shown in Figure 5.14. The induction machine is
composed of a stator and a rotor circuits. The stator circuit has three sets of coils. In its
simplest arrangement, the coils are separated by 120
0
and are excited by a three-phase supply.
A conceptual representation is shown in Figure 5.15. The rotor circuit is also composed of three
phase windings that are shorted internally (within the rotor structure) or externally (through slip
rings and brushes). The rotor with internal short is called squirrel cage rotor. It consists of
wire bars slanted and shorted on both ends of the rotor. The slip rings type is also shown in
Figure 5.14. The terminals of the rotor windings in this type are connected to rings mounted on
the rotor shaft. These slip rings are electrically isolated from one another. Most of rotor
windings are connected in wye, and the three terminals are connected to three slip rings.
Carbon brushes mounted on the stator are continuously touching the slip rings to achieve the
connectivity of the rotor windings with any external equipment. Unlike the commutator of the
dc machine, the slip rings allow the brushes to be connected to the same coil regardless of the
rotor position.
Stator Squirrel cage rotor
Slip ring arrangement
Figure 5.14 Photos of an induction motor
a
b
c
i
i
i
Stator coil
Rotor coils
Figure 5.15 Conceptual representation of an induction motor
Before we explain how the induction machine rotates, we need to understand the concept of
rotating fields. The three-phase stator windings are excited by three-phase source with
sinusoidal waveforms separated by 120
0
. The currents of the three phases produce three-phase
flux as shown in Figure 5.16. Because of the arrangements of the stator windings, the flux of
each phase will travel along the windings axes as shown in Figure 5.17. The airgap flux is the
resultant of all flux produced by the three windings.
Now, let us consider any three time instances such as those given in Figure 5.16 (
1
t ,
2
t and
3
t
). At
1
t , the flux of phase a is
max
2
3
, the flux of phase b is
max
2
3
, and the flux
of phase c is zero. These flux are depicted in Figure 5.18. The resultant airgap flux is the
phasor sum of all flux present in the airgap. Hence, at
1
t
0
max
0
max max 1 c 1 b 1 a 1
30
2
3
0 60
2
3
0
2
3
) t ( ) t ( ) t ( ) t ( + + + +
At
2
t , the flux of phase a is
max
2
3
, the flux of phase b is zero, and the flux of phase c is
max
2
3
. The total airgap flux at
2
t is
0
max
0
max max 2 c 2 b 2 a 2
30
2
3
60
2
3
0 0
2
3
) t ( ) t ( ) t ( ) t ( + + + +
Similarly, at
3
t
, the flux of phase a is zero, the flux of phase b is
max
2
3
, and the flux of
phase c is
max
2
3
. The total airgap flux at
3
t
is
0
max
0
max max 3 c 3 b 3 a 3
90
2
3
60
2
3
120
2
3
0 ) t ( ) t ( ) t ( ) t ( + + + +
Notice that the airgap flux has a constant magnitude of
max
2
3
, but its angle is changing. The
above equations show that the airgap flux is constant in magnitude but rotating in the clockwise
direction. This rotating flux is one of the main advantages of the three-phase systems used in
power distribution.

a

c
T i m e
t1 t3 t2
Figure 5.16 Three-phase fields
i
a
i
c
i
b

a
X
X
X
a
c
b
c

Figure 5.17 Direction of airgap field of each phase

max
2
3

max
2
3

max
2
3

max
2
3

max
2
3

max
2
3

max
2
3

max
2
3

max
2
3

At t1
At t2
At t3
Figure 5.18 Rotaion of the airgap field
The speed of the airgap flux is one revolution per one ac cycle. The time of one ac cycle
f
1

. Where f is the frequency of the supply voltage. So the speed of the airgap
s
n
is
sec / rev f n
s

or
min / rev f 60 n
s

s
n
is known as the synchronous speed because its magnitude is synchronized with the supply
frequency
The arrangement in Figure 5.17 is for two-pole machine (every coil has two poles; one North
and the other South). If each phase has two coils, the machine is 4-pole as shown in Figure
5.19. In this arrangement, the rotor moves 180
0
mechanical for every one complete ac cycle.
Hence the mechanical speed of the airgap flux is
min / rev
p
f
120
pp
f 60
n
s

(5.32)
Where pp is the number of pole-pairs, and p is the number of poles (p=2 pp).
One ac cycle = 180
0
mechanical
'
2
b
'
2
a
X
X
a
1
c
1
b
1
'
1
c
'
1
c
X
X
X
X
'
1
a
'
1
b
a
2
'
2
c
b
2
c
2
Figure 5.19 Two-pole arrangement
The rotation of the induction motor can be explained by using Faradays law and the Lorentz
force equations. Assume that a conductor is carrying current in a uniform magnetic field, the
relationships that governs the electromechanical motion are depicted in the following equations:
i l B F
v l B e

Where B is the flux density, l is the length of the current carrying conductor, v is the speed of
the conductor relative to the speed of the field, and i is the conductor current. F and e are the
force and the induced voltage on the conductor, respectively. If we generalize these equations
for rotating field, we can rewrite them in the following form.
) n , ( f e
(5.33)
) i , ( f T
(5.34)
Where T is the torque developed by the current carrying conductors, and n is the relative
speed between the conductor and the airgap flux. Now, let us assume that the rotor is at stand
still. When a three-phase voltage is applied to the stator windings, a rotating flux is generated
in the airgap. The speed of this flux is the synchronous speed
s
n
. The relative speed n is
equal to the synchronous speed (the rotor is stationary). A voltage e is then induced in the rotor
windings according to equation (5.33). Since the rotor windings are shorted, a rotor current i
flows. This current will produce a Lorentz force F, and torque T, that spins the rotor.
The steady state operation is achieved when the motor, on a continuous basis, provides the
torque needed by the load. Assuming that the flux has a fixed magnitude, the rotor current is
adjusted so that the Lorentz force and torque given in equation (5.34) meet the load torque
demand. The magnitude of the rotor current requires an induced voltage e in the rotor windings
that is equal to the rotor current multiplied by the rotor impedance. This voltage in turn requires
certain speed deviation n as given in equation (5.33). Hence, the steady-state speed of the
rotor must always be slightly less than the synchronous speed to maintain the desired magnitude
of the developed torque.
If the rotor speed is equal to the synchronous speed (
0 n
), the rotor current is dropped to
zero, and so is the developed torque. Thus, the rotor cannot sustain the synchronous speed and
the machine slows down to lower speed.
The difference between the rotor speed (n or ) and the synchronous speed (n
s
or
s
) is
known as the slip s.
s
s
s
s
s s
n
n n
n
n
s

(5.35)
Where
60
n
2 , n is in rev/minute, and is in radians/second. Notice that the slip
at starting, when the motor speed is zero, is equal to one. At no load when the motor speed is
very close to synchronous speed, the slip is about zero.
1.2.1 Equivalent Circuit of Induction Motor
A single-phase equivalent circuit can be developed for the induction motor by first separating
the stator and rotor circuits. The equivalent circuit of the stator is shown in Figure 5.20. The
stator is a set of windings made out of copper material mounted on the core. The windings have
a resistance
1
R and inductive reactance
1
X . The core, which is made out of steel alloy, can
be represented by a linear combination of a parallel resistance and reactance (
m
R
and
m
X
).
This core representation approximately models the hystresis and eddy current effects. The sum
of currents in
m
R
and
m
X
is called the magnetizing current
m
I
.
m
R
and
m
X
are each of
a high impedance value. The number of turns of the stator windings is
1
N , and its effective
voltage drop
1
E is equal to the source voltage V minus the drop across the copper impedance
) X j R ( I V E
1 1 1 1
+
(5.36)
The magnetizing current
m
I
is a small fraction of
1
I , and can be ignored for heavily loaded
motors.
I1
X1 R1
N1
I
E1 V
Im
Xm Rm
Figure 5.20 Equivalent circuit of the stator
The rotor circuit needs a special analysis. First, let us assume that the rotor is at standstill. In
this case, the induction machine is behaving similarly to the transformer. The rotor can be
represented by a winding impedance composed of a resistance
2
R and inductive reactance
2
X as shown in Figure 5.21. The number of turns of the rotor windings is
2
N , and its
terminals are shorted. The induced voltage across the rotor windings at standstill
2
E is
1
2
1
2
N
N
E
E

(5.37)
I2
X2 R2
N2 E2
Figure 5.21 Equivalent circuit of the rotor at standstill
Now let us assume that the rotor is spinning at speed n. In this case, the induced voltage of the
rotor
r
E is proportional to the relative speed n 0between the rotor and the field as given in
equation (5.33). Keep in mind that the induced voltage at standstill
2
E is proportional to the
synchronous speed (
s
n n
).
n n ~ E
n ~ E
s r
s 2

(5.38)
Hence, the rotor voltage
r
E , at any speed n, is
2 r
s
s
2
r
E s E
n
n n
E
E

(5.39)
The frequency of the rotor current is also dependent on n . At standstill (
s
n n
), the
frequency of
2
E or
2
I is the same as the stators supply frequency
f
. At any other speed,
the frequency of the rotor current depends on the rate by which the rotor windings cut through
the field. Hence, it depends on the relative speed . n
At standstill, the rotor frequency
ss
f
is
f f
n n ~ f
ss
s ss

(5.40)
At any other speed, the rotor frequency
r
f is
n n n ~ f
s r

(5.41)
Hence,
f s f
n
n n
f
f
f
f
r
s
s r
ss
r

(5.42)
Equations 5.39 and 5.42 change the equivalent circuit of the rotor to that shown in Figure 5.22,
which is more general for any rotor speed. The rotor inductive reactance in this circuit is
2 2 2 2 r r
X s ) L f 2 ( s L f s 2 L f 2 X
(5.43)
Where
2
L is the inducatnce of the rotor windings, and
2
X is the inductive reactance of the
rotor at standstill.
Ir
Xr = s X2
R2
N2 Er
= s E2
Figure 5.22 Equivalent circuit of the rotor at any speed
The rotor current of the induction motor at any speed
r
I can be represented by
2 2
2
r
X s j R
E s
I
+

(5.44)
Which can be modified to
2
2
2
r
X j
s
R
E
I
+

(5.45)
Ir
X2
R2 / s
N2 E2
Figure 5.23 Modified equivalent circuit of the rotor at any speed
Equation (5.45) can lead to the modified rotor circuit shown in Figure 5.23. Now, let us put the
stator and rotor equivalent circuits together as shown in Figure 5.24(a). The equivalent circuit
can be simplified by eliminating the turns ratio by means of referring all the parameters and
variables to the stator as shown in Figure 5.24(b).
The resistance
'
2
R and inductive reactance
'
2
X of the rotor winding referred to the stator
circuit are computed as follows.
2
2
1
2
'
2
N
N
R R

,
_

2
2
1
2
'
2
N
N
X X

,
_

where N
1
and N
2
are the number of turns of the stator and rotor windings respectively.
The rotor current referred to the stator circuit
'
2
I can be computed as

,
_

1
2
r
'
2
N
N
I I
Ir
I1
X2
X1 R1 R2 /s
N1 : N2
E2
I
E1
Im
Xm Rm V
(a)
'
2
I
I1
'
2
X
X1 R1
s
R
'
2
'
2 1
E E
Im
Xm Rm V
(b)
Figure 5.24 Development of approximate equivalent circuit for induction motor
To conveniently analyze the rotor circuit, let us divide
s
R
'
2
into two components
) s 1 (
s
R
R
s
R
'
2 '
2
'
2
+
This way, we can compute the losses of the rotor windings separately from the developed
power, as will be explained later. The equivalent circuit can now be represented by Figure 5.25.
I2

I1
X2

X1 R1 R2

E1

E2

Im
Xm Rm V
) s 1 (
s
R
'
2

Figure 5.25 Another equivalent circuit for induction motor
I2

I1
X2

R2

E1

E2

X1 R1
Xm
Im
Rm
V
) s 1 (
s
R
'
2

(a)
I2

I1
Xeq Req
Xm
Im
Rm V
) s 1 (
s
R
'
2

(b)
Figure 5.26 More equivalent circuits for the induction motor
We can further modify the equivalent circuit by assuming that
1 m
I I <<
. This makes
'
2 1
I I , and we can assume that the impedances of the stator and rotor windings are in series
as shown in Figure 5.26(a).
R
eq and
X
eq of Figure 5.26(b) are defined as
'
2 1 eq
'
2 1 eq
X X X
R R R
+
+
The resistive element
) s 1 (
s
R
'
2

represents the load of the motor, which includes the
mechanical and rotational loads. Rotational loads include the friction and windage. Notice that
the value of the load resistance is dependent on the motor speed. At no load, when the slip is
close to zero, the load resistance is very large. At starting, when the slip is almost equal to
unity, the load resistance is very small.
1.2.2 Flow of Power
The diagram in Figure 5.27 represents the power flow of the induction motor. Part of the input
power to the motor
in
P
is consumed in the stator circuit in the form of winding losses 1 cu
P

and core losses
iron
P
. The rest of the power g
P
passes through the airgap to the rotor circuit.
This power is called the airgap power. g
P
enters the rotor circuit where part of it is consumed
in the rotor resistance as copper losses 2 cu
P
. The rest is called the developed power
d
P
.
Part of the developed power is rotational losses
rotational
P
due to friction, widage, etc. The rest
is the output power
out
P
consumed by the load.
The input power can be computed as
1 1 in
cos I V 3 P
(5.46)
Where V is the phase voltage of the source and
1
is the phase angle of the current. The stator
copper losses 1 cu
P
and the core losses
iron
P
can be computed using the equivalent circuit of
Figures 5.25 or 5.26(a).
m
2
iron
1
2
1 1 cu
R
V
3 P
R I 3 P

(5.47)
The airgap power can be computed by
2
'
2
'
2 g
cos I E 3 P (5.48)
Where
2
is the phase angle between
'
2
E and
'
2
I . The airgap power can also be computed
as
s
R
) I ( 3 P
'
2 2 '
2 g

(5.49)
The rotor losses is
g
'
2
2 '
2 2 cu
P s R ) I ( 3 P (5.50)
The developed power
) s 1 ( P ) s 1 (
s
R
) I ( 3 P P P
g
'
2 2 '
2 2 cu g d

(5.51)
The developed power of the motor is the shaft power consumed by the mechanical load plus the
rotational losses.
Input Power (P
in
)
Stator Losses:
Copper losses (P
cu 1
)
Core losses (P
iron
)
Airgap Power (P
g
)
Developed Power (P
d
)
Rotor Copper Losses (P
cu 2
)
Rotational Losses (P
rotational
)
Output Power (Pout)
Figure 5.27 Powers flow of induction motor

d g
'
2 2 '
2 d
T ) s 1 ( P
) s 1 (
s
R
) I ( 3 P


1 1 in
cos I V 3 P
m
2
iron
1
2
1 1 cu
R
V
3 P
R I 3 P

s d
'
2 2 '
2 g
T
s
R
) I ( 3 P
g
'
2
2 '
2 2 cu
P s R ) I ( 3 P
Protational
T P
out

Figure 5.28 Detailed power flow of induction motor
The powers of the induction motor can be represented by mechanical terms such as torques and
speeds. The first form of mechanical power is in the airgap. The airgap power is equal to the
developed torque
d
T
exerted by the flux (Lorentz force) times the speed of the flux
s

.
s d g
T P
(5.52)
The second form of the mechanical power is the developed power

d s d g d
T ) s 1 ( T ) s 1 ( P P
(5.53)
Where is the rotor speed as given in equation (5.35)
The rotational losses reduces the torque, hence the output power is
d out
T T ; T P <
(5.54)
Based on the above analyses, the power flow diagram of the induction motor can now be
represented in more details as shown in Figure 5.28.
Example 5.2
A 50 hp, 60 Hz, three-phase, Y-connected induction motor operates at full load at a speed of
1764 rev/min. The rotational losses of the motor is 950 W, the stator copper losses is 1.6 kW
and the iron losses is 1.2 kW. Compute the motor efficiency.
Solution:
The output power at full load is 50 hp
kW 3 . 37
34 . 1
50
P
out

kW 25 . 38 95 . 0 3 . 37 P P P
rotation out d
+ +
We need to calculate the slip before we can proceed. What we have is the actual motor speed,
but the synchronous speed is not given and the number of poles is not given either.
Nevertheless, we know from the principal of operation, that the motor speed at full load is very
close to the synchronous speed. It is just slightly less than the synchronous speed. Since the
number of poles comes in even numbers, this machine must be 4-pole with a synchronous speed
of 1800 rev/min. Hence,
02 . 0
1800
1764 1800
n
n n
s
s
s

Then,
kW 39
98 . 0
25 . 38
s 1
P
P
d
g

kW 8 . 41 2 . 1 6 . 1 39 P P P P
core 1 cu g in
+ + + +
The motor efficiency is
% 89 or 89 .
8 . 41
3 . 37
P
P
in
out

1.2.3 Torque Characteristics of Induction Motor
To establish the speed torque relationship, we need to compute the rotor current.
2
eq
2
'
2
1
'
2
X
s
R
R
V
I
+

,
_

(5.55)
The developed torque of the motor is computed by dividing the developed power by the rotor
speed
1
1
1
]
1

,
_

2
eq
2
'
2
1
'
2
2 '
2 2 '
2
d
d
X
s
R
R s
) s 1 ( R V 3
) s 1 (
s
R
) I (
3 P
T

(5.56)
From equation (5.35),
) s 1 (
s

Hence,
1
1
1
]
1

,
_

+

2
eq
2
'
2
1 s
'
2
2
d
d
X
s
R
R s
R V 3 P
T

(5.57)
V is the phase voltage and equation (5.57) represents the motor torque due to the three phases.
The slip-torque (or speed-torque) characteristic of the induction motor is shown in Figure 5.29.
At starting, when the motor speed is zero (slip is unity), the rotor current produces a starting
torque
st
T
. If the starting torque is greater than the entire load torque, including inertia
torques, the motor shaft spins. When the speed of the motor increases, so does the motor
torque. The maximum torque
T
max
occurs at slip
max
s
. Since in normal steady-state
operation the rotor speed is close to synchronous speed (the slip is about 2%-7%), the motor
speed continues to increase until it reaches a steady state value in the linear region of the
characteristic.
Torque
n
s
1
0
n
s
s
max
T
st
T
max
Figure 5.29: Speed-torque characteristics of induction motor
The speed-torque characteristic can be divided into three major regions as shown in Figure 5.30:
large slip, small slip and maximum torque regions. In the large slip region, which is also known
as the starting region, the torque equation of the motor can be approximated by assuming that
2
eq
2
'
2
1
X
s
R
R <<

,
_

+
Hence,
2
eq s
'
2
2
d
X s
R V 3
T

(5.58)
Setting
1 s
in the large slip approximation can compute the starting torque
2
eq s
'
2
2
st
X
R V 3
T

(5.59)
Torque
s
1
0
s
max
T
st
T
max
Small Slip
Large Slip
Maximum Torque
Figure 5.30 Main regions of speed-torque characteristic
For the small slip region, when the rotor speed is close to the synchronous, the motor torque can
be approximated assuming that
eq
'
2
1
X
s
R
R >> <<
Hence,
'
2 s
2
d
R
s V 3
T

(5.60)
To compute the maximum torque and the slip at maximum torque
max
s
, the first derivative of
equation (5.57) with respect to slip must be set equal to zero. Doing that will result in the
following equations:
2
eq
2
1
'
2
max
X R
R
s
+

(5.61)
1
]
1

+ +

2
eq
2
1 1 s
2
max
X R R 2
V 3
T

(5.62)
Notice that the slip at maximum torque
max
s
is linearly proportional to the rotor resistance,
while the magnitude of the maximum torque is independent of the rotor resistance. For motors
with large rotor resistance, the maximum torque occurs at low speeds.
Example 5.3
A 50 hp, 440 V, 60 Hz, 3-phase, 4-pole induction motor develops a maximum torque of 250%
at slip of 10%. Ignore the stator resistance and rotational losses. Calculate
a. The speed of the motor at full load
b. The copper losses of the rotor
c. The starting torque of the motor
Solution:
a. Motor speed
Using the small slip approximation of equation (5.60), we can write the motor torque at full load
as
'
2 s
2
R
s V 3
T

The maximum Torque equation is given by (5.62). The equation can be rewritten to ignore the
effect of
1
R
eq s
2
max
X 2
V 3
T

Then
eq
'
2 max
X s 2
R
T
T

Now let us modify equation (5.61) by ignoring the effect of the stator resistance
eq
'
2
max
X
R
s
Then
s 2
s
T
T
max max

02 . 0
2
1 . 0
5 . 2
1
2
s
T
T
s
max
max

The motor speed at full load is
min / rev 1764 ) 02 . 0 1 (
4
60
120 ) s 1 (
p
f
120 ) s 1 ( n n
s

b. Copper losses of the rotor
Since the rotational losses are ignored, the developed power is equal to the output power.
kW 3 . 37
34 . 1
50
P
d

Since
) s 1 ( P P
g d

,
and
g 1 cu
P s P
,
then
s 1
s
P
P
d
1 cu

W 760
98 . 0
02 . 0
3 . 37
s 1
s
P P
d 1 cu

,
_

c. Starting torque
The starting torque can be obtained by the large slip approximation when s=1
2
eq s
'
2
2
st
X
R V 3
T

The full load torque represented by the small slip approximation is.
'
2 s
2
R
s V 3
T

Hence,
s
s
X s
) R (
T
T
2
max
2
eq
2 '
2 st

Nm 101
60
1764
2
37300
02 . 0
) 1 . 0 ( P
s
s
T
s
s
T
2
out
2
max
2
max
st

1.2.4 Starting of Induction Motor

In many cases, induction motors do not need a special starting procedure because the starting
current is generally limited to tolerable values by the winding impedance. However, for large
motors with small winding resistance, the starting current could be excessive and a starting
mechanism must be used.
The starting current
'
st 2
I is computed using equation (5.55). In this equation, the slip is set
equal to one.
( )
2
eq
2
'
2 1
'
st 2
X R R
V
I
+ +

(5.63)
To reduce the starting current of an induction motor, several methods can be used. The
common ones are based on reducing the terminal voltage or inserting a resistance in the rotor
circuit.
Figure 5.31 shows the speed-torque characteristics of the induction motor under different
voltage levels. The voltage reduction results in a linearly proportional reduction of the starting
current. However, the starting torque and the maximum torque of the motor will also be
reduced. Notice that the torque is proportional to the square of the voltage. Hence, a 20%
reduction in the voltage reduces the starting current by 20%, but also reduces the starting torque
and the maximum torque by 36% each. If the motor is heavily loaded, the starting torque may
not be adequate to spin the shaft.
The other starting method is based on adding a resistance to the rotor circuit as shown in Figure
5.32. Notice that according to equations (5.58) and (5.61), when a resistance is added to the
rotor circuit, the starting torque and the slip at maximum torque increase.
Torque
n
n
s
s
max
T
st 2
T
max
T
st 1
V
2
< V
1
V
1
Figure 5.31 Speed-torque characteristics at different voltage levels.
In fact, if the added resistance makes equation (5.61) equal to one, the maximum torque will
occur at starting. This is a very good starting method for heavily loaded machines.
Torque
n
n
s
s
max
T
st1
T
st3
=T
max
T
st2
R
3 R
2
R
1
R
3
> R
2
> R
1
Figure 5.32 Speed-torque characteristics when a resistance is added to the rotor circuit
The insertion of rotor resistance is only possible if the rotor is accessible through brushes and
slip-ring arrangement. For squirrel cage motors, adding a resistance is not possible since the
rotor is fully enclosed. However, some types of squirrel cage motors have rotor windings made
of alloys that exhibit skin effects at 60 Hz. Since the rotor frequency at starting is 60 Hz, the
starting rotor resistance is high due to the skin effect. Once the speed of the motor increases,
the rotor frequency is reduced and the skin effect is diminished. The rotor resistance is then
reduced.
Example 5.4
An induction motor has a stator resistance of 3 , and the rotor resistance referred to the stator
is 2 . The equivalent inductive reactance eq
X
= 10 . Calculate the change in the starting
torque if the voltage is reduced by 10%. Also, compute the resistance that should be added to
the rotor circuit to achieve the maximum torque at starting.
Solution:
Using the large slip approximation of equation (5.58), we can compute the starting torque by
setting s =1
2
eq s
'
2
2
st
X
R V 3
T

If
A
T is the starting torque at full voltage, and
B
T is the starting torque at the reduced
voltage, then
2
B
A
V 9 . 0
V
T
T

,
_

A B
T 81 . 0 T
Hence, the reduction of the starting torque is 19%
To compute the value of the inserted resistance in the rotor circuit for maximum torque at
starting, we can use equation (5.61).
max
s
must then be set equal to one.
2
eq
2
1
'
add
'
2
max
X R
R R
1 s
+
+

44 . 8 2 100 3 R X R R
'
2
2
eq
2
1
'
add
+ +
1.3 Synchronous Motors
The synchronous machine is mainly used for power generation. Over 95% of all electric power
generated worldwide, are produced by synchronous generators. This is due to the ability of
synchronous generators to produce ac power directly without a need for any conversion, and the
effective and simple control of its voltage and power flow. The frequency of the generated
power is directly proportional to the speed of the machine. Hence, the speed of the generator
must be maintained constant at synchronous speed at all times.
The synchronous machine is also used as a motor. Several applications that demand fixed
speeds regardless to load changes employ synchronous machines. The motor can also be used
as an effective tool for reactive power and voltage controls.
A synchronous machine, as the name implies, operates at the synchronous speed
s
n
. The
machine, as shown in the photos of Figure 5.33 and the diagram in Figure 5.34, is composed of
a stator and a rotor. The stator of a synchronous machine is similar to that of an induction
motor. The stator has three phase windings connected to a three-phase source. The stator
windings generate a rotating magnetic field

s

in the airgap as shown in Figure 5.18. The speed

of

s

is the synchronous speed, which is a function of the supply frequency as given in equation
(5.32). For small machines, the rotor could be a permanent magnet. For larger machines, the
rotor is an electrical magnet excited externally by a dc source known as the exciter. The
winding of the rotor circuit is connected to slip rings mounted on the rotor shaft. Brushes are
used to connect the rotor circuit to the exciter. Because of the slip ring arrangement, the rotor
winding does not reverse its polarities. Hence, the rotor magnetic field

f

is stationary relative
to the rotor shaft.
Stator Permanent magnet rotor
Electric magnet rotor
Figure 5.33 Photo of synchronous machine
N
S
I
a
I
b
I
c

s
Figure 5.34 Conceptual representation of a synchronous machine.
The airgap of the synchronous machine has two fields: one is
s

rotating at a synchronous
speed due to the stator excitation, and the other f

is due to the rotor excitation and is

stationary with respect to the rotor. These two fields must be aligned at all times (providing that
the fields are strong enough). Therefore, the rotor field

f

must also rotate at the synchronous

speed of

s

. Since the rotor field is stationary with respect to the rotor, the rotor will also
rotate at the synchronous speed
s
n
.
Using the schematic of Figure 5.35, the equivalent circuit of the synchronous machine can be
developed. The figure shows the rotor circuit excited by a dc source f
V
. The excitation
current f
I
produces a field f

that is stationary with respect to the rotor. Now let us look at

the windings of one phase in the stator circuit. Assume that we are rotating the machine
externally at a synchronous speed
s

. The field will then cut the stator windings and induces
a voltage f
E
.
t d
d
~ E
f
f

(5.64)
This f
E
is known as the no load equivalent excitation voltage. If the saturation of the rotor
circuit is ignored, f
E
is directly proportional to the excitation current f
I
. The frequency of
f
E
is proportional to the synchronous speed
s

given in equation (5.32).

N
S

s
E
f
I
f
V
f
Figure 5.35 Simplified diagram of a singly-excited synchronous machine at no load
Now, let us discuss the case when the synchronous machine is running as a motor. Consider the
diagram of Figure 5.36. In this case, the terminals of the stator are connected to an ac source
t
V
. In addition, the rotor is connected to a dc source f
V
. The rotor circuit produces a
magnetic field f

. The current in the stator windings

a
I
(armature current), also produces a
magnetic field
s

that is rotating at the synchronous speed. The net magnetic field in the
airgap g

is the phasor sum of both fields.

s f g
+
(5.64)
N
S

g
I
f
V
f
I
a
a
V
t

s
Figure 5.36 Simplified diagram of synchronous machine at no load
Since the rotor field is generated by a dc circuit, we do not have to worry about the hysterisis
and eddy current of the rotor. Hence, we can simplify the equivalent circuit of the synchronous
machine to that shown in Figure 5.37. The reactance
s
X
is known as the synchronous
reactance. It is the reactance of the stator windings plus the equivalent reactance associated with
the armature reaction. R is the resistance of the armature windings.
I
a
X
s
R
E
f V
t
Figure 5.37 Equivalent circuit of synchronous machine
The equivalent circuit of Figure 5.37 can further be simplified by ignoring the resistance of the
armature circuit. This is justified for large machines where the stator windings carry large
current, and therefore the wire cross section is large. The simplified circuit is shown in Figure
5.38.
I
a
X
s
E
f V
t
Figure 5.38 Simplified equivalent circuit of synchronous machine
1.3.1 Reactive Power
The main equation of the synchronous motor is given by equation (5.65). Both
t
V
and f
E

are independent variables;
t
V
is adjusted by controlling the supply voltage and frequency, and
f
E
is adjusted by controlling the magnitude of the dc current in the rotor circuit (field
current).
s a f t
X I E V +
(5.65)
The armature current is then a dependant variable with its magnitude and phase shift dependant
on the adjustments of
t
V
and f
E
. Moreover, the equivalent field voltage f
E
, always lags
the terminal voltage
t
V
when the machine is running as a motor.
Three phasor diagrams of equation (5.65) ae shown in Figure 5.39. In Figure 5.39(a), f
E
is
adjusted so that t f
V cos E >
. In this case, the angle of the voltage drop
s a
X I
must be
greater than 90
o
. Since,
a
I
lags the voltage drop
s a
X I
by 90
o
. Then,
a
I
leads
t
V
, and
the power factor measured at the terminals of the motor (
cos
) is leading.
In Figure 5.39(b), f
E
is reduced so that t f
V cos E
. In this case, the angle of the
voltage drop
s a
X I
is exactly 90
o
. Hence,
a
I
is in phase with
t
V
, and the power factor
measured at the terminals of the motor is unity.
In Figure 5.39(c), f
E
is further reduced so that t f
V cos E <
. In this case, the angle of
the voltage drop
s a
X I
is less than 90
o
, and
a
I
lags
t
V
, and the power factor measured at
the terminals of the motor is lagging.
I
a
V
t
E
f
I
a
X
s

(a)
I
a
V
t
E
f
I
a
X
s

(b)
I
a
V
t
E
f
I
a
X
s

(c)
Figure 5.39 Phasor Diagram of Synchronous Motor: (a) Leading Current; (b) Unity Power
Factor; (c) Lagging Current
The reactive power Q at the terminal of the motor can be computed
sin I V 3 Q
a t

(5.66)
t
V
is a phase quantity. By examining the phasor diagrams of Figure 5.39, we can show that
t f s a
V cos E sin X I
(5.67)
Substituting the current of equation (5.67) into (5.66) yields
[ ]
t f
s
t
V cos E
X
V 3
Q
(5.68)
The reactive power at the terminals of the motor is leading when the magnitude of Q in equation
(5.68) is positive. When Q is negative, the reactive power is lagging.
Example 5.5
The load of an industrial plant is 40 MW at 0.85 power factor lagging. A 2 MW synchronous
motor is used to improve the overall power factor of the plant. The motor is rated at 5 kV, and
has a synchronous reactance of 5 . The phase value of the equivalent field voltage can be
expressed by
f f
I 200 E
Where f
I
is the dc excitation current. Assume that the motor is unloaded, compute the
excitation current to improve the overall power factor of the plant to 0.95 lagging
Solution:
Power factor angle of the load
0 1
8 . 31 85 . 0 cos

Load reactive power

kVAR 8 . 24 8 . 31 tan 40 tan P Q
l

Total reactive power for 0.95 power factor lagging
( ) kVAR 15 . 13 2 . 18 tan 40 95 . 0 cos tan P Q
1
tot


Reactive power to be generated by the synchronous motor
kVAR 65 . 11 ) 8 . 24 ( ) 15 . 13 ( Q Q Q
l tot m

The negative sign implies a lagging reactive power. Since the motor is running at no load, the
power factor angle at the terminals of the motor must be 90
o
. In this case, f
E
is in phase
with
t
V
. The phasor diagram in this case is shown in Figure 5.40. The excitation voltage
f
E
must be greater than
t
V
for leading current.
I
a
V
t
E
f
I
a
X
s
Figure 5.40 Phasor diagram of synchronous motor running at no load
Using equation (5.68), the magnitude of f
E
can be computed
[ ]
t f
s
t
V cos E
X
V 3
Q
1
]
1

3
5000
E
5
3
5000
3
11650
f
Hence,
kV 89 . 2 E
f

To achieve this level of reactive power, the excitation current must be adjusted to
A 45 . 14
200
E
I
f
f

1.3.2 Power Flow
The input power to the synchronous motor is from the armature circuit only. If we ignore losses
in the rotor windings, there is no power consumed in the field circuit. Hence, the input power is
cos I V 3 P
a t

(5.69)
t
V
is a phase quantity. By examining the phasor diagrams of Figure 5.39, we can show that
sin E cos X I
f s a

(5.70)
Substituting
a
I
of equation (5.70) into equation (5.69) yields
sin
X
E V
3 P
s
f t
(5.71)
Since the synchronous machine rotates at a synchronous speed, we can write the developed
torque equation as

sin
X
E V
3 P
T
s
f t
s s
(5.72)
is known as the power angle. Figure 5.41 shows the torque curve representing equation
(5.72). If the excitation, terminal voltage and supply frequency are all maintained constant,
changes in the load torque
l
T
results in changes in the power angles. As the figure shows, the
load torque must always be limited to below the maximum torque
max
T
at
0
90 . If the
load torque exceeds
max
T
, the motor stops spinning.
T
Tl

Tmax

l
90
o
Figure 5.41 Torque curve of synchronous motor
Example 5.6
A 2300 V, 60 Hz, 6-pole synchronous motor is driving a constant torque load of 5000 NM. The
synchronous reactance of the motor is 6 . Compute the minimum excitation that the machine
must maintain to provide the needed torque.
Solution:
First, let us compute the synchronous speed of the motor
1200
6
60
120
p
f
120 n
s

rev/min
The minimum excitation corresponds to when the load torque equals the maximum developed
torque by the motor.
s
f t
s s
max l
X
E V
3 P
T T


6
E
3
2300
60
1200
2
3
5000
f

Then
V 946 E
f

Any reduction of the excitation voltage below this value, the motor torque will be less than the
load torque
1.3.3 Torque Characteristics
As mentioned earlier, the synchronous machine must spin at the synchronous speed of the
rotating field generated by the stator windings. Hence, the speed of the motor at any loading
condition is
p
f
120 n
s

The speed of the machine is only changed when the number of poles is changed or when the
supply frequency is changed. Figure 5.42 shows the speed-torque characteristics of a
synchronous motor. If the load torque increases to a level where the fields in the airgap can no
longer be aligned, the motor stops spinning. In this case, the load torque exceeds the maximum
delivered torque of the motor as explained in the previous example.
f
3
f
2
f
1

Torque
Figure 5.42 Speed-torque characteristics of a synchronous machine
1.3.4 Starting of Synchronous Motor
For heavily loaded motors with large inertia, the fields in the airgap at starting may not be
strong enough to excel the rotor speed from standstill to synchronous. In this case a starting
circuit may be needed. The most common method is to install damper windings in the rotor
circuit similar to the rotor windings of a squirrel cage induction motor as shown in Figure 5.43.
At starting, the damper winding causes the synchronous motor to start as an induction machine.
When the speed of the rotor is close enough to the synchronous speed, the rotor field f

aligns
with, and locks itself to, the synchronous field
s

.
Shorted Turns
Figure 5.43 Damper windings
Once the motor is running at the synchronous speed, the current inside the damper windings is
zero (no relative speed between the damper windings and the filed). Remember that the rotor
voltage of the induction motor when running at synchronous speed is zero
1.4 Damages to Electric Machines
Keep in mind that either overvoltage or overcurrent can damage electric motors. Excessive
voltage can cause damage to the insulation of the windings that may lead to a permanent short
circuit. Overcurrent produces excessive heat due to the energy dissipated in the windings
resistance. The heat, if excessive, may result in melting down the windings insulation and
eventually causing a short circuit. For permanent magnet motors, large armature currents may
also demagnetize the permanent magnet.
Damages due to overvoltages are usually rapid so as a rule of thumb, motor voltage should not
exceed the rated value by more than 10%. But, damages due to overcurrents may take a short
time until the heat is built up. Hence, motors may tolerate high currents for a ver short period of
time.
In addition to the electrical constraints, one should keep in mind the mechanical limitation and
integrity of the complete system. Excessive speed may result in a damage to bearings, or to
rotor windings due to excessive centrifugal forces.
In summary, for most electric drive applications, several performance properties should be
maintained to avoid "premature fatality" of the hardware, especially for large size systems.
Among these are:
1) The system should have the property of "soft transition"; e.g., soft starting, soft speed
change and soft braking. Abrupt large changes in speed may eventually results in
ruinous effects on the mechanical integrity of the motor or load, and unnecessary
electrical stresses on the motor or converter. A soft transition does not necessarily mean
a slow transition.
2) The system should have a sufficient damping for speed oscillations at all times,
including at the equilibrium state (holding state).
3) Large abrupt changes in the supply voltage should be avoided. Overvoltage must not
exceed the tolerable limit of the system components.
4) The magnitude of the inrush current should be kept under control at all time. The
overshoots of the inrush current should be limited to some tolerated values.
5) Natural electromechanical oscillations should be avoided. They usually occur at low
speeds when the electrical modes of the system correspond to the natural frequencies of
the load and supporting structure.
Problems
5.1 A 600-V, dc shunt motor has armature and field resistance of 1.5 and 600
respectively. When the motor runs unloaded, the line current is 3 A, and the speed is
1000 rpm. Calculate the developed torque at a full load armature current of 50 A.
5.2 A dc separately excited motor has the following parameters and ratings:
K
= 3 Vs
a
R
= 2
Terminal voltage = 600 V Full load torque = 21 NM
a. Calculate the armature current at full load torque
b. Calculate the starting current. Show how can you reduce the starting current by
80%?
5.3 A dc separately excited motor has a load torque of 140 NM and a frictional torque of 10
NM. The motor is rated at 240 V. The armature resistance of the motor is 1 . The
motor speed at the given load is 600 r/min. Ignore the field losses and calculate the
motor efficiency.
5.4 A dc series motor has an armature current of 10 A at full load. The motor terminal
voltage is 300 V. The armature and field resistances are 2 and 3 respectively.
The motor speed at full load is 250 r/min. Calculate the starting torque of the motor.
5.5 A l000-V, 50 hp compound motor runs at a speed of 750 rpm at full load. The
armature, series and shunt field resistances are 0.5 , 1 and 200 , respectively.
The motor efficiency at this condition is 80%. Calculate the motors starting current.
5.6 A 15 hp, 209 V., 3-phase, 6-pole, Y-connected induction motor has the following
parameter values per phase:
49 . 0 X X X 0935 . 0 R 0.128 R
'
2 1 eq
'
2 l
+
The motor slip at full load is 3%, and the efficiency is 90%. Calculate the following:
a. Starting current. (You may ignore the magnetizing current).
b. Starting torque.
c. Maximum torque.
d. Calculate the value of the resistance that should be added to the rotor circuit
to reduce the starting current by 50%.
e. What is the starting torque of case (d)?
f. Calculate the value of the resistance that should be added to the rotor circuit
to increase the starting torque to maximum.
g. What is the starting current of case (f)?
5.7 Show how the starting current of the following machines can be reduced. Discuss the
effect of your methods on the starting torque.
a. dc shunt motor (not separately excited motor)
b. dc Series motor
c. Induction motor
Use circuit diagrams and motor characteristics to explain your answer.
5.8 The shaft output of a three-phase, 60-Hz induction motor is 100 hp.
The friction and windage losses are 900 watts, the stator core loss is
4200 watts, and the stator copper loss is 2700 watts. If the slip is
3.75 per cent, what is the percent efficiency of the motor?
5.9 A 500-hp, three-phase, 2200-volt, 60-Hz, 12-pole, Y-connected
wound-rotor induction motor has the following parameters:
1
R
= 0.225
'
2
R = 0.235 eq
X
= 1.43
m
X
= 31.8
m
R
= 780
Calculate the following:
a. The slip at maximum torque.
b. The input current and power factor at the maximum torque.
c. The maximum torque?
d. The resistance that must be added to the rotor windings (per
phase) in order to achieve maximum torque at starting.
5.10 A 4-pole, 60 Hz, Y-connected squirrel cage induction motor has the
following parameters:
1
R
= 0.2 ,
1
X
= 0.35 ,
'
2
R = 0.25 ,
'
2
X = 0.35 ,
m
X
= 12 ,
m
R
>>
m
X
The motor is connected to 220 v supply through a cable of 1.30
inductive reactance per phase. At a speed of 1710 rpm, calculate the
following:
a. Motor current and input power.
b. Terminal voltage
c. Developed torque
Also calculate the terminal voltage at starting. What is the percent
change of the terminal voltage? Can you explain the change in the
terminal voltage at starting. Suggest a method to correct this
problem.
5.11 A 15 hp (output power), 208 V., 3-phase, 6-pole, Y-connected induction motor has the
following parameters:
1
R
= 0.1 ;
'
2
R = 0.1 ; eq
X
= 0.5
a. A fan-type load is connected to the motor. The slip of the motor in this case is 2%.
If the terminal voltage of the motor is reduced by 20%, calculate the speed of the
motor (you may use the small slip approximation)
b. What is the percentage change of the maximum torque for the above case?
5.12 A 500-hp, three-phase, 2200-volt, 60-Hz, 12-pole, Y-connected
wound-rotor induction motor has the following parameters:
1
R
= 0.225 ;
'
2
R = 0.235 ;
'
2 1
X X + = 1.43
;
m
X
= 31.8 ;
m
R
= 780
The motor is driving a constant torque load at a speed of 570 r/min.
a. Calculate the load torque
b. If the source frequency increased to 70 Hz, calculate the motor
speed.
c. Calculate the change in starting torque due to the frequency change.
5.13 A synchronous motor is rated at 100 kVA. The motor is
connected to an infinite bus of 5 kV. The synchronous
reactance of the motor is 0.1 . The motor is running at no
loading condition (real power output is zero). All losses can be
ignored. Calculate the equivalent field voltage E
f
that
operates the motor as a synchronous condenser delivering 100
kVAR to the infinite bus. Draw the phasor diagram.
(Synchronous condenser produces reactive power and no real
power)
5.14 A three-phase synchronous motor is connected to an infinite
bus of 416 V. The synchronous reactance of the motor is 1 .
The motor is driving a constant torque load. Ignore all losses.
If the equivalent field voltage increases by 20%, calculate the
change in power delivered to the load.
5.15 A 4-pole synchronous motor is connected to an infinite bus of 5
kV through a transmission line. The synchronous reactance of
the motor is 0.1 , and the inductive reactance of the
transmission line is 0.9 . The reactive power at the motor
terminals is zero when E
f
is 4.8 kV (line-to-line). Calculate the
following:
a. Terminal voltage of the motor
b. Developed torque.
c. Output power
5.16 A 6-pole synchronous motor is connected to an infinite bus of
480 V. The synchronous reactance of the motor is 0.5 . The
field current is adjusted so that the equivalent field voltage E
f
is 500 V. Calculate the following:
a. Maximum torque
b. Power factor at maximum torque.
c. Output power at maximum torque