Piezoelectricity is the charge which accumulates in certain solid materials (notably crystals, certain ceramics, and biological matter

such as bone, DNA and various proteins)[1] in response to applied mechanical strain. The word piezoelectricity means electricity resulting from pressure. It is derived from the Greek piezo or piezein (), which means to squeeze or press, and electric or electron (), which stands for amber an ancient source of electric charge.[2] Piezoelectricity is the direct result of the piezoelectric effect. The piezoelectric effect reflects electromechanical interactions that exist in solid crystalline materials with no inversion symmetry.[3] The piezoelectric effect is a reversible process in that materials exhibiting the direct piezoelectric effect (the internal generation of electrical charge resulting from an applied mechanical force) also exhibit the reverse piezoelectric effect (the internal generation of a mechanical force resulting from an applied electrical field). For example, lead zirconate titanate crystals will generate measurable piezoelectricity when its static structure is deformed to about 0.1% of the original dimension. Conversely, lead zirconate titanate crystals will change about 0.1% of their static dimension when an external electric field is applied to the material. Piezoelectricity is found in useful applications such as the production and detection of sound, generation of high voltages, electronic frequency generation, microbalances, and ultra fine focusing of optical assemblies. It is also the basis of a number of scientific instrumental techniques with atomic resolution, the scanning probe microscopies such as STM, AFM, MTA, SNOM, etc., and everyday uses such as acting as the ignition source for cigarette lighters and push-start propane barbecues.

History
Discovery and early research
The pyroelectric effect, where a material generates an electric potential in response to a temperature change, was studied by Carl Linnaeus and Franz Aepinus in the mid-18th century. Drawing on this knowledge, both Ren Just Hay and Antoine Csar Becquerel posited a relationship between mechanical stress and electric charge; however, experiments by both proved inconclusive. The first demonstration of the direct piezoelectric effect was in 1880 by the brothers Pierre Curie and Jacques Curie. They combined their

knowledge of pyroelectricity with their understanding of the underlying crystal structures that gave rise to pyroelectricity to predict crystal behavior, and demonstrated the effect using crystals of tourmaline, quartz, topaz, cane sugar, and Rochelle salt (sodium potassium tartrate tetrahydrate). Quartz and Rochelle salt exhibited the most piezoelectricity.

A piezoelectric disk generates a voltage when deformed (change in shape is greatly exaggerated)

The Curies, however, did not predict the converse piezoelectric effect. The converse effect was mathematically deduced from fundamental thermodynamic principles by Gabriel Lippmann in 1881.[4] The Curies immediately confirmed the existence of the converse effect, and went on to obtain quantitative proof of the complete reversibility of electroelasto-mechanical deformations in piezoelectric crystals.

Mechanism
The nature of the piezoelectric effect is closely related to the occurrence of electric dipole moments in solids. The latter may either be induced for ions on crystal lattice sites with asymmetric charge surroundings (as in BaTiO3 and PZTs) or may directly be carried by molecular groups (as in cane sugar). The dipole density or polarization (dimensionality [Cm/m3] ) may easily be calculated for crystals by summing up the dipole moments per volume of the crystallographic unit cell.[5] As every dipole is a vector, the dipole density P is also a vector or a directed quantity. Dipoles near each other tend to be aligned in regions called Weiss domains. The domains are usually randomly oriented, but can be aligned during poling (not the same as magnetic poling), a process by which a strong electric field is applied across the material, usually at elevated temperatures. Of decisive importance for the piezoelectric effect is the change of polarization P when applying a mechanical stress. This might either be caused by a re-configuration of the dipole-inducing surrounding or by re-orientation of molecular dipole moments under the influence of the

external stress. Piezoelectricity may then manifest in a variation of the polarization strength, its direction or both, with the details depending on 1. the orientation of P within the crystal, 2. crystal symmetry and 3. the applied mechanical stress. The change in P appears as a variation of surface charge density upon the crystal faces, i.e. as a variation of the electrical field extending between the faces, since the units of surface charge density and polarization are the same, C/m2] = [Cm/m3]. However, piezoelectricity is not caused by a change in charge density on the surface, but by dipole density in the bulk. For example, a 1 cm3 cube of quartz with 2 kN (500 lbf) of correctly applied force can produce a voltage of 12500 V.[6] Piezoelectric materials also show the opposite effect, called converse piezoelectric effect, where the application of an electrical field creates mechanical deformation in the crystal.

Mathematical description
Piezoelectricity is the combined effect of the electrical behavior of the material: where D is the electric charge density displacement (electric displacement), is permittivity and E is electric field strength, and Hooke's Law: where S is strain, s is compliance and T is stress.

Crystal classes

Any spatially separated charge will result in an electric field, and therefore an electric potential. Shown here is a standard dielectric in a capacitor. In a piezoelectric device, mechanical stress, instead of an externally applied voltage, causes the charge separation in the individual atoms of the material, .

Of the thirty-two crystal classes, twenty-one are non-centrosymmetric (not having a centre of symmetry), and of these, twenty exhibit direct piezoelectricity (the 21st is the cubic class 432). Ten of these represent the polar crystal classes, which show a spontaneous polarization

without mechanical stress due to a non-vanishing electric dipole moment associated with their unit cell, and which exhibit pyroelectricity. If the dipole moment can be reversed by the application of an electric field, the material is said to be ferroelectric.
Polar crystal classes: 1, 2, m, mm2, 4, 4 mm, 3, 3m, 6, 6 mm. Piezoelectric crystal classes: 1, 2, m, 222, mm2, 4, 4, 422, 4 mm, 42m, 3, 32, 3m, 6, 6, 622, 6 mm, 62m, 23, 43m.

For polar crystals, for which P 0 holds without applying a mechanical load, the piezoelectric effect manifests itself by changing the magnitude or the direction of P or both. For the non-polar, but piezoelectric crystals, on the other hand, a polarization P different from zero is only elicited by applying a mechanical load. For them the stress can be imagined to transform the material from a non-polar crystal class (P =0) to a polar one [5], having P 0.

Materials
Many materials, both natural and man-made, exhibit piezoelectricity:

Naturally-occurring crystals
Berlinite (AlPO4), a rare phosphate mineral that is structurally identical to quartz Cane sugar Quartz Rochelle salt

Man-made crystals
Gallium orthophosphate (GaPO4), a quartz analogic crystal Langasite (La3Ga5SiO14), a quartz analogic crystal

Lead-free piezoceramics
More recently, there is growing concern regarding the toxicity in leadcontaining devices driven by the result of restriction of hazardous substances directive regulations. To address this concern, there has been a resurgence in the compositional development of lead-free piezoelectric materials.
Sodium potassium niobate (NaKNb). In 2004, a group of Japanese researchers led by Yasuyoshi Saito discovered a sodium potassium niobate composition with properties close to those of PZT, including a high TC.[14] Bismuth ferrite (BiFeO3) is also a promising candidate for the replacement of lead-based ceramics. Sodium niobate NaNbO3

So far, neither the environmental impact nor the stability of supplying these substances have been confirmed.

Polymers

Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF): PVDF exhibits piezoelectricity several times greater than quartz. Unlike ceramics, where the crystal structure of the material creates the piezoelectric effect, in polymers the intertwined long-chain molecules attract and repel each other when an electric field is applied.

Applications
Piezoelectric crystals are now used in numerous ways:

High voltage and power sources

Direct piezoelectricity of some substances like quartz, as mentioned above, can generate potential differences of thousands of volts.
The best-known application is the electric cigarette lighter: pressing the button causes a springloaded hammer to hit a piezoelectric crystal, producing a sufficiently high voltage electric current that flows across a small spark gap, thus heating and igniting the gas. The portable sparkers used to light gas grills or stoves work the same way, and many types of gas burners now have built-in piezo-based ignition systems. A similar idea is being researched by DARPA in the United States in a project called Energy Harvesting, which includes an attempt to power battlefield equipment by piezoelectric generators embedded in soldiers' boots. However, these energy harvesting sources by association have an impact on the body. DARPA's effort to harness 1-2 watts from continuous shoe impact while walking were abandoned due to the impracticality and the discomfort from the additional energy expended by a person wearing the shoes. Other energy harvesting ideas include harvesting the energy from human movements in train stations or other public places.[15][16] A piezoelectric transformer is a type of AC voltage multiplier. Unlike a conventional transformer, which uses magnetic coupling between input and output, the piezoelectric transformer uses acoustic coupling. An input voltage is applied across a short length of a bar of piezoceramic material such as PZT, creating an alternating stress in the bar by the inverse piezoelectric effect and causing the whole bar to vibrate. The vibration frequency is chosen to be the resonant frequency of the block, typically in the 100 kilohertz to 1 megahertz range. A higher output voltage is then generated across another section of the bar by the piezoelectric effect. Step-up ratios of more than 1000:1 have been demonstrated. An extra feature of this transformer is that, by operating it above its resonant frequency, it can be made to appear as an inductive load, which is useful in circuits that require a controlled soft start.[17] These devices can be used in DC-AC inverters to drive cold cathode fluorescent lamps. Piezo transformers are some of the most compact high voltage sources.

Sensors

Piezoelectric disk used as a guitar pickup

Many rocket-propelled grenades used piezoelectric fuze. For example: RPG-7[18] Main article: Piezoelectric sensor

A piezo sensor attached to the body of an instrument is known as a contact microphone. Piezoelectric sensors especially are used with high frequency sound in ultrasonic transducers for medical imaging and also industrial nondestructive testing (NDT). For many sensing techniques, the sensor can act as both a sensor and an actuator often the term transducer is preferred when the device acts in this dual capacity, but most piezo devices have this property of reversibility whether it is used or not. Ultrasonic transducers, for example, can inject ultrasound waves into the body, receive the returned wave, and convert it to an electrical signal (a voltage). Most medical ultrasound transducers are piezoelectric. In addition to those mentioned above, various sensor applications include:
Piezoelectric elements are also used in the detection and generation of sonar waves. Power monitoring in high power applications (e.g. medical treatment, sonochemistry and industrial processing). Piezoelectric microbalances are used as very sensitive chemical and biological sensors. Piezos are sometimes used in strain gauges. Piezoelectric transducers are used in electronic drum pads to detect the impact of the drummer's sticks.

Automotive engine management systems use piezoelectric transducers to detect detonation by sampling the vibrations of the engine block and also to detect the precise moment of fuel injection (needle lift sensors). Ultrasonic piezo sensors are used in the detection of acoustic emissions in acoustic emission testing. Crystal earpieces are sometimes used in old or low power radios

Frequency standard
The piezoelectrical properties of quartz are useful as standard of frequency.
Quartz clocks employ a tuning fork made from quartz that uses a combination of both direct and converse piezoelectricity to generate a regularly timed series of electrical pulses that is used to mark time. The quartz crystal (like any elastic material) has a precisely defined natural frequency (caused by its shape and size) at which it prefers to oscillate, and this is used to stabilize the frequency of a periodic voltage applied to the crystal. The same principle is critical in all radio transmitters and receivers, and in computers where it creates a clock pulse. Both of these usually use a frequency multiplier to reach the megahertz and gigahertz ranges.

Reduction of vibrations and noise

Different teams of researchers have been investigating ways to reduce vibrations in materials by attaching piezo elements to the material. When the material is bent by a vibration in one direction, the vibrationreduction system responds to the bend and sends electric power to the piezo element to bend in the other direction. Future applications of this technology are expected in cars and houses to reduce noise. In a demonstration at the Material Vision Fair in Frankfurt in November 2005, a team from TU Darmstadt in Germany showed several panels that were hit with a rubber mallet, and the panel with the piezo element immediately stopped swinging. Piezoelectric ceramic fiber technology is being used as an electronic damping system on some HEAD tennis rackets.[20] http://www.brighthub.com/engineering/electrical/articles/42183.aspx
What is Instrument Transformer ? : 3 What is Instrument Transformer ? A transformer that is used in conjunction with a measuring instrument. It utilizes the current-transformation and voltage transformation properties to measure high ac current and voltage. Importance of Instrument transformers : 4 Importance of Instrument transformers In dc circuits for current and voltage measurement we use ammeters and voltmeters. For measurement of high current ,it is usual to use low range ammeter with suitable shunt. For measurement of high voltage, low range voltmeter are used with high resistance connected in series. But for measurement of high A.C. current and voltage we cannot use these methods. We use specially constructed instrument transformers.

Types of instrument transformers : 5 Types of instrument transformers These instrument transformers are of two types:- Current transformers Potential transformers Current Transformers : 6 Current Transformers Current transformer normally known as c.t. is a step up transformer. These are used with low range ammeter to measure current in high voltage alternating circuits where it is not practical to connect instrument and meters directly to lines. This is step up transformer because when we step up the, voltage increases and current decreases. The current is step down in a known ratio called current ratio. Construction of C.T. : 7 Construction of C.T. C.T. has a primary coil of one or more turns of thick wire connected in series with the line whose current is to be measured. The secondary consist of large number of turns of fine wire, is connected across the ammeter terminals. Working : 8 Working If a current transformer has primary to secondary current ratio of 100:5 then it step up the voltage 20 times and step down the current 1/20 times of its actual value. If we know the current ratio I1/I2 and the reading of a.c. ammeter, the current can be calculated. Current = ratio ammeter reading Importance of short ckt. : 9 Importance of short ckt. Ammeter resistance is very low ,the current transformer normally works short circuited. If for any reason the ammeter is taken out of secondary winding then the secondary winding must be short ckted with the help of short ckt switch s. If this is not done, then due to high m.m.f. will set up high flux in the core and it will produces excessive core loss which produce heat and high voltage across the secondary terminals Hence the secondary of current transformer is never left open. Slide 10: 10 Potential transformer : 11 Potential transformer A PT is a step down transformer having many primary turns but few secondary turns. In step down the voltage decreases and current increases, thus voltage can be easily measured by using low range voltmeter. The voltage is stepped down in known ratio called voltage ratio. Construction and working of P.T. : 12 Construction and working of P.T. Construction A potential transformer has many primary windings but few number of secondary windings that makes it step down transformer. Voltmeter is connected to secondary winding usually voltmeter of 150 v is suitable. Working Primary terminals are connected across the line to which the voltage is to be measured. The voltmeter gives the transformed value of voltage at secondary. The deflection of voltmeter when divided by transformed ratio gives the actual voltage at primary. Line voltage = deflection / trasf. Ratio Where transformation ratio = V2/V1 Precaution for P.T. : 13 Precaution for P.T. Since the secondary of p.t. is connected to relays, their ratings are usually 40 to 100 Watts. For safety purpose the secondary should be completely insulated from the high voltage primary and should be in addition grounded.

Types of P.T. : 14 Types of P.T. Some types of p.t. are Shell type Dry type Oil type Slide 15: 15 Slide 16: 16 THANK YOU INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS