LEARNING

Definitions and perspectives of learning: Two definitions of learning: Behaviorist: Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience. This refers to a change in behavior, an external change that we can observe. Cognitive: Learning is a relatively permanent change in mental associations due to experience. This definition focuses on a change in mental associations, an internal change that we cannot observe.

Overview Of learning:
Assumptions of learning: 1. The primary means of investigating learning is by observation. 2. Principles of learning apply equally to different behaviors and to different species of animals. Behaviorists typically state that human beings and other animals learn in similar ways. 3. Learning processes can be studied most objectively when the focus of study is on stimuli and responses. Typically learning is described as a stimulus and response relationship, S = R. 4, Internal cognitive processes are largely excluded from scientific study. 5. Learning involves a behavior change. Some behaviorists proposed that if no observable change happens, then no learning has happened. 6. Organisms are born as blank slates. Organisms are not born with any predispositions to be made in certain ways. Since each organism has a different experience with the environment, each will have a different set of behaviors. 7. Learning is largely the result of environmental events. Behaviorists tend to use the term conditioning instead of learning to reflect this. The most useful theories tend to be universal ones. 8. The learning of all behavior is best explained by as few learning principles as possible

General educational implications of behaviorism:

Emphasis on behavior: Students should be active respondents to learning, and in the learning process. They should be given an opportunity to actually behave or demonstrate learning. Secondly students should be assessed by observing behavior, we can never assume that students are learning unless we can observe that behavior is changing. Drill and practice: the repetition of stimulus response habits can strengthen those habits. For example, some believe that the best way to improve reading is to have students read more and more. Breaking habits: in order to break habits, that teacher needs to lead an individual to make a new response to this same old stimulus.

Elements of learning
1. Motives 2. Cues Capable of providing direction i.e. it influences the manner in which, to respond to motive.e.g. hungry man is guided by restaurant signs or aroma of food. Motives arouse individuals and as a result they respond. This arousal function is essential because it activates the energy needed to engage in learning activity. By achieving the goal ,the arousal reduces, but have a greater tendency to occur again, that is why marketers put their product in a way that when relevant consumer motive arouse their products are their to satisfy the need. This result that consumer will learn a connection b/w the product and motive

3. Response a. Mental or physical activity in reaction to a stimulus.

4. Reinforcement a. Anything that follows the response and increase the tendency of response to reoccur in a similar situation.

Classical Conditioning:
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING: The Classical Conditioning Model Pavlov's experiment brought about the classical conditioning model. In this model there are three steps. Step one: a neutral stimulus (NS) is given Step two: the NS is combined with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) which results in an unconditioned response (UCR). Step three: a conditioned stimulus is created (CS) which results in a conditioned response (CR).

This classical conditioning model is applicable across many different organisms, it must be noted that it mainly works with lower level organisms, or at least works better. For human beings, classical conditioning can be used to explain fears and phobias that people develop. (Examples are: fear of the dark or loud noises in young children. Also: fear of failure may be another example of classical conditioning.)

MODELS OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

Common Phenomenon in Classical Conditioning

Basic concepts in classical conditioning: There are several principles that are associated with classical conditioning, some of these are: Extinction: a conditioned response will disappear over time when the conditioned stimulus is no longer presented. Spontaneous recovery: sometimes there is the weak appearance of a previously extinguished response. Stimulus generalization: this is when individuals respond in this same way to experience stimuli. For example, all fuzzy animals scaring a young child instead of just a fuzzy cat. Stimulus discrimination: organisms can learn to discriminate between various stimuli. Higher order conditioning: this is when a neutral stimulus can cause the conditioned response sense if it had been associated with the conditioned stimulus.

Contemporary perspectives on classical conditioning: The potential addition to stimulus must occur only when the unconditioned stimulus is about to follow. Classical conditioning involves cognition as well as responding. In fact some behaviorist are now

beginning to talk about thinking processes that they previously deliberately avoided. Classical conditioning can be used to change inappropriate responses. For example, classical conditioning can be used to overcome certain fears and phobias. This can be done, using one of two methods:

Using the first method, undesirable responses can be extinguished by presenting the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus thus causing the conditioned response to disappear. The second method involves use of counter-conditioning. This is when more desirable responses are conditioned to offset the inappropriate conditioned responses.

Educational implications of classical conditioning: Students should experience academic tasks and contexts that cause or encourage pleasant emotions. They should be able to feel enthusiasm, excitement, or enjoyment in their learning context. Rather than being in context that cause anxiety, disappointment, or anger.

Mathematics anxiety is an example of classical conditioning that can be mitigated with classical conditioning.

Strategic Applications of Classical Conditioning

Repeatition
Increases the association between the conditioned and unconditioned stimulus Slows the pace of forgetting Advertising wearout is a problem

Stimulus Generalization
Having the same response to slightly different stimuli Helps me-too products to succeed Useful in product extensions

stimulus discrimination
Selection of a specific stimulus from similar stimuli This discrimination is the basis of positioning which looks for unique ways to fill needs

Operant Conditioning: (Instrumental Conditioning)

OPERANT CONDITIONING: The Operant Conditioning Model: Skinners basic principle of operant conditioning is as follows: a response followed by a reinforcer is strengthened and is therefore more likely to occur again. Skinner used the term reinforcer instead of reward to describe the consequence that increases the frequency of a behavior. A reinforcer is the stimulus that increases the frequency of a response it follows. Three important conditions for operant conditioning:

The reinforcer must follow the response. The reinforcer must follow immediately. The reinforcer must be coupled with the response. This means that the reinforcer must be appropriate and linked to the response, a example, rewarding students in a class that deserve it versus rewarding all students because you feel sorry for some of the students.

Model of instrumental conditioning

Basic Concepts in Operant Conditioning: Baseline or free operant level: This level is the frequency of a response in the absence of reinforcements, thus the baseline level of responses. Terminal behavior: Terminal behavior it is the form and frequency of a desired response at the end of the reinforcement or instructional program. Extinction: Extinction occurs when the behavior or response fades out over time due to nonreinforcement. Superstitious behavior: Sometimes a behavior will be exhibited when it is paired with other reinforcers that are not the actual designed reinforcer. This happens when reinforcement is random and not contingent on any particular behavior. Shaping: Sometimes a response is not visible or has not been demonstrated and thus cannot be reinforced. Skinner proposed the idea of shaping where successive approximations are reinforced until the desired behavior is fully exhibited. Chaining: chaining is the learning of a sequence of responses through shaping.

Contemporary Perspectives on Operant Conditioning: Behavior is better understood by looking at a larger context and longer time frame than has traditionally been the case. Operant conditioning involves cognition as well as behavior. Operant and classical conditioning, taken together; do not completely determine the behaviors that an organism will exhibit on any given occasion. Just as reinforcement increases the frequency of a response, punishment can be an effective means of decreasing a response. When reinforcement doesn't work, there are usually circumstances such as the following:

The reinforcer is not reinforcing, Reinforcement is not consistent The individual looses too much or gains too little by changing a behavior Too much is expected too soon.

Reinforcement Virtually any behavior; academic, social, or psychomotor can be learned or modified through operant conditioning. Contrasting operant conditioning and classical conditioning: Classical conditioning pairs the unconditional stimulus and the conditional stimulus. In operant conditioning a response is followed by a reinforcing stimulus. The nature of the response is different; it is involuntary in classical conditioning being elicited by a stimulus. In operant conditioning it is voluntary because the response is emitted by the organism. Skinners term operant reflects the idea that the organism actually operates, it can have an affect on the environment. The Nature of Reinforcement: Primary and secondary reinforcers: a primary reinforcer is one that satisfies a biological need. A secondary reinforcer is also known as a conditioned reinforcer, it is a previously neutral stimulus that has become reinforcing to an organism through association with another reinforcer. Examples of secondary reinforcers are praise, grades, money, and feelings of success. Types of reinforcement: positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, and punishment: Positive reinforcement: involves the presentation of the stimulus after the response. Positive reinforcement has the effect of increasing the response. Negative reinforcement: Negative reinforcement increases a response through the removal of the stimulus, usually an adverse or unpleasant one. For example, the removal of guilt or anxiety can be a very powerful negative reinforcer. Punishment: Remember positive and negative reinforcement increasethe responses they follow. Punishment is likely to decrease those responses. Different kinds of reinforcing stimuli: Material reinforcer: This is an actual object, like food or prizes. Usually not a good idea to use in educational situations. Social reinforcer: This is a gesture, usually from one person to another, that communicates positive regard. This can be teacher attention, approval, praise, and appreciation. Notice that this has a social learning leaning or connotation. Activity reinforcer: This is an opportunity to engage in and favorite activity. For example, students can't participate in a party or watch a movie unless they have successfully completed certain tasks. Intrinsic reinforcers: When an individual engages in a certain response because it gives internal

good feelings. For example, they feel proud after successfully completing an assignment, are relieved after finishing a difficult project successfully.

Factors that Influence the Effectiveness of Reinforcement: Timing: It is very important that the reinforcement immediately follows the desired behavior. Magnitude and appeal: The larger and more appealing the enforcer, the faster a response will be learned and the more frequently it will be displayed. Consistency: Reinforcement needs to be consistent in relation to the desired action. This can be a one to one relationship, however it does not need to be always in this pattern. Reinforcement can occur with a ratio schedule, a variable ratio schedule, or an interval schedule. Stimulus control: Students or organisms can learn when an appropriate response can be given after a stimulus, for example students know that is appropriate to leave class after the bell rings. Stimulus generalization: Organisms can learn how to give a response to similar stimulus, thus the stimulus becomes generalized. Stimulus control in the classroom: In the classroom different responses are desirable at different times. Two strategies have been proposed to control this. Cueing: teachers can provide nonverbal cues as to what desired response is expected or required. Setting events: These occur when the teacher controls the environment to help control behavior. For example, cooperative games help exhibit cooperative behavior.

Punishment Punishment takes two forms; one form decreases the strength of a response when it is presented after that response. Usually this involves the presentation of an aversive stimulus. Another type of punishment is one where a removal of a stimulus, easily a pleasant one, happens. For example, a students privileges for playtime could be removed for bad behavior. Disadvantages of punishment:

A punished behavior is not eliminated, is only suppressed. Punishment sometimes leads to an increase in the punished behavior because students get more attention when being punished.

The student might not recognize the punishment being linked to a specific behavior. Punishment can often result in undesirable emotional responses and may even lead to escape or avoidance behaviors. Punishment may lead to aggression. Punishment does not illustrate the correct behavior. Punishment may even cause physical or psychological harm.

The effectiveness of punishment: Despite its negatives, punishment can be shown to have a positive effect on individual in classroom environment. Guidelines for using punishment effectively:

The punishment must be punishing. * The punishments must be strong enough to be effective but not overly severe. Punishment should be threatened once before it is administered. The behavior to be punished should be described in clear, concrete terms. Punishment should be consistent.