Eco Monitoring Manual Final

FES IntErnal SourcEBook
Biophysical and Ecological Monitoring

July 2008
Registered under the Societies Registration Act XXI 1860, the Foundation for Ecological Security was set up in 2001 to reinforce the massive and critical task of ecological restoration in the country. The crux of our efforts lies in locating forests and other natural resources within the prevailing economic, social and ecological dynamics in rural landscapes and in intertwining principles of conservation and local self governance for the protection of the natural surroundings and improvement in the living conditions of the poor. By working on systemic issues that can bring about a multiplier change, we strive for a future where the local communities determine and move towards desirable land use that is based on principles of conservation and social justice.
A framework for Biophysical and Ecological Monitoring
A Framework for Biophysical and Ecological Monitoring
FOUNDATION FOR ECOLOGICAL SECURITY 2008
Preface
Human society today is faced with an ecological crisis of its own making, the consequences of which would not only be borne by our future generations but would also drastically alter our lives in the immediate future. The mother planet is faced with an unprecedented mass extinction of floral and faunal species, sea levels are rising, temperatures are rising, frequency of flood and storms have increased; all this owing partly or wholly to perilous and unregulated industrialization and our materialistic market-driven society.
In India, the receding glaciers, shrinking cover of natural forests, the rapid loss of biodiversity, the falling groundwater levels, inter annual variations in rainfall, rising temperatures and falling agricultural productivity are some of the issues attracting global attention and asking for the immediate solutions.
FES is located in the varied ecological settings, from the mixed deciduous forests of eastern India, to the xeric and shrub forests of the Deccan Plateau, the grasslands of the Malwa region in central India, the dry deciduous forests of the Aravali hill range in western and north India, to the western Himalayas. We work with community institutions and their federating bodies to restore the biomass productivity, improve the moisture regimes and protect biodiversity on thousands of hectares of forests and other common lands. The returns are almost immediate in terms of an increased availability of biomass, improved soil and moisture regimes, and where the geohydrology supports recharge, an increase in the water table and an associated increase in the area under cropping. However the improvements in the ecosystems are perceived after a long time of intervention.
Efforts in conservation have led to the reappearance of many native plant species, and an increase in the floral diversity in the areas under protection. Although we have initiated studies to inventorise the biological wealth of the Protected Areas in a few project locations to highlight their significance and gradually progress towards integrating them in the larger landuse and natural resource management plans of the area, yet a need was felt to formulate a monitoring framework suitable for the FES sites all over India. Moreover, as important findings in the field of conservation
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ecology rarely make inroads into the widespread and conventional efforts on natural resource management, we are taking steps to disseminate information that could blend lessons learnt in conservation disciplines with practices in natural resource management.
Monitoring is essential in order to see if projects are achieving improved ecological conditions. This framework is an attempt to bring additional structure to the systematic collection, analysis and evaluation of data regarding changes in the land and in the plant and animal communities where FES works. In this manual, there has been an attempt to create a framework for the monitoring of the FES sites across India under four main heads viz. Biodiversity, Biomass, Soil and Water. Monitoring of agriculture has also been suggested. But due to absence of any immediate plans by FES to systematically study agricultural impacts, it has been avoided in the present manual, but it may be incorporated in the future, as and when the need arises.
By providing a common framework that can be adapted as necessary, FES aims to improve the quality and quantity of data collected. This strategic approach can be implemented at any stage in the life of a project to establish comprehensive sets of baseline data regarding the state of the soil, water resources, phytomass and biodiversity against which future change can be compared.
The purpose of this monitoring framework is to aid in improving the efficiency, effectiveness and overall quality of our work and to better understand the environmental impacts of our interventions. In short, a single monitoring framework for biophysical and ecological changes will guide us as we create plans to monitor the impacts of our actions. While monitoring plans will vary project by project, a uniform framework for conceptualizing the change will allow us to improve our work and our interventions.
Executive Director Foundation for Ecological Security Anand, Gujarat
Contents
Preface Acknowledgements Abbreviations List of charts, figures, and tables Part 1: Introduction
1.1 How this framework was created 1.2 Purpose and Goals 1.3 What are biophysical and ecological changes? 1.3a Definitions 1.3b Explanations 1.4 Why monitor biophysical and ecological changes? 1.5 Why is a standard framework needed for this kind of monitoring?
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Part 2: Conceptual Framework

2.1 Introduction-Linking the main concepts together 2.2 ECOSYSTEM HEALTH 2.2.1 Introduction 2.2.2 Monitoring ecosystem health 2.2.3 FES and Ecosystem Health 2.3 ECOSYSTEM SERVICES 2.3.1 Introduction 2.3.2 Monitoring ecoservices 2.3.3 FES and ecoservices 2.4 SUCCESSION 2.4.1 Introduction 2.4.2 Monitoring succession 2.4.3 FES and succession 2.5 ECORESTORATION 2.5.1 Introduction 2.5.2 Monitoring ecorestoration 2.5.3 FES and ecorestoration 2.5.4 Landscape approach
Part 3: Practical Framework-Indicators and Methods

3.1 INTRODUCTION 3.2 BIOMASS 3.2.1 FES and phytomass related changes 3.2.2 Monitoring phytomass related changes 3.2.3 Photosynthesis 3.2.4 Primary production 3.2.5 Food/Fodder/Timber/Fuel /Fiber 3.2.6 Baseline Data Collection for phytomass related parameters 3.2.7 Connections across indicators 3.2.8 Indicators of phytomass related changes and associated methods 3.2.9 Understorey biomass 3.2.10 Tree biomass 3.2.11 Root biomass 3.2.12 Surface Litter Measurements 3.3 BIODIVERSITY 3.3.1 FES and biodiversity related changes 3.3.2 Monitoring biodiversity related changes 3.3.3 Baseline data collection for biodiversity related parameters 3
A framework for Biophysical and Ecological Monitoring 3.3.4 Connections across indicators 3.3.5 Indicators of Biodiversity related Changes and Associated Methods 3.3.6 Methods related to flora 3.3.6.1 Sampling frequency 3.3.6.2 Phytosociological Studies 3.3.6.3 Diversity Indices 3.3.7 Methods related to fauna 3.3.7.1 Odonate, Coleoptera & Hymenoptera 3.3.7.2 Herpetofauna 3.3.7.3 Avifauna 3.3.7.4 Mammals 3.4 WATER 3.4.1 Drought 3.4.2 Rainfall intensity and infiltration 3.4.3 FES and water related changes 3.4.4 Connections to ecoservices 3.4.4.1 Fresh Water (ecosystem provisioning service) 3.4.4.2 Water Regulation 3.4.4.3 Water Purification 3.4.4.4 Water Cycling 3.4.5 Baseline Data Collection for water related parameters 3.4.6 Connections across indicators 3.4.7 Indicators of Water Related Changes and Associated Methods 3.4.7.1 Rainfall 3.4.7.2 Evaporation 3.4.7.3 Well inventory 3.4.7.4 Turbidity 3.4.7.5 Tank overflow 3.4.7.6 Water availability and use 3.5 SOIL 3.5.1General sampling methodology 3.5.2 Baseline Data Collection for Soil related parameters 3.5.3 FES and soil related changes 3.5.4 Monitoring soil related changes 3.5.5 Soil sampling and processing 3.5.5.1 Laying the plots 3.5.5.2 Depth of sampling 3.5.5.3 Soil sampling procedure 3.5.5.4 Sampling tools 3.5.5.5 Precautions in collection and storage of samples 3.5.5.6 Labeling of samples 3.5.6 Processing of soil samples for analysis 3.5.7 How to analyse the soil samples 3.5.8 Soil Testing Methods 3.5.8.1 Field method for measuring soil infiltration rate 3.5.8.2 Gully erosion 3.5.8.3 Soil color 3.5.8.4 Soil moisture 3.5.8.5 Soil permeability 3.5.8.6 Soil bulk density 3.5.8.7 Soil porosity 3.5.8.8 Soils water holding capacity 3.5.8.9 Soil depth 3.5.8.10 Soil texture 3.5.8.11 Soil reaction 3.5.8.12 Electrical conductivity 3.5.8.13 Calcium carbonate 3.5.8.14 Available nitrogen 4 48 48 49 49 49 51 53 54 54 54 55 56 56 56 57 59 59 59 59 60 61 62 63 64 66 67 69 71 71 72 74 75 77 77 78 78 79 79 80 80 80 81 81 81 81 83 85 87 90 97 97 97 98 99 105 108 108 109
A framework for Biophysical and Ecological Monitoring 3.5.8.15 Soil organic carbon 3.5.8.16 Mineralisable nitrogen 3.5.8.17 Available phosphorus 3.5.8.18 Available potassium 3.5.8.19 Flame photometer method (K, Ca, Mg and Na) 112 114 117 121 123 125 125 125 125 126 126 126 127 127 129 130 130 130
Part 4: Three phase Implementation Strategy

4.1 Introduction from theoretical, to practical, to implementation 4.2 Phase I: Creation of an Area Profile 4.2.1 Phase I Activities 4.2.2 Phase I Outputs 4.3 Phase II: Detailed Survey and Creation of a Monitoring Plan 4.3.1 Phase II Activities 4.3.2 Phase II Outputs 4.3.3 Guidelines for selecting indicators 4.3.4 Guidelines for selecting methods 4.4 Phase III: Implementation of the Monitoring Plan 4.4.1 Phase III Activities 4.4.2 Phase III Outputs
Appendices References
Acknowledgements
This framework for monitoring biophysical and ecological changes in the landscape that occur due to watershed-based development (WBD) is the result of secondary research, interviews with FES personnel and meetings with a range of researchers and NGOs doing work in WBD in West and South India.
Creating both the framework and this manual would not have been possible without the efforts of so many extremely helpful members of FES, and without the advice and feedback of members of AKRSP, ATREE, CSWCRTI Vasad, DSC, GUIDE, GIDR, SOPPECOM, and SPWD. In particular, we would like to thank:
FES Coordination office: Mr. Jagdeesh Rao, Mr. Subrat Singh, Mr. Dinesh Reddy, Mr. Ravindranath, Ms. Namita Mishra, Mr. Yash Shethia, Mr. T. Balachander, Ms. Archana
Shivramakrishnan, Mr. Piyush, Mr. Bandhari and Mr. Ashok Jani.
FES Spearhead Team (SHT) offices and regional cells: Anand Mr. Ramesh Patel, Mr. Jaswant Dhamelia, Mr. Rajesh Verma Agar Mr. Nasir Ali Angul Mr. Sujant Samal Aravali Cell: Dr. Ajay Kumar Saxena, Mr. B.P. Singh, Mr. Sanjay Joshie, Mr. Chiranjeet Guha Bhilwara Mr. SS. Singh, Mr. Anant Singh Chintamani Cell Mr. P. Vijay Kumar, Mr. Subba Rao, Dhruvajyoti Mukherjee Dahod Mr. Chetan Anand Mandanapalle Mr. Santosh Patnaik Papagni Cell Mr. Venkat Raj, Mr. Subba Rao, and Mr. Debasish Saha Udaipur Mr. Mitul Baruah, Dr. Leena Gupta Other Indian NGOs and GOs, in alphabetical order: AKRSP Mr. Ashok Gupta and Mr. Apurva Oza ATREE Dr. Ankila Hiremath, Dr. Ifran, Dr. Priyam, Mr. Ravi CSE Mr. Srinavastan
CSWCRTI, Vasad Dr. M. L. Gaur DSC Mr. Dhansukhbhai GIDR Dr. Anita Shah Rajasthan State Forest Department Dr. Satish Sharma SOPPECOM Mr. K.J. Joy SPWD Mr. Viren Lobo
List of Abbreviations
AKRSP Aga Khan Rural Support Program, Ahmedabad ATREE Ashoka Trust for Research in Environmental Education CO Coordination Office (headquarters of FES in Anand, Gujarat) CSE Centre for Science and Environment, New Delhi. CSWCRTI Central Soil and Water Conservation Research and Training Institute DSC Development Support Centre, Ahmedabad FAO The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization FES Foundation for Ecological Security FS United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service GUIDE Gujarat Institute of Desert Ecology GIDR Gujarat Institute of Development Research, Ahmedabad GIS Geographical Information System GoI Government of India ICRAF International Centre for Research in Agroforestry IIED International Institute of Environment and Development IFPRI International Food Policy Research Institute IRMA Institute of Rural Management, Anand M&E Monitoring and Evaluation MEA Millennium Ecosystem Assessment NASDORA National Authority for Sustainable Development of Rainfed Areas NGO Non-governmental Organization NRAS Natural Resources Accounting System NRM Natural Resources Management NTFP Non timber forest produce NTPP Non timber plant produce NWDPRA National Watershed Development Program for Rainfed Areas PIA Project Implementing Agency PIC Planning and Information Cell (FES) PSG Project Support Group (FES) SER Society for Ecological Restoration International SHG Self Help Group SHT Spearhead Team
SOPPECOM Society for Promoting Participative Ecosystem Management SPWD Society for Promotion of Wasteland Development SWC Soil and water conservation WBD Watershed-based development WD Watershed development
List of Boxes, Figure and Tables Boxes

Box 1.1 Goals of this biophysical and ecological monitoring framework Box 1.2 Why monitor biophysical and ecological changes? Box 3.1 Methodology
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Figures
Fig. 2.1 Unifying Conceptual Model Fig. 2.2 Path of succession in a forest ecosystem
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Fig. 3.1 Connection between phytomass related ecoservices and ecosystem health 32 Fig. 3.2 Relationships between increase in phytomass and other parameters Fig. 3.3 Drawing the connection between biodiversity related ecoservices and ecosystem health Fig. 3.4 An example of layout of the sample plots Fig. 3.5 Models of the dominance diversity curves Fig. 3.6 Distribution of water resources Fig. 3.7 Rainfall and drought analysis chart Fig. 3.8 Connection between water related ecoservices and ecosystem health Fig. 3.9 Water balance- parameters of supply and demand Fig. 3.10 The relationships among soil parameters and other aspects of ecosystem health Fig. 3.11 Soil infiltrometer Fig. 3.12 Soil colour and its indication Fig. 3.13 Determining soil texture by the Feel Method Fig. 3.14 Determining soil texture by shapes Fig. 3.15 Triangular diagram for locating textural class name Fig. 4.1 Three phase Implementation Strategy 73 82 87 101 102 104 131 44 49 53 57 58 60 65 38
Tables
microwatershed as a result of FES work
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Table 1.1 Examples of biophysical and ecological changes that might occur in a
Table 3.1 Phytomass related parameters and connections to relevant ecoservices 34 Table 3.2 Phytomass related parameters recommended for routine monitoring Table 3.3 Measurable biodiversity related parameters Table 3.4 Biodiversity related parameters Table 3.5 Methods of sampling applied for studying biodiversity Table 3.6 Measurable water related parameters and their connections to relevant ecoservices Table 3.7 Water related parameters recommended for routine monitoring Table 3.8 Quick overview of the range of water related indicators 61 62 62 36 45 47 48
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A framework for Biophysical and Ecological Monitoring Table 3.9 Soil related parameters and their connections to relevant ecoservices Table 3.10 Soil related parameters recommended for routine monitoring Table 3.11 Soil related parameters: definitions and reasons for monitoring Table 3.12 Soil colour and their indications Table 3.13 Soil colour and their drainage indications Table 3.14 Moisture availability for crops according to soil texture Table 3.15 Determining soil water content by Feel and Appearance Table 3.16 Soil permeability classes for agriculture and conservation Table 3.17 Soil permeability classes for civil engineering Table 3.18 Visual indicators of permeability: structural characteristics of soil Table 3.19 Visual Indicators of permeability: texture, physical behaviour and colour of soil Table 3.20 Permeability rate and suitability of the horizon Table 3.21 Successive steps for the calculation of coefficients of permeability on the basis of field measurements Table 3.22 Effect of soil pH on nutrient availability Table 4.1 Studies conducted by FES 97 105 127 93 94 74 75 76 86 87 88 88 90 91 92
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Part 1: Introduction
The creation of this draft framework represents Phase I of a larger plan to mainstream standardized protocol for ecological monitoring and evaluation at FES. Phase II involves refining and adapting the manual, including training of employees and further planning for implementation. Phase III entails the actual implementation of the revised manual, to guide the formation of monitoring plans in all applicable FES projects.
This framework is an attempt to bring additional structure to the systematic collection, analysis and evaluation of data regarding changes in the land and in the plant and animal communities where FES works. By providing a common framework that can be adapted as necessary, FES aims to improve the quality and quantity of data collected. This strategic approach can be implemented at any stage in the life of a project to establish comprehensive sets of baseline data regarding the state of the soil, water resources, phytomass and biodiversity against which future change can be compared.
1.1 How this Framework was created Seven general methods were employed to create this framework: a literature review, research, field visits, organization visits and interviews, questionnaires, meetings and discussions at the FES CO, and a final workshop.
1.2 Purpose and Goals The purpose of this monitoring framework is to aid in improving the efficiency, effectiveness and overall quality of our work and to better understand the environmental impacts of our interventions. To this end, we have sought to develop a framework of monitoring activities that will facilitate the collection and organization of ecosystem change data. Through monitoring and periodic evaluation of this data, we aim to improve our interventions, resulting in better outcomes for the ecosystems in which we work and for the marginalized communities, which we serve. Such a system will provide FES with improved standardization of operations. This in turn will enable more uniform, comprehensive data collection, comparison among project
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areas, increased scientific rigor in our work, and enhanced organizational learning. In short, a single monitoring framework for biophysical and ecological changes will guide us as we create plans to monitor the impacts of our actions. The overall goal of this framework is to evolve a conceptually clear, comprehensive and robust tool for monitoring biophysical and ecological changes at the landscape level. Specific goals are listed box 1.1 below.
Box 1.1 Goals of this biophysical and ecological monitoring framework This framework will attempt to: 1) Provide a conceptual framework that will guide the implementation and mainstreaming of biophysical and ecological monitoring in FES project areas; 2) Identify and describe indicators that can be measured to discern both larger changes in the landscape and immediate impacts in a project area; 3) Present easily understandable, scientifically rigorous methods for data collection and analysis (including methods currently practiced by FES, and those used by researchers and other organizations); 4) Contribute to organizational learning by presenting the framework in an easily understandable, educational manner.
Beyond the benefits in conceptual clarity, data collection, analysis and organizational learning that implementation of this framework will provide FES, the ultimate goal is to empower the villagers with whom FES works. For this reason, once this framework and associated indicators and monitoring methods has been tested and adapted to better reflect the ground realities of the various project areas of FES, the methods can be further adapted for implementation by villagers themselves.
1.3 What are biophysical and ecological changes? 1.3a Definitions If we seek to understand the biophysical and ecological changes occurring in a landscape, we must share common definitions for these terms as well as a few others. Please carefully review the following four terms.
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1) Biophysical Biophysical refers to the biological and physical components of the environment put more simply, biophysical refers to the living (the biological) and the nonliving (the physical) components of the environment. Biophysical descriptions tend to quantify the ecosphere in physical units such as meters, kilograms, or joules. 2) Ecological Ecological relates to the interrelationships of organisms and with their environment. The term comes from Ecology. The science of ecology is the study of how organisms interact with each other and with their physical environment. 3) Ecosystem An Ecosystem refers to communities of organisms and their physical environment that interact as a unit. The scale of an ecosystem is not fixed. A single stream, a watershed or an entire forest could be considered an ecosystem. 4) Landscape A portion of land or territory which the eye can comprehend in a single view, including all the objects it contains. A landscape level approach takes into account biological, geophysical and a range of social and cultural factors that affect how the land is used (Frost et al, 2006). The approach was born out of the science of landscape ecology which, according to Troll (1969) is concerned with the entire complex cause-effect network between living communities and their environmental conditions which prevails in a specific section of the landscape (Odum and Barrett, 2005).
1.3b Explanations Looking at biophysical change tells us about the structure of an ecosystem (which species live there and what is the physical make-up of the area); while an examination of ecological change entails looking at how the relationships of species among themselves and with the environment has changed. For example, a biophysical change in an ecosystem could be increased soil depth, decreased water table, or an increased number of rabbits. Ecological changes could describe how one type of tree species modifies the soil chemistry; how a specialist ant species is out-competing a generalist species; or how and why the pollination rate of a particular plant species has increased.
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Table 1.1 Examples of biophysical and ecological changes that might occur in a microwatershed as a result of FES work.
Biophysical changes Soil moisture increases and Ecological changes is Increased soil moisture allows waterloving species like ferns and algae, to become established along several drains in the watershed Increased tree growth results in a greater Increased leaf litter provides good habitat amount of leaf litter on the ground for a species of ground beetle that had nearly disappeared from the area. This beetle returns and begins to feed on caterpillars that had been damaging a local farmers crop Water levels in surface wells drop 20 feet Decreased water availability reduces the in 3 years due to excessive pumping and habitat a dominant grass species.
maintained for a longer period of time
deforestation in the upper regions of the Several ground-nesting birds that prefer watershed this grass species begin to leave the area in search of better habitat. Deforestation and increased erosion. Reduced ability of ecosystem to regulate Perennial streams become dry. water and cycle water.
Change in soil fertility (levels of nitrogen, Change in the dominance of certain phosphorus and potassium in the soil) grass species as a result of the changing soil fertility. Improved nutrient cycling. The number of Eurasian eagle-owls in Squirrel the watershed increases from 5 to 15 populations are reduced
because of increased predation by the owls
1.4 Why monitor biophysical and ecological changes? FES works through village level institutions to restore degraded lands. Changes in the land often occur over a long time period, but given several years, one often sees marked improvements in the areas where we work. Before and after photos, protected land versus unprotected land comparisons, occasional rigorous studies, and simple discussions with local farmers all provide clear proof of improvements that occur in the land at our project areas. With such obvious proof, why should we
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be concerned about making systematic, scientific measurements of changes that are occurring in the water, land, plants and animals of the area? Before reviewing the following proposed framework, it is extremely important to be able to satisfactorily answer this question.
One simple answer to this question is that we want to know what changes are occurring and we want to know if our activities are the reason for the changes. If we help to protect 50 hectares of land, construct a series of check dams along a stream, and plant fodder and trees on a plot, we would expect to see some improvement after a few years. But is that improvement due to abnormally high rainfall? Are the grass species that are coming up provides habitat for the insects and animals that used to live in the area? Is the area regenerating as fast as we would expect? Are the villagers who depend on this land receiving sufficient benefit in terms of ecoservices like pollination and bioproducts such as fodder and firewood? Even if we can accurately describe the changes, can we clearly show that our activities have led to the changes we see? And finally, are the changes we are encouraging in an ecosystem sustainable in the long term? These are extremely important questions. If we can effectively answer them, then we will know if and how our work is contributing to the restoration of a particular degraded ecosystem.
At the very center of our work is institutional strengthening and livelihood security for those who directly benefit from restored, healthy ecosystems. If we, as an organization can begin to better understand the changes occurring in the land, then we can work with villagers to develop monitoring plans that can be used long after the life of the project to measure water availability, sustainable phytomass harvesting levels and improve the flora and fauna health of the area.
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Box 1.2 Why monitor biophysical and ecological changes?

To better understand the impact of FES activities on the land and on wildlife and on ecological relationships at both micro and landscape levels; To quantify the flows of benefits that villagers obtain from regenerating lands; To learn and to use this knowledge to improve cost effectiveness and planning of future activities; To determine if resource use patterns are sustainable; To collect data that can be used for various studies (water resource estimation, water budgeting, biomass change, successional change, Natural Resource Accounting System, etc); To uncover unexpected impacts; To satisfy donor requirements; To provide data for future programs such as Payment for Watershed Services. To provide a means of measuring progress against ecorestoration goals; To provide data that can be used to advocate for policy changes.
1.5 Why is a standard framework needed for this kind of monitoring? The projects FES undertakes vary significantly from location to location. Wildlife, plant life, geomorphology, soil type, water availability and weather patterns differ tremendously from Karnataka to Orissa to Rajasthan. A set of agreed upon standards, codified in a uniform framework can provide the basis for designing the kind of site-specific monitoring plans that are required at all of the various locations where FES works. A framework gives you a frame of reference from which to proceed. Simply put, this framework will allow all members of FES to speak one language. When one team discusses their Water Resource Estimation study, every other team will know more or less exactly how they conducted the study, which parameters (indicators) they measured, how they collected the data (methods), and they will be able to interpret and understand the results. A common framework will also allow for better analysis and managerial decisions from the Spearhead Teams (SHTs) to the regional cells to the Coordination Office (CO).
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Part 2: Conceptual Framework

2.1 Introduction-Linking the main concepts together The core of this Framework is comprised of four interrelated concepts: Ecosystem Health, Ecoservices, Ecorestoration and Succession. Understanding how these terms are related on a Landscape scale provides the context within which the practical framework of indicators and methods in Part 3 are nested.
The Unifying Conceptual Model (figure 2.1) below offers an overall picture of the monitoring framework. On the left side of the model are the key 4 concepts listed above. The Model can be explained in this way: Ecosystem health has both human and natural component. Measure of human
health can be used to judge the sustainability and status of the human systems component. The current model simply recognizes this but does not explore the impact on human health any further at this time. Instead the focus is on natural systems, which can be assessed by looking at the structure, function, and resilience of an ecosystem. Resilience is an ecosystem property that involves understanding the rate at which an ecosystem recovers from shocks. Resilience is important and can be determined once one has data on how the structure and function or the ecosystem is changing. To determine both structural and functional changes over time, ecoservices can be estimated. Ecoservices represent the goods and services that an ecosystem provides.
Measurements of changes in the soil, water, phytomass and biodiversity of an ecosystem can be used to assess changes in the level and type of ecoservices that ecosystem provides. Note how the concept of ecoservices serves to connect the conceptual and practical components of the framework. Now, move back to the conceptual framework and look at the term succession at the bottom of the model. Succession is a concept that describes directional (not cyclical) changes in
structure and function over time. The types of communities of plants and animals that inhabit an ecosystem fundamentally change it, resulting in changes in the communities themselves. In other words, certain hardy grass species may thrive in nitrogen poor soils, but as they thrive and die, they enrich the soil with more nitrogen. Soil with more nitrogen is no longer suitable for these hardy species, but a range of
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other grasses and shrubs may then take root and result in new vegetative communities flourishing in the area. Ecorestoration: Succession occurs naturally but outside stressors
(disturbances) such as overgrazing, deforestation or invasive species can change derail this process. To put the natural system back on track, ecorestoration techniques can be employed.
An ecomonitoring program needs to incorporate protocol (methods) for measuring certain ecosystem parameters (indicators) that will provide data on the changing structure and function of an ecosystem over time. Ecosystems can be analyzed at many different levels. For FES, we choose to use the watershed as a convenient, landscape-level unit of analysis.
For a concise description of these concepts, please see the concept summary below. The key terms (in bold above) are explained in detail in the sections that follow, so if you are not clear on some of these concepts, please refer to the sections below and then return to this section for the larger picture. It is very important to understand how all of the concepts fit together.
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Figure 2.1 Unifying Conceptual Model 1. Ecosystem Health
Monitoring Framework for watershed-based development Levels of analysis
Conceptual Framework
Practical Framework
Biosphere
Human systems
Human health
Watershed Categories of biophysical & ecological change
Natural systems
Landscape 5. Monitoring program 1. Indicators of change 2. Field and/or Laboratory-based methods 3. Implementation strategy
2. Ecoservices
Structure Function Resilience
To assist/ repair process of succession
Soil Water Phytomass Biodiversity
Supporting services Regulating services Provisioning services Cultural services
Ecosystem
Community
3. Ecological Succession
4. Ecorestoration
Population
Individual
Directional changes in structure and function

Time
Disturbance
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2.2 ECOSYSTEM HEALTH 2.2.1 Introduction Though the term has various definitions and it represents a relatively new field, ecosystem health was selected as the overarching principle for the conceptual framework. The Society for Ecological Restoration International (SER International) views the health of an ecosystem in terms of the state of functional processes (SER International Guidelines, 2005). This definition is straightforward but does not take into account the interconnections that exist between humans and the environment. For a more holistic approach, Munoz and Aguilar build upon the popular definition used by Rapport et al. (1998) to describe a healthy ecosystem as a socio-ecological unit, that is stable and sustainable, maintaining its organization and autonomy over time and its resilience to stress, while capable of remaining economically viable and able to sustain human communities. A healthy ecosystem, as defined by Rapport et al. (1998) is free from distress and degradation, maintains its autonomy over time, and is resilient to stress.
The field of ecosystem health generally promotes the connections between a healthy functioning environment and healthy human communities. This is done with the recognition that healthy ecological systems will support healthy communities of humans and visa versa. By focusing on the connections between humans and their surrounding environments, ecosystem health is seen as a new, holistic method for ecosystem management and assessment. It is also believed that most people will be able to understand concepts of ecosystem change better if they are connected to the concept of health.
2.2.2 Monitoring ecosystem health Ecosystem health cannot be directly observed and thus requires looking at surrogate measures. Thus a monitoring program that operates with this concept as an overarching guide must incorporate indicators of ecological and social health, and the interplay between the two. Even leaving out the interaction of social and ecological systems, monitoring becomes a difficult task. Ecosystems vary greatly in terms of soil type, biodiversity, water availability and stress levels. Looking at the health of each of these aspects requires the development of indicators that can proxy for the organization, function and resilience of such a complex system. While
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direct indicators of ecosystem health have been used (Bertram et al, 2005, Munoz and Aguilar, 2003), others, such as Patil (2001), have attempted to make quantitative assessments of the health of ecosystems on a watershed basis by examining the supply of ecosystem goods and services.
The advantage of this monitoring framework is that it incorporates the concepts of ecoservices and the ecological succession (succession) as guiding principles. By developing indicators based on connections to relevant ecoservices, and my collecting long-term monitoring data, the changing structure and function (and thus ecosystem health) of an area can be observed. If collected over a long enough period of time (a minimum of 5-10 years), such data can also provide insight into the successional changes occurring in an ecosystem.
2.2.3 FES and Ecosystem Health The linkages between human and ecological health are well recognized. What has been lacking has been a clear framework that identifies indicators for measuring these linkages. The work FES has carried out in watersheds has been conducted without a focus on the larger ecosystem impacts of its interventions. By embracing the concept of ecosystem health, FES has recognized the need to do this. From the beginning of this project, the focus of FES was clearly on a more natural scienceoriented view of ecosystem health. In other words, instead of identifying indicators of human health and ecological drivers for changes in human health, FES has chosen to focus on assessing ecosystem health in terms of vigor (productivity/function), organization (structure) and resilience. But ecosystem health is only one aspect of the conceptual framework. By incorporating ecoservices into the framework, a direct and tangible connection is made to the social ramifications of watershed activities.
2.3 ECOSYSTEM SERVICES 2.3.1 Introduction The key to linking ecosystem health to indicators of human health is made by the incorporation of ecoservices into the framework. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment defines ecoservices simply as the benefits people obtain from ecosystems (MEA, 2005). According to the MEA, there are four types of ecoservices: provisioning services such as food, water, timber, and fiber; regulating
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services that affect climate, floods, disease, wastes, and water quality; cultural services that provide recreational, aesthetic, and spiritual benefits; and supporting services such as soil formation, photosynthesis, and nutrient cycling. de Groot et al (2002), views ecoservices in terms of functions, goods and services, offering a typology based on these aspects.
2.3.2 Monitoring ecoservices Ecoservice monitoring can be carried out to provide data of ecosystem health (MEA, 2005), to provide data for economic valuation of such services (de Groot et al, 2002), or both. Because ecoservices are well defined and organized into products and processes that are either directly or indirectly measurable, they provide an excellent conceptual and practical basis for a monitoring program. WBD projects often attempt to determine the amount of water made locally available by an intervention. Looking at fresh water as an ecoservice and conducting a rigorous water balance study could provide both data on project effectiveness and on ecosystem health. Though increased water availability would not benefit all species, in dryland India, a net gain in terms of biodiversity would likely result.
The ecoservices incorporated in the framework can all be monitored in this way. Parameters are selected for monitoring against ecorestoration goals. The parameters selected are used as indicators of change. This manual can be used to see which ecoservices are connected to the indicator selected for monitoring. Then, by collecting rigorous data on that indicator or set of indicators, we can see the impact on a particular ecoservice.
2.3.3 FES and ecoservices FES does not specifically conduct studies related to ecoservices at this point in time. However, by incorporating this concept into the FES monitoring framework, and collecting data with ecoservices in mind, future studies on ecoservices will be greatly facilitated. In the last several years, FES has conducted several studies that interface well with the ecoservices approach. Related to ecosystem provisioning services, FES has conducted studies on: Biomass estimation (2002), fodder species documentation (2006), and availability of NTFP (2001); with an ongoing study on water resources estimation expected to be completed in 2007.
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As will be discussed below in the practical framework, different species or groups of species make excellent indicators of various ecosystem functions. The creation by FES of a database on flora and fauna (2004) in the Mandanapalle, Karnataka project area, and the 2005 Satkosia Gorge Wildlife Sanctuary study in Orissa on phytomass and biodiversity, are examples of one-time studies that demonstrate the capacity of FES to carry out relatively rigorous assessments on aspects related to ecoservices. The current frameworks attempt to connect each monitoring indicator with a larger ecoservice is done in an effort to strengthen the connections between future FES studies and relevant ecoservices.
While one-time studies can potentially capture the value of particular ecoservices (such as provision of timber and fodder, or availability of fresh water), it is important to recognize that the generation of goods and services is enabled by ecological processes that must function within certain parameters in order to provide benefits in a sustainable fashion. To attempt to measure the changes occurring in an ecosystem over time, the ecological process of succession has been included in the monitoring framework.
2.4 SUCCESSION 2.4.1 Introduction Succession refers to the initial colonization of bare ground or rock, which is followed by a series of sequential vegetational replacements. Generally, when we talk about succession, we are referring to plant succession. But the concept applies to animals as well. Succession describes both structural and functional changes in an ecosystem over time. Structural changes refer to the change in species composition (which species are present) and variety (the number of species present). Functional changes describe an increase in biomass (both living and dead organic matter), and a change in the overall function of the area from primarily autotrophic (organisms that make their own food, like plants) to heterotrophic (organisms that depend on others for food, like animals, decomposers and parasites).
The case of the degraded land example discussed above refers to the process of secondary succession succession that occurs on a disturbed (degraded) site. Primary succession occurs on sterile ground such as newly formed volcanic rock, or
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land that has been uncovered by a retreating glacier. Because FES targets degraded lands for ecorestoration, when we refer to succession we are referring to secondary, not primary, succession.
Monitoring of ecosystems involves measuring certain indicative parameters that will likely change over time and provide information about what is changing and why. Understanding succession is necessary to conceive of the changes that are occurring in an ecosystem, and thus to be able to design a monitoring program.
Figure 2.2 Path of succession in a forest ecosystem
Sou rce: http://mff.dsisd.net/Environment/Succession.htm
2.4.2 Monitoring succession Monitoring of succession can be carried out by conducting a vegetative analysis of an area each year and looking for changes in distribution and abundance of certain species. Birds can also be used as indicators of succession though their populations change more with changes in life-forms (herb to shrub to softwood to hardwood) than with changes in individual species of plants. Because successional changes in plant communities take much longer than the duration of a typical development project, monitoring succession may not be a priority for many NGOs. However, the
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collection of baseline data on species richness and abundance at the start of a project would enable an evaluator, at least 5 years from the start of the project, to begin to study successional changes.
2.4.3 FES and succession FES has had a presence in the state of Orissa for around 25 years while the offices in Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh have been active for as long as 10 years. Because of this long-term commitment, the technical expertise of its staff and the analytical capabilities enabled by a well-staff GIS cell, it is reasonable for FES to use succession as a method for monitoring long-term changes in ecosystems. For other NGOs who might adapt this framework for their own monitoring programs, utilizing succession as an on-going monitoring tool might not prove useful. In all cases however, if accurate baseline data is collected via sufficiently rigorous scientific methods and both the data and the methods are well documented and maintained, then future evaluations would be able to assess successional changes.
Regardless of whether or not succession is utilized as a guiding concept for monitoring, understanding the concept is important for those working to restore degraded ecosystems. When succession fails, ecological restoration activities are how humans can help to restore ecosystems to their natural trajectories. By incorporating ecorestoration into the framework, the creation of goals and thus monitoring is simplified.
2.5 Ecorestoration 2.5.1 Introduction SER International (2005) defines ecological restoration as: the process of assisting the recovery of an ecosystem that has been degraded, damaged, or destroyed. Ecorestoration comprises a range of activities that accelerates ecosystem recovery with respect to its health (functional processes), integrity (species composition and community structure), and sustainability (resistance to disturbance and resilience). Restoration activities are carried out in degraded lands with a focus on placing the ecosystem firmly back onto historical trajectory, taking into account factors such as social-ecological interactions that may dramatically affect the future direction of the
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area. When an ecosystem no longer requires external assistance, it is said to be restored. (SER International, 2004,). In order to make this determination, a socalled reference ecosystem is required. The reference ecosystem serves as an important source of knowledge about roughly what the degraded ecosystem should look like.
2.5.2 Monitoring ecorestoration With respect to ecorestoration, the USDA FS holds that monitoring is essential in order to see if projects are achieving ecological conditions (USDA FS, 2004). Because most attempts to restore degraded land involve the use of secondary ecological succession (Miller, 2004), a monitoring framework must incorporate indicators that provide feedback on the successional status/ progress of an ecosystem. The first step to designing a monitoring plan involving ecorestoration would be to determine what the original species composition and habitat conditions for an area were before external stressors altered the ecosystem. This can be done through literature review, selection of a reference ecosystem and initial study of the project site. Once both a baseline and a reference have been established for the area, ecorestoration goals can be created.
2.5.3 FES and ecorestoration Restoration of ecosystems is a clear component of the mission of FES. In the past, the approach FES has decided to take towards ecorestoration has been more hands off. Typically, FES will assist a local community to form a committee (forest protection, watershed, or pastureland for example), help the committee gain tenure of the land and then begin restoration activities. These activities include plantation of trees and grass species, development of drainage lines, and soil conservation measures such as the construction of contour trenches. While FES does not delineate clear restoration goals that each of its activities are expected to contribute towards, we do informally utilize the concept of reference ecosystems and we do prefer to plant native species as much as possible. FES recognizes that the guidelines outlined by SER International are more applicable to developed countries where funding is greater and the majority of the population does not directly depend on the land for survival. In the western context, ecorestoration goals and activities can essentially be formed without incorporation of the strong human component that
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is required in rural India. While attempting to discern changes in the health of the ecosystem through monitoring of successional progress that contributes to ecorestoration goals, the conceptual framework incorporates a landscape approach.
2.5.4 Landscape approach A landscape level approach takes into account biological, geophysical and a range of social and cultural factors that affect how the land is used (Frost, Campbell, Medina, and Usongo, 2006). The approach was born out of the science of landscape ecology which, according to Troll (1969) is concerned with the entire complex cause-effect network between living communities and their environmental conditions which prevails in a specific section of the landscape (Odum and Barrett, 2005). Landscapes are composed of matrices, which are large areas of similar ecosystems or vegetation types (e.g. prairies, agriculture, forests), in which homogenous patches and connecting corridors are embedded.
Watersheds
have
identifiable
natural
boundaries
making
them
convenient
landscape-level units for large-scale study and management. WBD projects across India are carried out at the micro-watershed scale (500-1500 hectares), without considering the resource flows between micro-watersheds that are modified by such WBD activities. For this reason, FES has consciously decided to work at a larger level, working with households and hamlets but also with local governments and keeping in mind potentially larger impacts of their activities. Keeping the focus of this framework on the long-term spatial and temporal changes that occur in a landscape maintains the focus of monitoring activities on exchanges between watersheds and across aquifers instead of just within limited, artificially isolated areas.
The
above
concepts
of
ecosystem
health,
ecoservices,
succession,
and
ecorestoration visualized from the landscape approach come together to form a concrete theoretical basis for understanding the implications of ecological change in the land. Understanding succession, how it affects the structure and function of an ecosystem and what this means for the provision of ecological goods and services is fundamental to planning and conducting ecological restoration programs. Yet however strong this theoretical framework might be, the needs of an NGO lie more in practical tools for monitoring biophysical and ecological changes. What follows is an
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explanation of the practical framework of indicators and methods that can provide data for analysis of overall ecosystem health.
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Part 3: Practical Framework Indicators and Methods

3.1 Introduction
The environment is comprised of living and non-living entities. Measuring changes related to water and soil gives us a good picture of the nonliving component of an ecosystem. Measuring changes related to plant growth (phytomass) and animal and plant abundance, diversity, and distribution (biodiversity) provides useful information of the living component of an ecosystem.
3.2 Biomass
The term biomass refers to the weight of all living organisms (plants, animals, microbes) in a given area. In the rural development context, biomass is commonly used to refer to both phytomass (the total amount of plant mass) as well as animal mass (the total amount of mass that animals comprise). Biomass is commonly used to refer to plants only. But to avoid confusion, this manual focuses on, and uses the term phytomass. In any ecosystem, plant biomass is the primary source of energy. It comprises the foundation upon which all animal life is dependant, and it provides humans with everything from food to timber to fodder and feed for livestock. And as one would expect, forests are the chief reservoirs of phytomass.
Pressures from growing human and livestock populations, increased rates of extraction (primarily for urban industrial markets), the massive cattle population that depends on insufficient pasture land, and conversion of both forests and pastures to agricultural use are some of the major pressures on phytomass in India.
3.2.1 FES and phytomass related changes A primary objective of FES interventions is to increase the amount of available phytomass for local people. Severely degraded ecosystems often do not produce sufficient fodder, or wood for timber, tools and fuel. While woody phytomass will take some time to regenerate, there can at least be significant short-term increases in the amounts of grasses available for animal fodder.
FES helps to create a supportive environment for the regeneration of phytomass by promoting the protection of specified areas; constructing a wall to delineate the area
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if deemed necessary. The creation of rules that govern the protection and use of these areas is increasingly being done by established village level institutions though in the past the typical model was to create institutions such as forest protection committees or a tree growers cooperatives that were outside panchayat (local government). Typical rules that are created to govern the protected areas include various forms of fodder take limits, timing of fodder take (after seeding), grazing regulations, lopping rules and policies regarding take of other resources for timber, tools, or ornamental and medicinal uses.
While protection supports regeneration, FES also directly promotes phytomass growth by plantation of trees and seeding of important fodder grasses. Species promoted are usually local (endemic) species which have become scarce, or species that provide some livelihood or social benefit but that are not considered as invasive.
3.2.2 Monitoring phytomass related changes When an area is completely degraded, overgrazed and over harvested, there may be very little existing phytomass. In this case, it would still be appropriate to take baseline measurements of both the impact and control plots, photos, and measurements of rootstock to determine the capacity for natural regeneration. Phytomass will regenerate faster under conditions of better soil fertility, increased soil moisture, where rootstock is available, and where stressors such as grazing, lopping and harvesting have been minimized or eliminated. Because of the range of factors that determine the rate of phytomass regeneration, it will be necessary to develop a monitoring program on a case-by-case basis after an initial assessment of the area is conducted (see Phase I in section 4 on Implementation for an outline of the process of developing a monitoring plan).
In general, however, we can look at monitoring of phytomass related changes as involving two sides: 1. Supply (phytomass production) how much phytomass has been generated, and in particular, how much phytomass has been generated that is used by local people. This might require monitoring certain species or certain areas that are generally more heavily harvested because of the species that grow there.
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2. Demand (phytomass utilization) how much phytomass is needed, how much is being used, and how are use-patterns changing over time.
With these two aspects in mind, the methodology used for phytomass studies involves either: 1. Remote sensing data and subsequent ground truthing, 2. Phytomass estimation studies conducted without potentially costly remote sensing data (purely field methods), 3. Household surveys to estimate take (demand), need and prices of goods taken, or 4. Some combination of these three. The focus of this first draft of the monitoring framework is more on field methods and does not include detailed household survey.
Figure 3.1 Connection between phytomass related ecoservices and ecosystem health.
Ecosystem Health
BIOMASS
Ecosystem Organization (Structure)
Ecosystem Vigor (Function)
Ecoservices
Photosynthesis (support service) Primary Production (support service) Food/ Fodder/Timber Fuel/ Fiber (Provisioning service)
Air Quality (regulatory process) Climate Regulation (Regulatory process)
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3.2.3 Photosynthesis Photosynthesis is the incredible process by which green plants use energy from the sun to combine water and carbon dioxide (CO2) in a reaction that produces oxygen (O2), carbohydrates (such as glucose) and other nutrients. Plants then use some of these products to build more tissue (phytomass), while some energy is used (or respired) in the process. Thankfully, billions of years ago, photosynthesis evolved. Bacteria released so much oxygen over time that it drastically changed the composition of the atmosphere. A fortunate byproduct of this oxygen revolution is that a layer of ozone (O3) was able to form in the lower stratosphere and this layer protected the earth from the suns harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation. With lower levels of UV light, plants were able to evolve on the land. Animals eventually followed and eventually mammals, then humans came along.
Clearly, photosynthesis is important historically. But it is also an important service provided by the ecosystem. The oxygen produced by photosynthesis keeps our earth a livable place for most life, and some of the energy that plants gain through photosynthesis becomes phytomass. Some of that phytomass gets used for all sorts of things.
3.2.4 Primary production Photosynthesis enables primary production. We call this process primary because it is the first step in a long process of energy transfer in which plants convert sunlight into phytomass that the rest of the plant eaters can consume. Since some energy is used by the plant and lost in the process, we will use the term Net Primary Production (NPP) for our purposes. NPP is the rate at which a plant produces phytomass. In other words, NPP is the net amount of biomass in a given time that remains after a plant has used what it needs to survive.
There is an important connection between primary production and biodiversity. Research suggests that a biodiversity increase may increase productivity, but a productivity increase almost always decreases biodiversity (Odum and Barrett, 2005). Increasingly, focus is being placed on increasing functional biodiversity as opposed to simply increasing diversity of species in an ecosystem. This is discussed in more detail in the biodiversity section. In any case, it is important to consider that
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gains in productivity of an ecosystem are not linked to biodiversity increases. To clarify this point briefly, consider that a forest ecosystem that has reached its climatic climax (top level of succession) is more productive but boasts less diversity than an ecosystem that is on its way to such a climax. Once the canopy forms and blocks out much of the light, the diversity of plant species (and hence their animals hosts/predators) will not survive. This has led to the saying that a little bit of disturbance is good for an ecosystem.
3.2.5 Food/Fodder/Timber/Fuel /Fiber
Ecosystems provide a great deal of products, free of charge. When we speak of phytomass in the rural development context, we are either referring to the amount of vegetation that has regenerated, or to the amount of usable vegetation that has come up. This useable phytomass varies from location to location, but most common would be: 1) Food derived from plants, and microbes, 2) Fiber such as wood, jute cotton, hemp, jute and wool, 3) Fuel such as wood, dung and other organic materials that are used to create energy.
Though not emphasized in the MEA framework, fodder, timber and wood that are specifically used for tools would also be key uses of phytomass. There are actually several more important resources provided by an ecosystem, ranging from ornamental to genetic and biochemical resources. Biomass of plants occurring in different study sites are estimated by following methods:
Table 3.1 Phytomass related parameters and connections to relevant ecoservices. Primary Production Social method (household survey) Photosynthesis Food/ Fodder/Timber Fuel/ Fiber
PHYTOMASS Production
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Field Method
Air Quality
A framework for Biophysical and Ecological Monitoring Tree phytomass Shrub phytomass Grass phytomass Herb phytomass Crop phytomass (NTPP) Non-timber plant produce phytomass Phytomass (herbs, grasses shrubs, trees, crops, NTPP) Rootstock (per unit area) Ground cover Number of saplings planted and survival rate Accumulation of organic material (leaf litter) Canopy cover Number of saplings planted and survival rate Utilization Consumption of phytomass as fuel (domestic and nondomestic, location, distance & time required) Consumption of phytomass as fodder (location) Consumption of phytomass as green manure (location) Consumption of phytomass as timber (location) Consumption of phytomass for food (location) Consumption of phytomass for medicinal purposes (location) Consumption of phytomass for NTPP (non-timber plant produce) (location) Availability of dung (used for fuel, manure bio-gas) X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Yes
X X X X X
X X X X X
No No Yes
X X X X X
X X X X X
Yes Yes Yes
Yes X
Yes-hhold survey Yes-hhold survey Yes-hhold survey Yes-hhold survey Yes-hhold survey
Yes-hhold survey X
Yes-hhold survey
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3.2.6 Baseline Data Collection for phytomass related parameters Of the above parameters, it was determined by consensus at the FES Biophysical and Ecological Monitoring workshop on March 14-16, 2007 that 4 parameters would be given priority for measurement. These 4 parameters are listed are listed in table 3.2.
These parameters were chosen because they cover the majority of FES and local peoples goals related to phytomass regeneration and sustainable extraction. While aspects of demand were not discussed in detail in the workshop, it was deemed necessary to conduct household surveys to gather information on the demand side.
Table 3.2 Phytomass related parameters recommended for routine monitoring Parameters
1. Tree phytomass 2. Shrub phytomass 3.Herb and grass phytomass 4. Ground cover
Required for:
Phytomass estimation studies, calculation of carbon sequestration, to conduct supply-demand studies, determine phytomass extraction rates, making management and conservation related decisions (for example, to ensure fodder requirements are met) Studies on erosion and runoff
3.2.7 Connections across indicators In an ecosystem, everything is connected to some degree. Changes in phytomass are associated with a tremendous number of other changes. Showing all of these in one chart would not be possible. But to give an idea of the changes that come about with an increase in phytomass, Figure 3.2 attempts to provide a general overview. All components of phytomass- trees, shrubs, ground cover, leaf litter and roots- have been clubbed together in this display.
3.2.8 Indicators of phytomass related changes and associated methods In general, for most of these parameters, there are equation methods for estimating biomass and diversity, field methods (harvesting), or both. As FES expands its documentation efforts in the field of monitoring and evaluation, it is important to note down how biomass studies are carried out to aid in organizational learning and add to the scientific rigor of work. With this in mind, there are some important aspects that one should consider while conducting a biomass study..
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3.2.9 Understorey biomass All the quadrats of 5mX5m are sampled for understorey by clipping at ground level. Fresh weight of plant material is taken in the field and samples are brought to the laboratory. The plant samples are dried at 800C for 24 hours and are weighed to estimate the biomass of grass-herb-shrub layer i.e. understorey vegetation.
3.2.10 Tree biomass a. Destructive sampling It is necessary to carry out destructive sampling to establish correlations for estimating biomass of standing trees. This sampling should be carried out in trees growing on border rows. The inner border row should be used for this purpose. This destructive sampling should he carried in the third or fourth year so that necessity of frequent fellings and revision of regression equations may not be necessary. The plant removed in destructive sampling should be replaced by tall nursery plants to maintain the number and fill up the gap. After the measurement of winter months trees should be grouped in 5cm girth and 50 cm height classes for all replications together. One or two trees of each girth class should be selected in the border row. This selection should be for all replications together. About 30 trees should be selected in all. The number of sample tree may be kept higher for those classes that contain more number of trees.
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A framework for Biophysical and Ecological Monitoring Figure 3.2 Relationships between increase in phytomass and other parameters
Increased Phytomass
An increase/improvement in: Soil porosity Soil fertility Soil moisture holding capacity Soil bulk density Soil depth Soil permeability Soil % organic Carbon Soil microbes Insects, birds, mammals Infiltration rate Duration of soil moisture availability Terrestrial habitat diversity & quality (for many species) Aquatic habitat diversity & quality Faunal & floral species richness and abundance (to a certain point) Pollinator activity Seed dispersal Surface water quality Conflicts with wildlife
A decrease in: Erosion Siltation behind structures Runoff Turbidity of water Terrestrial habitat diversity & quality (for certain species) Faunal & floral species richness & abundance as the process of succession occurs for certain species)
The sample trees should be measured for girth 50 cm above ground and at breast height as well as total tree height while standing. The point at 50 cm should be marked by a suitable paint.
The tree should then be felled with a saw. The felled tree should be separated into main stem, branch wood, twigs and leaves. The main stem should be considered up to the thin end of 10 cm girth. The rest should be included in branch wood. The felling should be done as dose to ground level as possible. Separate portions should be weighed immediately after felling. The felled wood loses moisture very fast. Weighment of tree should not be deferred, otherwise, the correlations will be poor due to varying moisture loss.
Each portion should be bagged separately in cloth and kept in shade. They should be weighed at intervals till the weight becomes constant. This is air-dry
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weight. If oven-dry weights are needed samples should be taken at this stage. At least three samples of about 1kg should be taken from stem, branch and twigs from each tree. They should be weighed and then taken to Iab for oven drying. The weight of these sub-samples should be proportioned to air-dry weight and added to the samples when computing air-dry weight. Some considerations for the biomass estimation: (i) In case of shrubs that are muItistemmed, it is enough to measure the girth of the tallest shoot at this point and to count the number of shoots viz. Acacia farnesiana, (ii) In case of trees where occasional shoot appears below 50 cm, it is advisable to remove these branches unless branching starts below ground level in which case these should he treated as separate trees viz. Prosopis juliflora. (iii) Height - The measurement of height should be done with the help of an erect pole when the trees are young, otherwise by any height measuring instrument. The objective is to measure the vertical projection of the tip of the tree and not the length of the stem. This height will be less than that obtained by felling of the tree and measuring the length from ground to tip. Good correlations for biomass and volume are obtained with height and not with length. (iv) Season of measurement - All measurements should be done during the period when trees are in the stage of dormancy.
Non-destructive estimation Tree biomass can be estimated from diameter measurements with the power equation of FAO by Brown (1997). Tree biomass = exp [-2.134 + (2.530 In D)] (D = DBH in cm) 3.2.11 Root biomass For destructive sampling, roots of the cut trees are excavated from the ground, cleaned and oven dried to measure the biomass. However, coarse root biomass can be estimated using an allometric equation of root dry mass (>5mm) from diameter at breast height (DBH, cm) (Kuiper and Coutts, 1992): Root biomass=0.01DBH2.63 Dry mass is converted to C stores by multiplying by 0.5 (IPCC, 1997)
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3.2.12 Surface Litter Measurements Surface litter is collected from the quadrats on bimonthly basis. Fresh as well as oven dry weight is recorded after drying at 65oC. Dry mass is converted to C stores by multiplying by 0.5 (IPCC, 1997). Alternatively surface litter is ground and analysed for total carbon content using Walkley-Black method (1947).
3.3 BIODIVERSITY Biodiversity is a rather broad term so we need to be specific about what we mean when we use it. Biodiversity can refer to the variety of different species (species diversity), genetic variability among individuals within in a species (genetic diversity), variety of ecosystems (ecological diversity), and even to the various processes such as energy flow and matter cycling that are required by the species and biological communities (functional diversity)(Miller, 2005).
Populations of species can be exposed to pressures (such as hunting or harvesting) that eliminate certain types of individuals within a species. This limits the genetic diversity available and in effect, weakens the species. If we have data on how species diversity is changing over time, and we know that a particular species is not faring well, it would be possible to begin measuring the genetic diversity of that species to determine the variability. If deemed necessary, we could then decide to plant or in the case of animals, introduce individuals into the community to improve genetic diversity.
In general, if an ecosystem has several organisms performing the same function, then this is good. Think of having both a power cord and a battery for your laptop. If one of these dies, you still have another that will perform the same function of powering your computer. You might have 9 different power cords, but if only one of them works with laptops, then you have low functional diversity for powering laptops. Looking at this from the opposite view point, an ecosystem might have less overall diversity (fewer numbers of species), but greater functional diversity. For example: If there are 10 species in one plot, all performing different functions in the ecosystem, then this may be a healthier than an ecosystem of 20 species that only performs 3 functions. If we are monitoring species biodiversity over time, we can decide if there
40
are any particular species that are performing important functions that we also want to monitor.
Distribution of species is also extremely important. Having high species diversity in small patches and then low diversity throughout the rest of the plot might indicate the presence of degraded habitat. If a species is well established throughout the ecosystem, then this means that either the species is very aggressive and hearty, or that the ecosystem provides good quality habitat for that species, or both. If we know what kind of conditions that species needs to flourish, and we know how that species is performing (how many are in the area and how healthy are they) then we can make fairly good assumptions about state of the ecosystem with regard to such parameters.
Finally, we cannot talk about biodiversity without discussing habitat, guilds and the concept of the ecological niche. The habitat of an organism is where it lives or where it normally lives. An ecological niche goes beyond this definition of a physical place an organism occupies to incorporate its functional role in the community, and the other aspects of where it lives with respect to parameters like temperature, soil pH, and moisture (Odum and Barrett, 2005). Groups of species that have similar roles and niche dimensions within a community are called guilds. Examples of guilds include nectar-feeding insects, birds that feed on seeds, beetles that live in the leaf litter on the forest floor and parasitic plants.
The concept of guilds has been used more when discussing animals, while functional groups are more commonly referred to when dealing with plants. Usually the terms are used synonymously, but in fact they are different (Blondel 2003). Members of the same guild share the same resource. Members of the same functional group are responsible for the same ecosystem processes. If two birds are sharing the same resource say both feeding on the seed of a particular tree and spreading that seed throughout the ecosystem, then they may well be performing the same function.
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3.3.1 FES and biodiversity related changes FES recognizes the importance of biodiversity both for sustaining healthy ecosystems and for providing ecoservices such as fuel, firewood, fresh water and pollination to those who live nearby. Our ecorestoration activities aim to revive the biodiversity of the area in order to restore these natural services both for locals who depend on them and for to foster a healthy environment for its own sake. In undertaking such restoration activities on highly degraded lands we seek to determine which plants and animals should be re-established in the area. This is done by a combination of discussions with local people, review of literature, and baseline transect walks with locals to identify existing species. All of these methods are necessary, especially when an ecosystem is so degraded that many previously existing species are no longer present.
While working towards restoring an ecosystem, it is important to remember that the number one reason for loss of species is loss of habitat. In the highly degraded lands of drought prone India, the changes in quantity and quality of habitat have been tremendous. Traditionally, FES has not taken the kind of concerted efforts at habitat restoration for individual species. Instead, the focus is on creating an enabling environment for the ecosystem to regenerate on its own. This enabling environment is created by identifying and removing the stressors on the area (human and animal induced), and by assisting the process of regeneration through seeing of particular grasses and planting of local tree species, working to reduce erosion and increase soil moisture availability.
3.3.2 Monitoring biodiversity related changes An extremely important aspect of monitoring biodiversity is the collection of baseline data on the biodiversity of an area before the project begins. Then, with repeated surveys perhaps once a year, a picture of the variety of species returning as well as the species, which are disappearing or reducing in number will begin to emerge. This analysis of the changing composition of communities of species will provide insight into the successional stage of the ecosystem, which in turn tells us about the progress of our ecorestoration activities as well as the overall health of the ecosystem.
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The baseline survey is also very important because it is required for the selection of appropriate monitoring indicators. A certain grass may indicate degraded soils while another plant thrives in low moisture environments. At the start of our work, it would be helpful to identify these species and record their abundance and distribution over time. In the case of these two particular species, we should see a gradual decrease in their populations as restoration progresses, and soil fertility and moisture improves. In this framework we will focus on methods for establishing and conducing transects to measure and monitor species richness, abundance and distribution.
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Figure 3.3 Drawing the connection between biodiversity related ecoservices and ecosystem health
Ecosystem Health
BIODIVERSITY
Ecosystem Organization (Structure) Ecosystem Vigor (Function)
Ecoservices
Genetic Resources (provisioning service)
Habitat (Support service/ regulatory function) Pest Regulation (regulatory service)
Pollination (regulatory service) Disease Regulation (regulatory
Natural hazard regulation (support service)
Natural medicines, pharmaceuticals, biochemicals (provisioning service)
44
Table 3.3 Measurable biodiversity related parameters

FLORA Species richness, abundance (association) Distribution of both floral species and associations of floral species (patchy, wide) Invasive species (& perception) BIODIVERSITY Why to monitor FAUNA richness To create baseline focus Species on identifying functional and abundance diversity To create baseline Distribution of faunal species and functional groups Why to monitor To create baseline focus on identifying functional diversity To create baseline
Indicates major source of stress on ecosystem; how they are perceived (+ or -) indicates how they should be managed Endemic (local) species should be promoted in ecorestoration To determine if any particular species require special protection Indicates the rate at which certain species are recovering; highlights problems associated with establishment of saplings Indicates health of species that may be few in number but are of particular importance to the ecosystem in question Indicates richness of species; can indicate plant-animal interactions
Invasive species
Endemic species
Endemic species
Threatened, rare & endangered species
Threatened, rare & endangered species Seed agents dispersal
Natural regeneration and recruitment
Indicates major source of stress on ecosystem; how they are perceived (+ or -) indicates how they should be managed Endemic (local) species should be promoted in ecorestoration To determine if any particular species require special protection Indicates presence of these agents as well as healthy floral-faunal interactions Indicates health of species that may be few in number but are of particular importance to the ecosystem in question Pollinators are necessary for most flowering plants to reproduce; good plantanimal interaction indicators Indicate completeness of food chains, ability of food web to support high organisms
Keystone species
Keystone species
Epiphytes & parasitic plants
Pollinators (bees, bats, butterflies, etc)
Supporting species to animals (nests, hives, etc)
Umbrella species
Highlights health of species that are of particular importance to quality of animal habitat; good indicator for plantanimal interactions Umbrella species are the species most sensitive to habitat destruction, fragmentation, and weed/pest invasion. They can be used to define the minimum acceptable level at which the threat can occur. Often they can be threatened, rare or endangered due to such sensitivity
Top predators (top predators should be a local resident, not an animal that comes from time to time) Umbrella species
Umbrella species are the species most sensitive to habitat destruction, fragmentation, and weed/pest invasion. They can be used to define the minimum acceptable level at which the threat can occur. Often they can be threatened, rare or
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A framework for Biophysical and Ecological Monitoring endangered due to such sensitivity In conjunction with types of species lost, gives insight into progress of succession; also highlights existence of stressors that might be causing species loss
Rate of species loss
In conjunction with types of species lost, gives insight into progress of succession; also highlights existence of stressors that might be causing species loss
Rate of species loss
NTFP availability and associated income
Indicates stresses placed on an ecosystem due to local practices and/or market forces; indicates productivity of ecosystem
Scavengers (vultures, hyenas, jackals)
Increased numbers of scavengers indicate availability of food and habitat and thus improved ecosystem health Change in species composition from generalists to specialists indicates succession; certain insects can be selected as per their importance in an ecosystem Good quality habitat (especially nursery and refuge areas) is key for the survival of faunal species Diversity of avian guilds indicates increased functional diversity and thus ecosystem health
Root stock availability
Indicates capacity of ecosystem to regenerate naturally with minimal plantation
Ground (ants, beetles)
insects termites,
Presence of lower taxa plants (bryophytesliverworts, algae, pteridophytes-ferns, fungi) Evidence dispersal of seed
Indicates increased moisture availability and duration
Habitat diversity, quality over time
Indicates presence of seed dispersal agents (see faunal indicator)
Avian species guilds (depends on food)
Carnivorous species
Indicates presence of a specialist species; also good indicators of plantanimal interactions
Number and size of anthills/ termite mounds, distance between them, distance between hills and crop Conflicts with wildlife
Can indicate positive changes for an ecosystem; can indicate need for natural pest control to minimize conflict with farmers Increases indicate higher animal populations, reemergence of certain species; important to mitigate to limit humaninduced ecosystem stress
Miscellaneous Status/ details of activities to increase environmental and conservation awareness
Indicates efforts to sensitize community of importance of biodiversity and ecosystem health
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3.3.3 Baseline data collection for biodiversity related parameters It should be noted that any study related to biodiversity would depend heavily upon the initial reconnaissance survey of the area. Once there is a clear picture of the species that exist in an area, then and only then can monitoring plan be developed. In cases where the land is severely degraded and an initial survey cannot provide a clear picture of what the area should look like, then nearby reference ecosystems, discussions with locals, and secondary research becomes increasingly important.
Table 3.4 Biodiversity related parameters

Parameters to measure: Flora 1) Species richness, abundance (association) 2) Distribution of both floral species associations of floral species (patchy, wide) 3) Invasive species & perception 4) Endemic species 5) Threatened, rare & endangered species 6) Natural regeneration and recruitment 7) Epiphytes & parasitic plants 8) Keystone species 9) Supporting species to animals (nests, hives, etc) Fauna 10) Species richness and abundance and Required for: Studies on successional stage, measurement against restoration goals, determine rate of species loss/gain To determine the health of populations of native species
To assess the integrity of important functional groups within the ecosystem. To study species that represent clear plantanimal interactions To determine changes in the food web and in the presence of certain indicator species such as top predators, scavengers, and pollinators To determine the health of populations of native species. Umbrella species are the species most sensitive to habitat destruction, fragmentation, and weed/pest invasion. They can be used to define the minimum acceptable level at which the threat can occur. Often they can be threatened, rare or endangered due to such sensitivity To assess the integrity of important functional groups within the ecosystem. To study species that represent clear plantanimal interactions
11) Endemic species
12) Invasive species 13) Threatened, rare & endangered species 14) Umbrella species 15) Seed dispersal agents 16) Keystone species
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3.3.4 Connections across indicators Biodiversity monitoring links the entire framework together. Changes in the presence, absence or health of certain species can indicate the composition of nutrients in the soil (soil fertility), the amount and duration of water available for plants, the presence of specific species of plants or animals that are associated with the indicator species, or such changes could indicate changes in important ecoservices such as water regulation and erosion regulation. Because of this, it is not useful to attempt to visually display the connections between the suggested parameters for biodiversity related monitoring and the parameters listed in the other sections of the framework.
Once a baseline survey has been conducted and ecorestoration goals have been identified, then local species can be selected for their appropriateness as indicators. At that time, the connection between such selected species and the other components of ecosystem change (such as soil porosity, canopy cover or water availability) can be made and drawn in a chart.
3.3.5 Indicators of Biodiversity related Changes and Associated Methods While this framework provides an overview of the kinds of parameters than can be used to create a monitoring framework, specific methods have not been selected for assessing these parameters. The majority of the parameters can actually be assessed at the same time during an in-depth, and during subsequent monitoring studies. Certain parameters, such as changes in certain populations of birds can be assessed using resources included in this framework.
Table 3.5: Methods of sampling applied for studying biodiversity Sampling method
Point-based sampling Transect-based sampling
Indicator
Permanent photo points, Landscape openings, Bird abundance and species composition Butterfly abundance and species composition Seedling density, Amount of surface fuel, Extent of canopy cover, Classification of riparian plant community structure Density and size of live trees, Density and size of dead standing trees, Height from ground to tree crown, Understorey plant species composition, Understorey cover, Extent of bare soil
Plot-based sampling
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3.3.6 Methods related to flora The vegetation is studied by laying nested quadrats of varying sizes. For example trees are sampled in 20mX20m quadrats, shrubs in 5mX5m quadrats and herbs/grasses in 1mX1m quadrats. However the size and shapes of the sampling plots can be modified according to the terrain, area and the requirement of the study. Circular, rectangular and square shapes are most common. The vegetation growth in the different areas with progressing age of restoration can be studied.
3.3.6.1 Sampling frequency The seasonal sampling is recommended for the continuous study. The rainy, winter and summer seasons are the preferred times of the sampling. However, the frequency of the sampling can vary on the case-to-case basis. For example, in the case of the plots which have already undergone the process of restoration, a one time sampling on the plots can be carried out, taking control plots or the nearby areas without the intervention.
Herb/grass/litter sample plots (1m radius)
Shrub plot (3m radius)
Tree plot (10 m radius)
Fig.3.4: An example of layout of the sample plots 3.3.6.2 Phytosociological Studies The vegetation is studied in the selected sites by laying nested quadrats of 1mX1m, 5mX5m and 20mX20m sizes. Herbs are studied in 1mX1m quadrats, shrubs in 5mX5m quadrats and trees in 20mX20m quadrats (shape and size of quadrats can
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vary according to terrain and requirements). Following quantitative characters are calculated using the standard formulae: i. Frequency: Frequency is the number of sampling units (%age) in which a particular species occurs and this is calculated as follows:
No. of quadrats in which species occurred
Frequency (%) = ----------------------------------------------Total no. of sampling units studied ii.
Density: The number of individuals of the species in a unit area is its density. It is calculated as follows:
Number of individuals of the species
Density (%) = ----------------------------------------------Total area studied
iii.
Abundance: This is the number of individuals of any species per unit area of occurrence. It is calculated as follows:
Total no. Of individuals of the species in all quadrats
Abundance = -----------------------------------------------------No. of quadrats in which species occurred
iv.
Dominance: Dominance is the area occupied by stems of a species in any given area. It is calculated by measuring the diameter of the individual stems and adding the areas of the stems in a given area for the species. Basal area of a species= Sum of basal areas of all the stems Basal area of individual stem = D2/4 Where D=Diameter of stem
v.
Relative Density: This is calculated by following formula: Relative

Density of the species X 100 Density = ------------------------------------------Total density of all the species
vi.
Relative Frequency: Relative Frequency of the species is calculated by following formula:

Frequency of the species X 100
Relative frequency= -------------------------------------------Total Frequency of all the species
vii.
Relative Dominance: This is calculated by the following formula:

Dominance (cover) of the species X 100
Relative dominance = ------------------------------------------Total dominance of all the species
vii. Importance Value Index (IVI): This is a value reflecting the relative importance of the individual species in the study area. It is calculated by adding relative density,
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relative dominance and relative frequency values for each species (Curtis and Cotton, 1959 and Philip, 1959) viii. Abundance/Frequency ratio (A/F): This is the ratio of the abundance and frequency of the given species (Curtis and Cotton, 1956). This is used to describe the distribution pattern of the species in the area.
3.3.6.3 Diversity Indices Diversity indices are values propounded by various ecologists, which incorporate several parameters into single values. (a) Hills diversity indices (1973b) are: No=S, where S is the total number of species and represents the effective number of species present. N1=eH, where H is Shannons index and represents abundant species. eHN2=1/, where is Simpsons index and represents very abundant species. (b) Shannon-Wiener index: It is a measure of general diversity (Shannon and Wiener, 1963) determined with the information function.
s
H= - pi ln pi
i=1
Where H is the Shannon index of general diversity, pi is the proportion of ith species in that community. The Shannon index is a measure for diversity (Shannon, 1949). Values smaller than 2 indicate low diversity, while values greater than 2 point to a high diverse stand.
(c) Concentration of Dominance (Cd) which is the inverse of diversity is measured by Simpsons Index (Simpson 1949) as: H= - (pi) 2
i=1 s
where pi is the same as for Shannon-Weiner information function. Dominance tendency was assumed when Simpsons Index > 0.25 (Stone & Pence, 1978; Yanez & Canaris, 1988).
(d) Quotient of Similarity (QS), on the basis of the number of species under each community is measured (Sorenson, 1941) as: Qs= 2c X 100 a+b
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Where, a and b are the number of species in A and B communities, and c is the number of species common in both the communities. (e) Evenness index (E) of Alatalo (1981) as: E= (1/)-1 eH-1 Where and H are same as given earlier. (f) -Diversity index: -Diversity is calculated to measure the rate of species change across the stands. The expression is as follows: = Sc/S where Sc is the total number of species encountered in all the stands and S is average number of species per stand. (g) Equitability index: This is calculated as described by Pielou (1969) J = H Ln(S) Where J=Pielous Equitability index, H= Shannon Wiener diversity index, S=number of species, ln is logarithm to the base e. The Pielous index is a measure of how evenly distributed abundance is among the species that exist in a community. The Pielou index is defined between 0 and 1, where 1 represents a community with perfect evenness, and decreases to zero as the relative abundances of the species diverge from evenness.
(h) Dominance-diversity curves To ascertain the resource apportionment among the various species at various sites, dominance-diversity (D-D) curves are drawn. A perusal of the D-D curves indicates that for sites undergoing succession, the curve is a geometric series at first but tends to proceed towards a series. This indicates that competition among species is increasing for available resources. Log normal distribution would give the best distribution of species-abundance pattern (Preston 1948). If curve is a series, this indicates that competition among species is increasing for available resources. The log series indicates that moderately common species reflect most closely the nature and environment and fluctuate violently from time to time than the most abundant species. The curves, which represent the geometric series confirm niche preemption hypothesis (Whittaker, 1975).
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Fig 3.5: Models of the dominance diversity curves
10 0 1 0 1
Per Species IVI Broken Stick Model
0. 1 0.0 1 0.00 1
Geometric Series Log-Normal Series Log Series
10
20
30
40
Species Addition Sequence 3.3.7 Methods related to fauna Methods for surveying and monitoring fauna will depend on the types of fauna that the study is looking for. During the reconnaissance survey, it may be that the researcher would be looking for evidences of all mammals in the form of tracks, dung, and sightings.
The methods for carrying out faunal studies will vary depending on the researcher, but such studies may involve establishing various forms of transects, using PCQ and quadrat methods, laying traps for insects or small mammals, or simply walking and counting in the case of certain bird surveys.
A very crucial requirement for much ecological research is to get a almost complete list of fauna and reliable estimate of the population size. Estimate need not necessarily give accurate numbers of individuals, but may be used in a relative sense to compare between different times or sites (Mohan et al. 1998). For a wide
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range of taxa, index methods to assess relative densities are well established (Caughley 1977, Wilson et al. 1996).
3.3.7.1 Odonate (Predators) and Coleoptera & Hymenoptera (Pollinators) These groups are important from pest control and pollination point of view and would be inventorised using net sweeps, light traps and scented traps (Gadagkar et al. 1990). For every sampling point the microhabitat features is to be registered. Further opportunistic sightings can also be recorded along with the information on species and the host plant visited.
3.3.7.2 Herpetofauna Amphibians and Reptiles can be sampled using circular plots and belt transects. Intensive search (IS) can be done within a circular plot of 10m radius placed at every 100m along the transect, while the belt transect of 80 m long and 6m wide is used in the space between the two circular plots. All the microhabitats (rock and boulders, dead and fallen logs, flushing and beating of dense bushes and grass patches, checking of rock and tree crevices and leaf litters etc) within the transects is thoroughly checked for herpetofauna. Opportunistic survey is done using plots of 5x5 m where sampling can be done by time-constrained searches (Welsh 1987, Welsh and Lind 1991). In all cases relative abundance can only be estimated for species where adequate data is available. In addition, the microhabitat features can also be recorded along with its availability and extent.
3.3.7.3 Avifauna Terrestrial avifauna can be estimated using variable width transects (Manuwal and Carey 1991), point count (Bibby et al. 1998) and area search (Ralp et al. (1993), Slater (1994), Dieni and Jones (2002) or perambulation technique in different vegetation/ habitat types of each block /compartment in each PA. Bird counts are best done within hour after sunrise and should be completed no later than four hours after sunrise. Observers should record the species, sex (if possible), and mode of detection (song, call, visual, other) of all birds seen or heard within a 150 feet radius of the point on the transect. Analysis: Make a list of all the bird species observed in the entire sampling site. The total number of different species observed represents the observed bird species composition. Add the number of birds of each
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species to get species abundances observed during any one sampling period. Total abundances of birds can be estimated by adding all species abundances together. The bird species in all microhabitat is recorded along with their numbers seen. Further, for each sighting tree species used, substrate used, vertical strata used, activity, if feeding, details on where, how & what its feeding is recorded.
In addition the number of water bodies in the study area is also surveyed for the aquatic bird species and individuals enumerated using total count. In case of larger water bodies having numerous individuals, flock or block count method can be adopted. Information of nesting habitats or breeding sites can also be recorded whenever encountered.
3.3.7.4 Mammals Direct Count: Both terrestrial and arboreal (small and large) mammals are counted during monitoring of line transect (Burnham et al. 1980) that can be walked in the early and late hours of the day and during the night using spotlight or headlights (Duckworth 1992). In addition road strip count (Hirst 1969 and Berwick 1974) using vehicle during day (Rodgers 1991, Ravi Chellam et al. 1994) may also be carried out. For each sighting, species, abundance, age and sex, sighting distance, sighting angle, distance on transect and activity of the animal with the habitat features are documented. Statistical packages like DISTANCE (Laake et al. 1993) can be used to estimate densities.
Indirect Count: Presence and relative abundance of most of the small and large mammals can be undertaken using methods that rely on indirect evidence such as animal burrows/holes, dung, pellets, feeding signs, tracks etc. this would be done using transects and plots following Rodgers (1991). The passive track counts (Allen et al. 1996, Mohon et al. 1998, Edwards et al. 2000), scat counts (Henke and Knowlton 1995) can help in determining the abundance. The camera traps can be used to distinguish the species, its sex and also establish its presence in the area. Scats of Leopard, Sloth Bear, Hyena, Jackal, Wolf and other cats, evidences of digging by sloth bears, scarps of leopards recorded along paths, trails and roads with distance covered can also be used to estimate the relative abundance of these species. The rodents are sampled using Sherman traps.
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3.4 Water
If soil is the launch pad from which we attempt to regenerate degraded lands and stressed species, then water is the fuel that powers this process. Water permeates and nourishes the soil, is used by plants and animals, and it recharges aquifers and replenishes surface water bodies such as ponds and lakes. The living components of an ecosystem will not last long without sufficient water. The goal of watershed development has often been described as making water walk, not run. If we can slow down the movement of water (runoff) via structures such as check dams and contour trenches or via increased ground cover, then infiltration will likely increase. At the same time, slower moving runoff means less erosion. Less erosion and slower moving runoff together result in more vegetative growth that in turn slows water even more and increases infiltration and duration of soil moisture. Increased soil moisture allows for more vegetative growth and this positive feedback cycle supports an ecosystem as it progresses through the various stages of succession.
3.4.1 Drought Water scarcity is normally described as either meteorological drought - when rainfall for the area is below the average rainfall for that area, or agricultural drought - if the monthly requirement for agriculture is not met for several months. While meteorological drought cannot be avoided, agricultural drought is dependant on both the level of rainfall and agricultural practices. In a drought-prone area, growing sugar cane or rice or using excessive flood irrigation would leave one susceptible to agricultural drought.
3.4.2 Rainfall intensity and infiltration It is very important to understand these two processes. Rainfall intensity is the rate of rainfall (in millimeters) for a given period of time, such as one hour. Because rainfall can vary so much over the course of an hour, it is more useful to measure intensity of rainfall at intervals of 5 seconds or so (a rainfall gauge can do this). Infiltration refers to the passage of water through the soil surface and into the soil. The infiltration rate of the soil refers to the speed at which water can pass though the soil. Naturally, sandy soils would have a higher infiltration rate than less porous, clay soils.
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When rainfall intensity is lower than the infiltration capacity of a soil, all the falling rain not held as surface storage will infiltrate into the soil. In this case, there is a direct relationship between the rate of infiltration and the intensity of rainfall. If rainfall intensity exceeds the infiltration capacity, this relationship breaks down and may be replaced by an inverse relationship between infiltration and rainfall intensity. In other words, if the infiltration capacity of the soil is exceeded, runoff greatly increases.
The water component of this monitoring framework includes a range of water related parameters that can be monitored. These parameters are organized into: physical, chemical, biological, process related, and miscellaneous categories. Figure 3.6 provides a good general overview of the distribution of water resources in an ecosystem, including the key components that are required to be monitored during a water resources estimation study.
Figure 3.6 Distribution of water resources
3.4.3 FES and water related changes FES is concerned with determining the short and long-term impact of its activities on the overall water balance of a landscape. In order to do so, there has been ongoing, lithological and geo-hydrological mapping of various project areas and studies
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conducted to estimate ground water resources. The key drivers behind this kind of research have been the desire to: 1) Properly locate water recharge/harvesting structures in areas where the goals of the structures can best be met. Understanding of the geology and infiltration pathways with underground water flow and rates is necessary to do this. 2) Estimate total groundwater resources of an area. A major criticism of watershed-based development is that it largely ignores the supply and demand of groundwater. If use patterns are to be evaluated for sustainability, an estimate of the amount of available groundwater is required. 3) More accurately determine the impacts of both FES and local peoples activities on the overall water balance of the landscape. 4) Ultimately to provide assistance in forming water budgets or to otherwise provide local people with information to make better decisions about water use.
Figure 3.7 Rainfall and drought analysis chart
RAINFALL + DROUGHT ANALYSIS
Phase 1
DROUGHT PRONE AREA
DROUGHT & FLOOD PRONE AREA
FLOOD PRONE AREA
NEITHER FLOOD NOR DROUGHT
GROUND WATER RESOURCE ESTIMATION
OTHER ANALYSIS
Phase 2
CONDITION OF WATER LEVEL AVAILABLE STORAGE
+
DEMAND>SUPPLY Water Budgeting
WATER DEMAND
DEMAND-SUPPLY SCENARIO Phase 3

DEMAND<SUPPLY DEMAND=SUPPLY
SURFACE RUNOFF GEOLOGY EVAPORATION Make consciousness about usage of water
Monitoring the movement and amount of water in a system is very difficult. Currently, FES employs solid techniques for estimating water resources that are below ground, but does not yet have procedures in place to estimate surface water resources or monitor surface water movement. Understanding how both runoff and availability of
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water for use by local people is changing are important aspects that should be developed and pursued soon. Looking at issues of water quality may also be a potential area where FES will eventually focus more efforts when attempts are made to directly incorporate aspects of human health into a monitoring framework.
3.4.4 Connections to ecoservices Figure 3.8 provides a way of conceptualizing the connections of certain water related ecoservices and their relationship with the health of the ecosystem. To better understand these connections, read the sections below that describe each of the ecoservices.
3.4.4.1 Fresh Water (ecosystem provisioning service) Related to the function of purifying water, ecosystems provide fresh water. This water is valuable for consumption, as a basis for plant and animal growth, and as a source for energy (hydroelectric).
3.4.4.2 Water Regulation Too much water in the form of rainfall and runoff will cause erosion. Too little water will severely limit the plants that can grow in an area. A health ecosystem is able to regulate water, to minimize erosion and provide for infiltration that recharges groundwater all while supplying enough soil moisture for access by plants. de Groot el al (2002) lists water regulation as providing the following service: maintenance of natural irrigation and drainage, buffering of extremes in discharge of rivers, regulation of channel flow, and provision of a medium for transportation.
3.4.4.3 Water Purification Ecosystems naturally filter and clean water. An ecosystem that is degraded may not be able to clean water nearly as effectively as one that has been degraded. Imagine an intact forest or grassland and a clear, clean stream that runs through it. What you are seeing is the filtering effect of a combination of vegetative ground cover that can slow down water while soil biota helps to breakdown contaminants in the water. The result is slower moving water that flows more cleanly in streams. What you do not see is that the slower moving water infiltrates the soil and eventually increases the rate that aquifers are recharged. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005) lists
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depletion of fresh water as an ecoservice for which current demand already far outstrips supply.
Figure 3.8 Connection between water related ecoservices and ecosystem health
Ecosystem Health
Ecosystem Organization (Structure)
Ecosystem Vigor (Function)
Water Cycling (Support service) Water Purification (support service) Water Regulation (regulatory process) Fresh Water (provisioning service) 3.4.4.4 Water Cycling Water cycles through ecosystems in a process of precipitation, runoff, infiltration, evaporation and transpiration. Ecosystems that are not under too much stress will be able to cycle water in a balanced manner except for extreme weather events. Ecoservices
The table 3.6 below lists the entire range of water related parameters that FES may at one time or another monitor. These parameters are matched up with ecoservices that they may indicate.
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Table 3.6: Measurable water related parameters and their connections to relevant ecoservices.
Ecoservice
WATER
Fresh Water (Provisioning service)
Water Regulation (Regulating Services)
Water Purification (support service)
Water Cycling (Support service)
Laboratory Method
Field Method
Physical
Water color Well levels (pre/post monsoon) (depth to water) Eh, pH, TDS (total dissolved solids) Surface water (flow, volume, availability, duration, sediment levels) Number, type, location & pumping volume of wells (specific yield, storativity, trsnsmissivity)
X X X X X
X X
Yes Yes Yes X
Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Chemical
Nutrients Na, Fe, K, Ca, Mg, N, Sulfate, Carbonate, P Oxygen levels and use DO (Dissolved Oxygen), BOD (Biochemical Oxygen Demand), COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand) Levels of other identified chemical contaminants (Arsenic, Fluoride, etc)
X X X X X X X X
Yes Yes
Yes Yes Yes Yes X X X X X Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Biological
Water sensitive species (bryophytes, ferns, etc) Presence/ availability of fish, benthic macroinvertebrates Microbial composition (natural and from wells) (coliform)
Processes
Rainfall Evaporation rate Runoff Recharge rate (specific yield) Infiltration (see soil section)
Miscellaneous
% Flow into downstream tanks Availability of water for farming/livestock/drinking Extraction/recharge ratio Number of times water tanks overflow (in South)
X X X X
Yes Yes
3.4.5 Baseline Data Collection for water related parameters Of the above parameters, it was determined by consensus at the FES Biophysical and Ecological Monitoring workshop on March 14-16, 2007 that 5 parameters would be given priority for measurement. These 5 parameters are listed are listed in table 3.7.
These parameters were chosen because monitoring them would provide FES with the data required to conduct occasional scientific studies and to assist in the creation of a water budget if necessary. Also, by monitoring these parameters, local people,
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assisted by FES staff, would potentially be able to complete their own water resource estimation studies. Chemical and biological indicators of water quality were seen as important for routine monitoring but were not selected during the workshop.
Table 3.7 Water related parameters recommended for routine monitoring
Required for: Rainfall analysis, drought analysis, runoff estimation, water resource estimation, water budgeting 2. Evaporation rate Water resource estimation, water budgeting 3. Surface flow Surface runoff, Surface storage, water resource estimation, impact assessment, 4. Well levels Track fluctuation, recharge coefficient, impact assessment, understanding upstream/ downstream dynamics 5. Wells location, number, Extraction pattern and its extent, aquifer yield, water type, pumping volume, defunct resource estimation or re-charged 1. Rainfall
Parameters
3.4.6 Connections across indicators Monitoring water related indicators of ecosystem health requires breaking down complicated hydrological, lithographical and hydro geological cycles into
understandable terms. To do this and to attempt to show the relevant features of the FES monitoring program from the water point of view, figure 3.8 below was created. Aside from monitoring surface water and estimating runoff, the current monitoring program (highlighted in gray) includes a basis for which all of the other supply related parameters might be monitored. Determining water demand will require household surveys of users in a particular area. Because all ecological processes are linked through water, the figure below does not attempt to show the connections across indicators. Instead, it points out the data that will be collected and indicates the other components of the monitoring framework to show how they are all related.
Table 3.8 Quick overview of the range of water related indicators
WATER Parameter Physical Water color What and why to measure/ monitor Water color is a simple indicator of turbidity in water. If a stream has very clean water after rainfall, then erosion is less. To measure the variation of water table and piezometric surface of unconfined and confined aquifers
Well levels (pre/post monsoon)
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surface of unconfined and confined aquifers To measure water quality and provide indication of amount of erosion. To quantify total amount of water surface available, as well as changes in amount available and duration. To measure the extraction pattern.
Eh, pH, TDS (total dissolved solids) & temperature Surface water (flow, volume, availability, duration) Number, type, location & pumping volume of wells Chemical Nutrients Na, Fe, K, Ca, Mg, N, Sulfate, Carbonate, P Oxygen levels and use DO (Dissolved Oxygen), BOD (Biochemical Oxygen Demand), COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand) Levels of other identified chemical contaminants (Arsenic, Fluoride, etc) Biological Water sensitive species (bryophytes, ferns, etc) Presence/ availability of fish, benthic macroinvertebrates Microbial composition (natural and from wells) Processes Rainfall
To measure water quality in general. Also indicates erosion. To measure quality of aquatic habitat.
To measure water quality for consumption.
To indicate water availability certain species will only flourish in high-water conditions; habitat quality for desired species in restoration program; and water quality.
Evaporation rate
Runoff Recharge rate (specific yield)
Infiltration (see soil section) Miscellaneous % flow into downstream tanks Availability of water farming/livestock/drinking
To determine the total amount of water coming into a watershed (also must consider surface and subsurface flows, as well as transfers between aquifers). Needed for water balance calculation. To determine loss of water form the watershed. Needed for water balance calculation. Transpiration is difficult to measure and has purposefully been excluded. Changes in runoff can indicate changes in infiltration, water quality, and groundcover. Needed to determine appropriate use patterns for groundwater. Necessary to know to balance extraction with recharge. GSI and CGWB have norms for infiltration of different rocks. To measure infiltration and runoff. Can be used as simple indicator livestock keepers/herders can use to measure water availability (herd size and composition data required, To determine sustainability of water use patterns. Can serve as simple, rough indicator farmers can use to measure changes in runoff, if correlated with rainfall amount and intensity data, and if tank characteristics are taken into account (ex: infiltration within the tank).
for
Extraction/recharge ratio Number of times water tanks overflow (in South)
3.4.7 Indicators of Water Related Changes and Associated Methods The water section is organized differently than the others. Short-term changes in water availability have often been sited as proof of project success. FES recognizes that such success stories are often misleading due to limited data collection and a lack of assessment of the host of parameters that are required for estimating changes in the water balance of a watershed. With this in mind, the water section is organized to provide methods for monitoring baseline data that can be used to estimate ground water resources of an area.
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3.4.7.1 Rainfall Method 1. Secondary data research a. Determine where rainfall data is available. Possible sources include: Meteorological station, Central Groundwater Board (CGWB), the Tehsil/taluka office - which is collected through the district information centre. Data may be also available from the State Groundwater Board. b. Record the location where the data was collected. The distance of this location from the project area will help determine the relevance of the data. c. Collect available data. Data is usually in hard copy format. Daily rainfall for a minimum of 20 years should be collected (depending on availability). If less than 20 years of data are available, longer trends in rainfall intensity fluctuation may not be captured by the data. d. On the data sheet, record the number of rainy days per month. Once you have inputted this data, the average number of rainy days per month and the intensity of rainfall will be calculated automatically. You can then choose which types of charts would be most useful for the given data. If 50 years of data are available, you may want to organize the data by decades and then display. In most cases, data would be available for around 20-30 years. In this case, you can select the average amount of rain per month per year. e. Based on these two calculations, we can determine the daily and monthly intensity of rainfall for a particular year.
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Fig. 3.9 Water balance-parameters of supply and demand Total Water Balance
Water Supply
Water Demand
Rainfall Evaporation rate Well levels Well inventory Ground water estimation Surface water Estimation (Storage amount, flow, availability) Rainfall
Use for agriculture Use for livestock Use for consumption Storage (tanks, ponds, perennial rivers/ streams)
Transpiration (not studied)
Biomass (ground cover, trees, shrubs, grasses, herbs, roots) Biodiversity changes
(species composition, richness, abundance)
Evaporation
Runoff Surface water
Agriculture
changes (productivity, yield, crop intensity, water use, pests/ diseases, etc) Ponds/ tanks Crops Extraction
Water use patterns (demand side)
Streams
Infiltration
Base flow
Changes in Soil (moisture, porosity, fertility, porosity, etc) Bore well
Advantages Data should be available without having to spend resources collecting it.
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Disadvantages Quality of data may not be high. Rainfall varies significantly even with small changes in location. Rainfall amount and intensity (at the 5 second interval) is most useful for estimating erosion and runoff. Government rainfall data will not provide this kind of data.
Method 2. Calculation of rainfall data from digital rain gauges Having detailed data on rainy events in your area and correlating this with stream flow (also must be calculated) can be used to calculate runoff. Advantages: Relevant, potentially high quality data. Disadvantages Chances of data missing due to negligence, rainfall gauges may break.
3.4.7.2 Evaporation Method 1. Measuring the evaporation rate with a Pan Evaporimeter 1) Install the Pan Evaporimeter in any open place without shade. One can be used per mini-watershed. A safe place to install this device could be on the roof of a building. This would minimize the chances that it would be tampered with. Do not place the Pan Evapometer next to a large body of water. 2) Fill the Evaporimeter with water. Place the grill/screen on top of the pan. 3) If the Evaporimeter was placed in the field in the morning, then the first reading should be taken 12 hours later. Readings are simply the measure of the distance of the water from the top of the pan to the top of the water, according to the scale on the inside wall of the Pan Evaporimeter. The value recorded from this scale is a direct measurement of the evaporation occurring in the area. 4) After each reading, refill the water to the top of the pan. 5) Measurements should be recorded once in the morning and once in the evening with a 12-hour gap. The morning measurement will indicate the evaporation that occurred at night. The evening measurement will indicate the evaporation that occurred during the day.
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3.4.7.3 Well inventory Method(s) for conducting a well inventory

A) Number, Location and Type of wells (includes horse power of pump) B) Calculating of the Pumping Volume of the Well (and Recharge Rate of Aquifer)
1) Well selection criteria: a. Select a well with a good pump (reliable) with high BHP (Break Horse Power) b. Select a time when electricity will not be cut for 4-5 hours. c. 8 hours are required for the test. d. The well cannot be used for 2-3 days before testing. 2) One person lowers the tape to the water level; the other person should stand on the opposite side of the well (Automatic water level indicator is also available). 3) Record the level of the water before turning on the pump. 4) Pump for a minimum of 3 hours, taking measurements at intervals according to the data sheet. 5) After 3 hours switch off the pump and measure water at the intervals on the data sheet for 3 to 4 hours. Note: At one-hour intervals during the testing, if possible, the surrounding wells can also be measured to find out the connection of the aquifers. This provides some data on the interconnections of the wells through the aquifer.
Yield rate of water pump It is important to measure the amount of water pumped out from the well to aid in the calculation of the recharge rate. As you are pumping water out, water is continuously being recharged so you must know how much water you have extracted from the well during the test.
To measure this amount, place the hose in a 150-liter drum. Begin pumping and calculate the amount of time required to fill up the bucket. Empty the drum and repeat 4 to 5 times and take the average to determine the rate water is being pumped out of the well. Storage capacity of the well can be calculated using the data collected from this method. With knowledge of the geology of the area, we can also crosscheck to see if the recharge rate calculated via this method is accurate (i.e., if it falls within the range expected based on the percolation rate of the rock present).
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Method(s) for measuring well levels Method 1. Rock and measuring tape method 1) Selection of open wells (kuan): Identify those wells that are not being used very much - perhaps only for drinking water. To identify the wells, make a grid map of the area and identify a single well in each grid that matches this criterion of less use. Use the toposheet for the area to get an idea of how many wells are there. The scale of the grid map would depend on the size of the area. *Tehsil/taluka office provides the total number of wells for the area. At a mini-watershed scale, the grid size could be equal to one minute. This is the scale used in the mini-watershed of the Papagni basin. If work is being conducted in a smaller watershed (a microwatershed), a 30 second interval might be used for creation of the grid. 2) At each well, record the longitude, latitude and altitude of the location using a GPS device. 3) Measure the soil depth in the actual well 4) A. Well Water level - tie a rock to the measuring tape again, stand on one side of the well and lower the tape to the water surface. A second person should go to the other side of the well to verify that the tape is touching the water. It helps to have the perspective of this second person to verify. Record the depth.
B. Depth of Bore wells. A Water Level Indicator is required for this method. 1) Remove the cover from the pipe. 2) Lower the tape down the well until the tape reaches the surface of the water. The Water Level Indicator will indicate when it reaches the surface (via a light, noise, etc). 3) Record this depth. Retract the Water Level Indicator. 4) Replace the cap on the pipe.
Advantages The Grid method for selection of wells to measure works well when the wells are not densely located. It also works well when there are few aquifers.
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Method 2. Well Level Indicator Method (using handheld device) Direct Indicator: 1) Change in siltation behind SWC structures 2) Change in amount of erosion from gullies 3) Change of Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) in runoff (turbidity)
Indirect Indicators: 4) Change in amount of runoff 5) Change in organic material present (leaf litter) 6) Change in texture, type/class, and porosity of soil
3.4.7.4 Turbidity The turbidity of a body of water is related to the cleanliness of the water. Waters with low concentrations of total suspended solids (TSS) are clearer and less turbid than those with high TSS concentrations. Turbidity can be caused by high concentrations of biota such as phytoplankton, or by loading of abiotic matter such as sediments. Turbidity is important in aquatic systems as it can alter light intensities through the water column, thus potentially affecting rates of photosynthesis and the distribution of organisms within the water column. Lowered rates of photosynthesis may in turn affect the levels of dissolved oxygen available in a given body of water, thus affecting larger populations such as fish. High turbidity can also cause infilling of lakes and ponds if the suspended sediments settle out of the water column and are deposited.
Method for measuring turbidity Turbidity can be measured using several methods. The easiest and least expensive method is through the employment of a Secchi disk. A Secchi disk is an 8-inch diameter disk with alternating black and white quadrants that is lowered into the water column until it can no longer be seen from the surface. The point at which the disk disappears is a function of the lake turbidity. A turbidity tube, or T-tube, can be used as an alternative to lowering a Secchi disk through the water column. The Ttube is a plastic tube with a small-scale Secchi disk pattern at its base. Water samples can be poured into the tube and the clarity of the bottom disk can be used to reveal turbidity.
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Turbidity can also be measured using higher tech instruments that measure the scattering effect suspended particles have on light. Chlorophyll concentrations can also be quantified using a fluorometer to determine turbidity contributions from photosynthetic organisms.
Secchi Disk Method Secchi disks may be purchased by science equipment suppliers, but they can also be hand-made. Below is a set of instructions on how to make a Secchi disk, how to use it, and a list of considerations when analyzing data.
Making A Secchi Disk: Materials: A 20cm-diameter, 6mm-thick Plexiglas disk with a hole in the middle (this may be cut from a square sheet of Plexiglas) Metal disk with a hole in the middle (to weigh down Secchi disk) An eyebolt with nuts and washers to fit it Rope or cord- try to avoid cotton, as it stretches Waterproof black and white paint Assembly: Divide the Plexiglas disk into equal quadrants and paint the quadrants alternating black and white. Using masking tape as a guide often helps maintain sharp edges to each quadrant. Let the paint dry fully. Attach the metal disk to the unpainted side of the Plexiglass disk using the eyebolt, nuts, and washers. Tie the cord securely to the eyebolt. You may want to mark the cord with a permanent marker in 0.5 or 1 m increments to make measurements easier to read. Secchi Disk Protocol: Slowly lower the Secchi disk into the water on the shady side of the boat until it is no longer visible. Record this depth. Slowly raise the disk until it just becomes visible once again. Record this depth. Average the depths from steps 1 and 2 to get the Secchi depth.
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This may be repeated for a measurement of precision.
Considerations:
Several
considerations
are
involved
with
Secchi
disk
measurements. The quality of Secchi depth data is user-dependent; that is, it varies from person to person as a function of vision. The depth of visibility for the Secchi disk is dependent on external factors such as sun light intensity and waves. Hence, measurements should be taken at the same general time between 10am and 4pm, in the shade, and in calm waters. Repeated measurements can aid in resolving precision. In addition, repeated measurements by multiple observers can aid in determining the relative accuracy of the measurement.
Results Analysis In general, lower turbidity is associated with cleaner, healthier water. Turbidity measurements can vary across different types of environments, so they are especially useful when comparing similar environments or the same water body through time. Turbidity is a result of sediment load and biomass in a given environment, so while it is generally true that clearer lakes are cleaner, this is not always the case. For example, a glacial stream may have a large suspended sediment load resulting in high turbidity, even if it is clean. However, due to decreased light penetration a highly turbid lake may be relatively unproductive with respect to phytoplankton, since they need light to live. So, when interpreting Secchi disk results, one must consider other aspects such as possible sediment or pollution sources, nutrient loading, etc.
3.4.7.5 Tank overflow Method 1. Tank owner survey Question tank owners. Record yearly data.
3.4.7.6 Water availability and use Method 1: Household Survey with questionnaire Ask questions to determine uses for drinking, livestock, farming (irrigations) Method 2: Demand Indicators 1) Water pumping volume (indicated in well inventory) 2) Availability and use of water for farming, livestock, drinking (household survey)
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3.5 Soil
Soil is made up of finely ground rock particles, water and air. The particles are grouped according to size as sand, silt and clay. The size of the particles determines the physical properties of the soil. For example, sandy soils would have increased aeration, porosity and infiltration rates, while soils with more clay particles, which are smaller, would have much reduced measures for these factors. Classifying soil types (sandy, clay, silt-loam, etc) is fairly common and not too complicated. But you should be aware that there is an entire taxonomic classification system for soils (soil classes) that involves grouping soils based on various properties. The World Reference Base for Soil Resources is one such international classification system that groups soil into 98 groups.
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A framework for Biophysical and Ecological Monitoring Figure 3.10 The relationships among soil parameters and other aspects of ecosystem health
phytomass
soil fertility % organic carbon
siltation behind SWC structures
Ground cover root growth canopy cover
porosity of soil duration of soil moisture Soil texture
rate of erosion
runoff permeability soil moisture holding capacity
bulk density
infiltration rate
earthworm activity 73 Surface water availability
Ground water recharge (aquifers and base flow)
3.5.1 General sampling methodology To compare subsequent changes to a baseline, it is important to return to the same locations to collect additional samples. Comparison against a baseline (called the before-after method), tells us about changes in the system that have occurred over time. To determine the causality of impact (i.e. are our interventions causing the changes we see?), we would need to have concurrent measurements from control plots that are set up outside the project area. Box 3.1 Methodology 1. Before-after: to measure changes that have occurred.
(Take baseline information before the start of the project and compare it with the information from after the project studies)-Needs continuous monitoring throughout the project.
2. With-without: to measure causality of changes. parameters that The table below lists the entire range of soil related
(Take control plots outside the intervention area and compare it with the changes inside the intervened area)-One time study.
The table below lists the entire range of soil related parameters that FES may at one time or another monitor. These parameters are matched up with ecoservices that they may indicate.
Table 3.9 Soil related parameters and their connections to ecoservices.

Ecoservice
Physical Texture Color Soil moisture Depth Water holding capacity Permeability Porosity Bulk density Chemical Fertility (available NPK) EC pH Organic C%
Soil Formation (support service)

X X X
Erosion Regulation (regulating services)

X
Nutrient Cycling (support service)

X X X
Laboratory Method
Yes Yes Yes
Field Method
Yes Yes Yes Yes
X X X X X X X X X X
Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
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A framework for Biophysical and Ecological Monitoring Micronutrients (Mg, Na, Ca, etc) Biological Microbes Micorrhiza) Ground insects Process Erosion (in gullies) Infiltration rate Siltation behind SWC structures (erosion) Duration of soil moisture availability X Yes
X X X X X X X
X X X X X
Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
3.5.2 Baseline Data Collection for Soil Related Parameters Of the above parameters, it was determined by consensus at the FES Biophysical and Ecological Monitoring workshop on March 14-16, 2007 that 12 parameters would be given priority for measurement. These 12 parameters are listed in table 3.10 below. The selected parameters were chosen because they best indicate important changes that usually occur due to FES activities. Some parameters, especially in the Biological category, were identified as very important but out of the realm of current FES objectives or capabilities.
Table 3.10 Soil related parameters recommended for routine monitoring Select parameters to measure 1. Texture 2. Soil moisture 3. Depth 4. Water holding capacity 5. Porosity 6. Bulk density 7. Infiltration rate 8. Fertility (NPK) 9. EC 10. pH 11. Organic C% 12. Siltation behind SWC structures (erosion) Required for: Studies of physical changes in the soil.
Soil fertility analysis
Erosion studies
Table 3.11 offers a quick overview of the range of soil related indicators included in the framework, along with short definitions and explanations regarding why such parameters should be monitored.
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Table 3.11 Soil related parameters: definitions and reasons for monitoring. Parameter Physical Texture Color Soil moisture Depth
Texture provides clues into the infiltration rate, porosity, permeability, water holding capacity of the soil. Soil structure (arrangement of soil aggregates and pore spaces) influences erosion, water movement , storage, and root penetration. Indicates mineral composition and some other properties of the soil. Directly measures the moisture available in the soil. Soil moisture is crucial for grasses and herbs that do not have deep roots. Moisture in the soil is required for nutrient uptake by plants. A long-term indicator of erosion and soil formation. Soil depth influences the species composition of an area.
What and why to measure/monitor
Water holding Indicates the capacity of a particular soil to hold water. It is important to measure this parameter as it directly tells how the soil is improving in structure and composition. capacity Permeability Porosity Bulk density Chemical Fertility (available NPK)
Knowledge of soil nutrient status helps to plan which species can be planted. It also indicates degree of degradation and helps determine how long phytomass regeneration will take. Soil electrical conductivity (EC) is a measure of how well the soil conducts an electrical charge. An EC value gives insight into the soil texture and ratio of sand-siltclay. Heavy clay soils with high moisture holding capacity are highly conductive. Coarse sands with limited practical contact are very poor conductors. Thus measuring soil EC can tell you about the texture, moisture holding capacity and moisture availability. pH is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of the soil. The pH of a soil affects nutrient availability. Salinity, toxicity and extremes in soil pH (acid or alkaline) result in poor biomass production and, thus in reduced additions of organic matter to the soil Organic carbon is closely correlated with overall soil fertility. Increase organic C = increased soil fertility. Permeability is the property of the soil pore system that allows fluid to flow. Permeability is dependant on sizes of pores and their connectivity. Measuring permeability thus gives insight into porosity and infiltration. Porosity is the volume of all the open spaces in the soil. Increased porosity = increased infiltration. Decreased porosity = increased runoff. Bulk density is the mass per unit volume. Its measurement provides insight into soil compaction, aeration and porosity.
EC
PH Organic C%
Micronutrients Micronutrient levels are important because they can serve as limiting factors in plant (Mg, Na, Ca, growth. In the presence of N, P, K, and S, plants may still not grow effectively unless important micronutrients are present and available. etc) Biological
Microbes play a key role in breaking down dead, organic material and releasing nutrients back into the system. One extremely important role of soil microbes is capturing of nitrogen from the air and making it available to plants and animals (nitrogen fixation). Because of the varying function of microbes and the sensitivity required in data collection, transportation, and analysis, this parameter is difficult and can be expensive to incorporate into a monitoring plan. The presence, abundance, diversity or distribution of certain insects that dwell or make their homes in or on the soil can provide insight into soil health. The soil provides habitat for such insects and they play a crucial role in enabling plant growth 76
Microbes
Ground insects
A framework for Biophysical and Ecological Monitoring through pollination and by burying seeds. Certain insects (such as the preying mantis) prey on other insects, making them good indicators of ecoservices like natural pest regulation.
Process Erosion gullies) (in Indicates loss of soil/ checking of soil erosion in areas that are particularly sensitive
to erosion. The infiltration rate of the soil affects the amount of runoff what will be absorbed, thus influencing erosion. Infiltration is related to soil texture. Soils high in sand have a high rate of infiltration. Soils high in silt and clay have a lower infiltration rate. This indicates how much water is available in the upper layer of the soil (availability of water and moisture in the root zone for grasses and crops)
Infiltration rate
Siltation behind SWC structures Indicates amount of erosion occurring upstream. (erosion) Duration of soil Important indicator for farmers determines what rainfed crops can be grown, if any. moisture availability 3.5.3 FES and soil related changes Restoration of degraded lands requires careful attention to the health of the soil. We can think about soil having physical, chemical and biological properties. The FES monitoring framework incorporates indicators to measure a set of such properties. In addition to these properties, measuring changes in the soil requires looking at a few key soil related processes. For the framework, we selected erosion, siltation, and infiltration rate of the soil.
FES often works in areas that have moderate to severe soil degradation. Such degradation is the logical result of removal of vegetation in an area. With little or no vegetation, the soil is left unprotected and subject to rapid erosion by agents such as wind, water and gravity. Erosion is a natural phenomenon. It helps to bring nutrients that are freed from rocks through weathering, down to areas of lower elevation, such as valleys. But human activities often tend to accelerate the process and the result is soils that do not support nearly as much life as they had previously.
3.5.4 Monitoring Soil related changes Practically speaking, there are some very simple changes we would like to see in the soil where we work. We would like to see increases in soil fertility, depth (this takes a very long time actually), water holding capacity, porosity, duration of moisture availability in the soil, accumulation of leaf litter, insect populations and microbial
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health. Some factors we would like to see stabilize within a normal range, such as soil pH, electrical conductivity, and the rate of infiltration of water. While in other soil related indicators such as erosion and siltation behind SWC structures, we would be happy to see reductions over time. Soil classes vary from location to location, so it is difficult to make strong statements about what changes we would like to see in factors such as soil texture, color, porosity or infiltration rate, until we do our baseline soil survey.
3.5.5 Soil sampling and processing Soil sampling is perhaps the most vital step for any analysis. As a very small fraction of the huge soil mass is used for analysis, it becomes extremely important to get a truly representative soil sample of the field. For collecting a representative soil sample, due consideration must be given to the following: 1. The sample must truly represent the field it belongs to. 2. A field can be treated as a single sampling unit if it is appreciably uniform. Generally an area not exceeding 0.5 ha is taken as one sampling unit. 3. Variations in slope, colour, texture, crop growth and management practices are the important factors that should be taken into account for sampling. Separate samples are required from areas differing in these characteristics. 4. Sampling from recently fertilized plots, bunds, channels, marshy tracts, and areas near trees, wells, compost piles or other non-representative locations must be carefully avoided. 5. An area of about 2-3 meters along sides of the field should not be sampled in large fields. 6.Larger areas may be divided into appropriate number of smaller homogenous units for better representation.
3.5.5.1 Laying the plots In each site, choose 5-6 plots within and corresponding paired plots outside. The control sites could be sites without intervention or those with fewer years of intervention than the impact sites, having similar site conditions (e.g. both could be mid-slopes or ridges). It is essential that the sites chosen represent the diversity in the landscape.
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The center point of the plot would be the center point of the middle circle. The other three circular sub-plots are at 120 degrees from each other, with their center points at a distance of 12.5 meters from the center point. The radius of the smaller plot is 5.64 m. Thus, the total area covered by the larger circular plot is around 0.1 ha.
3.5.5.2 Depth of sampling The penetration by plant roots is an important consideration in deciding the depth of sampling. Therefore, following factors may be kept in mind: 1. For cereals, vegetables and other seasonal crops the samples should be drawn from 0-15 cm i.e. plough layer. 2. For deep-rooted crops or longer duration crops like sugarcane, or under dry farming conditions, obtain samples from different depths depending on individual requirement. 3. For plantation crops or fruit trees, prepare composite sample from soil collected at depths of 0-30, 30-60 and 60-100 cm from 4 to 5 pits dug in about 0.5 ha field at the time of planting. 4. For saline-alkali soils, salt crust if visible on the soil surface, or suspected, should be sampled separately and record the depth of sampling. Generally, the sample may be drawn up to 15 cm depth from surface for testing of salinity and alkalinity/acidity. 5. In case composite samples are drawn below 15 cm as for certain flowering plants like roses, the depth from which soil samples have been drawn should be indicated.
3.5.5.3 Soil sampling procedure 1. For making composite sample, collect small portions of soil upto the desired depth (0-15 cm or more) by means of suitable sampling tools from 15 to 20 well distributed spots, moving in a zig-zag manner from each individual sampling site after scrapping off the surface litter, if any, without removing soil. 2. From fields having standing crops in rows, draw samples in between the rows. 3. Mix the soil collected from various spots covering the entire area thoroughly by hand on a clean piece of cloth or polythene sheet. 4. Reduce bulk to about 500 g by quartering process in which the entire soil mass is spread, divided into four quarters, two opposite ones are discarded and the
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remaining two are remixed. Repeat this process until about 500 g soil is left.
3.5.5.4 Sampling tools Samples can be drawn with the help of (i) soil tube (tube auger), (ii) screw type auger, (Hi) post-hole auger, (iv) kassi or phawda (spade) and (v) khurpi
For sampling of soft and moist soil, a tube auger, spade or khurpi is satisfactory. A screw type auger is more convenient on hard or dry soil while the post hole auger is useful for sampling excessively wet area like rice fields. If a spade or khurpi is used, a "v" shaped cut may be first made up to the plough layer and a uniformly 2 cm thick slice is taken out from one clean side. Tube auger attached to a long extension rod is convenient for sampling from lower depths.
3.5.5.5 Precautions in collection and storage of samples Special care in collection and handling the soil samples is required for preventing contamination. Following precautions should be taken to minimize error. 1. Avoid contact of the sample with chemicals, fertilizers or manures. Use stainless steel augers instead of rusted iron khurpi or kassi for sampling for micronutrient analysis. 2. Do not use bags or boxes previously used for storing fertilizers, salt or any chemical. 3. Store soil samples preferably in clean cloth or polythene bags. Use glass, porcelain or polythene jar for long duration storage.
3.5.5.6 Labeling of samples Label samples for identification. A label of thick paper with identification mark and other details should be put inside the sample bag and another label carrying same details tied/pasted outside the bag. In case the soil sample is wet, the label should be written with lead pencil or a permanent ink marker.
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3.5.6 Processing of soil samples for analysis 1. Air-dry the soil samples in shade. 2. Crush the soil clods lightly and grind with the help of wooden pestle and mortar. 3. Pass the entire quantity through 2 mm stainless steel sieve. 4. Discard the plant residues, gravels and other material retained on the sieve. 5. If the gravel content is substantial, record as percent of the sample (w /w). 6. For certain types of analysis (e.g. organic carbon), grind the soil further so as to pass it through 0.2 to 0.5 mm sieves. 7. Remix the entire quantity of sieved soil thoroughly before analysis.
3.5.7 How to analyse the soil samples At present there is no laboratory facility in the organisation. Therefore help from nearby soil testing laboratories will be taken for the analysis. However, if a decision is taken to establish a laboratory for the soil monitoring for the foundation, following methods are being enlisted and explained, which will guide the researchers in FES in coming years.
3.5.8 Soil Testing Methods 3.5.8.1 Field method for measuring soil infiltration rate Infiltration rate of soil is measured using infiltrometer (Figure 3.11). It should be done at the central site of the each plot. Normally this is a time taking measurement. At the initial phase of experiment water level falls very rapidly. Later this rate slows down. After a certain time soil becomes saturated and rate of lowering water level becomes negligible. If we draw a curve plotting time along X axis and water depth along Y-axis it will give an asymptotic curve (Figure 3.11). Different types of soil give different type of curves. Analyzing the curve final infiltration rate of soil for a particular terrain is calculated.
The infiltrometer test clearly indicated the difference between Controlled and Impact Plot. The initial readings indicated infiltration rate being 0.3 mm/min. That means when the rain intensity is 10 mm/min, the runoff is equivalent to 9.7 mm/min rainfall. The infiltration rate in the corresponding impact plot was 1.8 mm/min and hence less runoff relatively.
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Fig. 3.11 Soil infiltrometer Figure 3.1c Soil infiltrometer
Soil infiltrometer method 1) Divide plot topographically into three areas: hilly, plain and valley for both the protected and unprotected plots. If the topography is plain, then 5 random locations should be selected within the protected area and 5 outside the protected area. Leave the area as it is - do not remove grass or debris from the surface before using the infiltrometer. 2) Hammer the infiltrometer into the ground to a depth of 3 to 5 cm. 3) Place the iron ruler against the wall inside the drum (infiltrometer). The ruler should be level with the ground. 4) Pour water up to a fixed level (can be 30cm, 40cm, etc). As soon as the water is poured into the infiltrometer, begin recording with the clock. The intervals that readings are taken depend on the texture of the soil. If the soil is very sandy, intervals should be short (for example: 3 to 5 minutes). If the soil is less sandy and infiltration is poor, then intervals can be increased up to 10 minutes. Regardless of the interval, recordings should be taken until the soil is saturated.
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3.5.8.2 Gully erosion Method 1. Erosion Pin method This widely used method consists of driving a pin into the soil so that the top of the pin gives a datum from which changes in the soil surface level can be measured. Alternatively called pegs, spikes, stakes or rods, the pins can be of wood, iron or any material, which will not rot, or decay and is readily and cheaply available. Off-cut lengths of round iron bars for reinforced concrete can usually be picked up at little or no cost from construction sites. In some developing countries, iron or steel pins or nails might be stolen, in which case bamboo or reed canes cut locally might be more suitable
The pin should be a length which can be pushed or driven into the soil to give a firm stable datum: 300 mm is typical, less for a shallow soil, more for a loose soil. A small diameter of about 5 mm is preferable, as thicker stakes could interfere with the surface flow and cause scour. A rectangular or square grid layout will give a random distribution of points with spacing appropriate to the area being studied.
Installation (Pre-monsoon) 1) Select a gully to monitor. 2) Record the GPS coordinates of the location where the line along which the pins will be placed. 3) Measure the distance of the gully from one side to the other. This distance should include all of the area within the gully itself, as well as a reasonable length of land on either side of the gully where erosion might occur in the future. 4) Decide how many metal pins will be used and what the spacing between them will be. For a 50-meter length, 8 to 10 pins might be used. 5) In a straight line across the gully, hammer the pins into the ground at locations that are evenly spaced from each other. In the above example, this would mean every 5 meters or so. If the gully is small (4 meters across for example), then pins should be used perhaps every 500 cm or so. 6) Ensure that the pins are hammered into the ground all the way, so that the tops of the pins are level with the ground. 7) Take several photos of the test site from different angles (above, below, from the side) so that the line where the pins have been placed is clearly identifiable.
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Post monsoon 1) Print out one form for each gully that you will measure. (Use form SO-PRO-DSgully_erosion). This form will be used for as many years as gully monitoring occurs. One form is required per gully. 1) Return to the gullies where you have placed the pins. Use the GPS coordinates and photos to help identify the locations. 2) For each gully, measure the length of the pin that is now above ground - this indicates erosion has occurred. Record this data. 3) Make a small drawing of a cross-section of the gully, including the location and number of pins. Give each pin a number (1, 2, 3, etc). 4) Take an additional set of photos for identification of the area. *Be sure to place these photos in a clearly named folder that lists the gully name, location, and date) ex. Anand_gully2_may08. 5) At the office, enter all of this data into the same form that was used to record the initial baseline data. - (SO-PRO-DS-gully_erosion) for comparison against baseline data and data from previous years. Repeat this measurement before and after each monsoon.
Method 2. Erosion Pin method from FAO manual: Gullies and stream banks When the progress of gully erosion is being studied, measurements are needed both of the horizontal spread of the gully and vertical changes within the gully.
To measure the surface area, and changes from cutting back or bank collapse, a rectangular grid of erosion pins is set out at an appropriate grid interval of perhaps 2 or 5 m. From measurements along the grid lines from the nearest pin to the gully edge, the surface area can be plotted on squared paper. The grid lines also serve as the transects for cross-sections across the gully. A string is stretched at ground level along a grid line with markers at fixed intervals of, say, 1 m. At each marker the depth is measured from the gully floor using a survey staff or a ranging rod, and the section can be plotted. The volume of soil lost from the gully is calculated and subsequent measurements will quantify the changes.
The bed of a gully may at any one point have cycles of cutting down at some times and deposition at others, for example when a large bank collapse puts a large
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quantity of soil into the flow. The use of erosion pins with washers may provide information on such changes of level.
Measuring change of surface level. Another method of assessing the cutting back of streambeds or gully sides is to drive in horizontal small-diameter metal rods. An increase in the length of rod exposed shows how much the bank has retreated, and the measurement can be simplified by spray-painting collars round the exposed rods. However this technique should not be used if placing the rods will affect the soil's resistance to erosion. In gravel soils, driving the rods can loosen, and increase their erodibility, or in alluvial soils with low tensile strength, the rods can act as a tension reinforcement and reduce slumping, toppling, or cantilever failure (Thorne, 1981).
Changes in a gully may be interpreted from the use of sequences of photographs. The position of the camera and the direction of the photograph must be carefully recorded. For studies of the long-term development of gullies, aerial photography can be a useful tool.
3.5.8.3 Soil color Soil colour is the most obvious soil property and gives an immediate indication of the condition of the soil system. Spatial variation in soil colour through the soil profile distinguishes different soil horizons and provides an indirect measure of important soil characteristics including drainage, aeration, organic matter content and fertility.
In some regions, particularly those with young soils, the colour of the soil may represent the mineral parent material. However, in general, soil colour is controlled by soil forming processes. Organic matter is brown/black and is found predominantly in the A-horizon of the soil profile.
Iron compounds, in various states of oxidation and reduction (hydration) are major colouring agents of subsoil horizons. The colour of soil containing iron oxides varies from red and rust brown to yellow depending on the degree of hydration. Reduced iron normally displays a green-blue tinge. Soils in anaerobic conditions, such as those in poorly drained depressions, will normally have dull, grey B-horizons.
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Alternatively, aerobic soils on well-drained and aerated slopes have bright reddishbrownish colours.
Procedure Sample preparation Add a little water to some soil to make a paste and smear a small amount on to a piece of paper. Find a page of the Munsell chart that seems a close match to the soil sample's colour. Hold the soil sample behind the page of chips selected, so that the soil can be compared to the coloured chips through the holes punched in the page. Take care not to get soil onto the coloured chips. Identify the chip that is the best colour match to the soil sample, referring to other pages of the chart if necessary. Identify the position of this chip in the table on the left-hand page facing the page of coloured chips. Record the identity of the soil sample and the hue, value, chroma and descriptive term of the relevant chip.
Soil colour is described by comparing the soil in its field condition to a series of coloured chips in a booklet called a Munsell soil colour chart. Each chip is described uniquely by its position on three simple axes of colour - hue, value and chroma - and by a descriptive term that may be applied to a range of chips. An example of a full soil colour description is 7.5YR 4/2 dark brown, where 7.5 YR is the HUE and applies to all the chips on one page. 4/ is the value and applies to values in one row of the page. /2 is the chroma and applies to values in one column of the page. Dark brown is the descriptive term. Table 3.12: Soil colour and their indications
Condition Organic matter Erosion factor Aeration Available Nitrogen Fertility Dark (dark grey, brown to black) High Low High High High Moderately Dark (brown to yellow brown) Medium Medium Medium Medium Medium Light (pale brown to yellow) Low High Low Low Low
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Fig. 3.12 Soil colour and its indication
Table 3.13: Soil colour and their drainage indications

Condition Water-logged soils, poor aeration Well drained soils Poorly drained soils Subsurface soil colour Dull grey (if in low rainfall soils 0-20 in) Yellow, red-brown, black (if in forest soils) Mottled grey (if in humid soils)
3.5.8.4 Soil moisture Method 1. Hand feel and appearance This method requires field experience in estimating soil moisture. A handful of soil is needed as instructed in Table 3.15 for each soil texture for each 1-foot soil-depth increment through the active root zone. The total amount depleted from all depths represents the amount of water that has been used by the crop. This method requires a hand soil probe to extract soil samples from each depth. It also requires some training and practice. A disadvantage of this method is that it might be less accurate than other methods. Soil texture plays an important role in this method,
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where the formation of soil shape, moisture traces left on the hand, and the consistency of the soil are significantly different among soil textures (Table 3.14). Knowing your soil texture and matching it with the soil textures can easily enable you to have a very good general idea about your soil moisture status. The values in Table 3.14 represent the readily available soil moisture (inch/1-foot soil depth) in the soil that the plant can use; the numbers in parentheses represent the moisture that has been already used by the plant of the total available soil moisture.
Table 3.14. Moisture availability for crops according to soil texture.

Soil Moisture Available Medium (Coarse) Texture Medium (Fine) Texture Fine and Very Fine Texture
Upon squeezing, no free Upon squeezing, no free Upon squeezing, no free 100 percent soil moisture water appears on soil but wet water appears on soil but wet water appears on soil but wet outline of ball is left on hand outline of ball is left on hand outline of ball is left on hand 1.8 inch/ft 2.2 inch/ft 2.0 inch/ft 75 percent available soil Forms a ball, is pliable, sticks Easily ribbons out between Forms a ball, is pliable readily fingers, slick moisture remaining 1.35 inch/ft (0.5 inch/ft) 50 percent available soil moisture remaining Forms a ball, somewhat plastic 0.9 inch/ft (0.9 inch/ft) 1.65 in./ft (0.55 inch/ft) 1.50 inch/ft (0.5 inch/ft) Forms a ball, somewhat Forms a ball, ribbons out plastic, will stick slightly with between thumb and pressure forefinger 1.1 inch/ft (1.1 inch/ft) 1 inch/ft (1 inch/ft)
Table 3.15: Determining Soil Water Content by Feel & Appearance
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Method 2. Determining soil moisture with Gypsum blocks. A second method that is used with better accuracy than the previous (feel by hand) method is gypsum blocks, sometimes called electric resistance blocks or moisture blocks. These blocks can be placed at several depths within the root zone. The blocks are installed permanently for one season and can be read with an electrical resistance meter, which can be used to determine the amount of water available at each depth. The photo shows a water marker and reading meter, which is another kind of gypsum block.
To install the gypsum blocks, follow the manufacturer's recommendation. Generally, blocks should be soaked for at least 24 hours, dried, and wetted again just before installation to eliminate trapped air. Use a soil probe or auger for installing the blocks. Place the hole in the row and angle it toward the furrow. Place the shallow blocks at the edge of the furrow and put the deeper blocks under the center of the furrow. Installation of blocks is much easier with a small soil probe or auger. Insert the block in the hole by running the lead wire through the probe tip and by holding the block firmly against the probe tip with the wire. Make slurry by mixing a small amount of soil and water and pour the slurry into the hole. Insert the block into the hole and press firmly to make sure the block makes good contact with soil at the bottom. Fill the hole 3 to 4 inches at a time, tamping the soil in the hole with a rod to make certain no voids are left so surface water does not move down to the block. Stake the wire leads at the surface of the ground and identify each lead according to depth by color, knot, or flag. Installation must be done as soon as possible after the rows are marked by crop emergence to minimize root and crop damage. The number of blocks per station depends on the depth of the active root zone, which differs from one crop to another. As a rule of thumb, use one block per 1 foot of soil depth within the root zone.
Generally, there should be at least four stations or locations for a set of blocks in each field. If the blocks are installed in a sloped field, stations should be located at the top, middle, and bottom of the field. Each station should be far enough from the top or bottom of the field, and generally 100-150 feet from either end of the field. Blocks should be located in representative areas of the field. Avoid low or high areas
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and changes in slopes. Choose a uniform plant population area. Try to keep the area around the blocks from compacting by approaching the station two to three rows away when taking moisture readings. You must know your soil type and soil water holding capacity to make full use of the data you get from the gypsum blocks. Therefore, gypsum block readings will reflect the available soil moisture of a certain soil texture or soil type. The advantages of using the gypsum block method to determine soil moisture are no soil sample is required, more frequent readings for the same field and the same location can be taken, and it saves time. Also, gypsum blocks enable you to check your soil moisture during the growing season and know the depth of soil that has been recharged from rainfall. However, accuracy is limited under saline and dry conditions. Accuracy requires gypsum blocks to have good contact with the soil.
There are other methods that can be used for soil moisture evaluation. However, these methods are used in research and require training and are expensive. Monitoring soil moisture early in the season or during the growing season is important because soil moisture is one of most limiting factors in crop production. Alternative practices and field management then can be implemented to minimize risk.
3.5.8.5 Soil permeability Measurement of soil permeability in the laboratory When you take an undisturbed sample to a testing laboratory, to measure permeability, a column of soil is placed under specific conditions such as water saturation and constant head of water. The result will be given to you either as a permeability rate (see Table 3.16), or as a coefficient of permeability (see Table 3.17).
TABLE 3.16 Soil permeability classes for agriculture and conservation Soil permeability classes Very slow Slow Moderately slow Moderate Moderately rapid Rapid Very rapid Permeability rates1 cm/hour Less than 0.13 0.13 - 0.3 0.3 - 2.0 2.0 - 6.3 6.3 - 12.7 12.7 - 25 More than 25 90 cm/day Less than 3 3 - 12 12 - 48 48 - 151 151 - 305 305 - 600 More than 600
TABLE 3.17 Soil permeability classes for civil engineering Soil permeability classes Permeable Semi-permeable Impermeable Coefficient of permeability (K in m/s) Lower limit -7 2 x 10 1 x 10 1 x 10
-11 -11
Upper limit -1 2 x 10 1 x 10 5 x 10
-5 -7
Measurement of soil permeability in the field To measure soil permeability in the field, you can use one of the following tests: The visual evaluation of the permeability rate of soil horizons; A simple field test for estimating soil permeability; A more precise field test measuring permeability rates.
The visual evaluation of the permeability rate of soil horizons The permeability of individual soil horizons may be evaluated by the visual study of particular soil characteristics, which have been shown by soil scientists to be closely related to permeability classes. The most significant factor in evaluating permeability is structure: its type, grade, and aggregation characteristics, such as the relationship between the length of horizontal and vertical axes of the aggregates and the direction and amount of overlap.
Although neither soil texture nor colour mottling alone are reliable clues, these soil properties may help to estimate permeability when considered together with the structural characteristics. To evaluate visually the permeability of soil horizons: Examine a fresh soil profile in an open pit; Determine the soil horizons present; Using Table 3.17, evaluate the permeability class to which each horizon belongs, carefully studying the structural characteristics of the soil; Confirm your results through the other soil properties shown in Table 3.18; Ranges of permeability rates may then be found in Table 3.16.
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Table 3.18:Visual indicators of permeability: structural characteristics of soil
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TABLE 3.19 Visual Indicators of permeability: texture, physical behaviour and colour of soil
A simple field test for estimating soil permeability Dig a hole as deep as your waist; Early in the morning, fill it with water to the top; By the evening, some of the water will have sunk into the soil; Fill the hole with water to the top again, and cover it with boards or leafy branches; If most of the water is still in the hole the next morning, the soil permeability is suitable to build a fish-pond here; Repeat this test in several other locations as many times as necessary, according to the soil quality. A more precise field test for measuring permeability rates Carefully examine the drawings you have made when studying your soil profiles; On the basis of texture and structure, determine which soil horizons seem to have the slowest permeability; Mark the soil horizons on your drawings, which seem to have the slowest permeability. Use a coloured pencil;
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Dig a hole approximately 30 cm in diameter until you reach the uppermost least permeable horizon; Thoroughly smear the sides of the hole with heavy wet clay or line them with a plastic sheet, if available, to make them waterproof; Pour water into the hole to a level of about 10 cm; At first, the water will seep down rather quickly, and you will have to refill as it disappears. When the pores of the soil are full of water, seepage will slow down. You are then ready to measure the permeability of the soil horizon at the bottom of the hole;
Make sure that the water in the hole is about 10 cm deep as before. If it is not, add water to reach that level; Put a measuring stick into the water and record the exact water depth, in millimeters (mm); Check the water level in the hole every hour for several hours; Record the rate of seepage for each hourly period. If the water disappears too rapidly, add water to bring the level up to 10 cm again. Measure the water depth very carefully;
When your hourly measurements become nearly the same, the rate of permeability is constant and you may stop measuring; If there are great differences in seepage each hour, continue pouring water into the hole to keep the level at 10 cm until the rate of seepage remains nearly the same;
Now compare your results with the following values

Table 3.20 permeability rate and suitability of the horizon
Permeability rate in mm/h

Slower than 2 2-5 5-20
Suitability of horizon for a pond bottom

Acceptable seepage: soil suitable Fast seepage: soil suitable ONLY if seepage due to soil structure which will disappear when pond is filled Excessive seepage: soil unsuitable unless seepage can be reduced as described below
If the permeability rate is faster than 5 mm/h, this may be owing to a strongly developed structure in the soil. In such cases, you try to reduce the permeability rate by destroying the structure, as follows:
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Puddle the bottom soil of the hole as deep as you can; Repeat the more precise permeability test until you can measure a nearly constant value for seepage. If this new permeability rate does not exceed 4 mm/h, you may consider this soil horizon as suitable for a pond bottom. However, the entire bottom of the pond will have to be puddled before filling it with water;
If this new permeability rate exceeds 4 mm/h, this may be owing to the presence of a permeable soil horizon under the horizon you have tested. Such a permeable layer is often found between layers of soil which are semipermeable or even impermeable;
Check this with the following test Dig a new hole 30 cm in diameter through the uppermost least permeable layer (A) to the top of the next least permeable layer (B); Repeat the permeability test until you measure a nearly constant value for seepage; If this permeability rate does not exceed 3 mm/h, you may consider this soil horizon as suitable for a pond bottom. However, remember that such slow permeability should be found in a layer at least 0.7-1 m thick to ensure limited seepage through the pond bottom.
Determining coefficients of permeability To obtain a more accurate measurement of soil permeability, you can perform the following test in the field, which will give you a value for the coefficient of permeability: Using a bucket auger, drill a hole about 1 m deep in the soil at the location where you wish to determine the coefficient of permeability; Fill the hole with water to the top; Every five minutes, for at least 20 minutes, refill the hole to the top to be sure that the soil is fully saturated; Top the water in the hole and start measuring the rate at which the water surface goes down, using a watch to measure time and a centimetergraduated ruler to measure the distance P between the water surface and the top of the hole. Stop measuring when the rate becomes nearly constant;
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Measure exactly the total depth of the hole (H) and its diameter (D). Express all measurements in meters (m): for example H = 1.15 m and D = 12 cm or 0.12 m
For each of the above two consecutive measurements of time/distance, calculate the coefficient of permeability K using the following formula: K= (D2) x In (h1 h2) / 2 (t2- t1)
where (D 2) is the radius of the hole or half its diameter in meters; In refers to the Napierian or natural logarithm; h1 and h2 are the two consecutive depths of water in meters, h1 at the start and h2 at the end of the time interval; (t2 - t1 ) expresses the time interval between two consecutive measurements, in seconds; Note: the h-values may be readily calculated as the differences between the total depth of the hole H and the successive P values. Be careful to express all the measurements in meters and seconds so as to obtain K in m/s. Now compare your K values (in m/s) with those in Table 3.17.
Example If (D 2) = 0.12 m 2 = 0.06 m and H = 1.15 m, calculations of the various K values are made progressively according to the formula (see Table 3.21). Note: for obtaining the natural logarithm of (h1 h2), you will have to use either a logarithmic table or a pocket calculator. Remember that 10-6 = 0.000001 and 6.8 x 10-6 = 0.0000068, the negative exponent of 10 reflecting the decimal place to be given to the multiplicant. If you wish to compare a K value (m/s) with permeability rates (cm/day), multiply K by 8 640 000 or 864 x 104 such as for example: K = 1 x 10-5 m/s = 86.4 cm/day
NOTE: The formula for calculating coefficients of permeability is K = [(D 2) x In (h1 h2)] / 2 (t2 - t1) or A B
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A framework for Biophysical and Ecological Monitoring Table 3.21 Successive steps for the calculation of coefficients of permeability on the basis of field measurements (for a test hole with H = 1.15 m and D = 0.12 m)
3.5.8.6 Soil bulk density Bulk density is defined as the mass (weight) of a unit volume of dry soil. This volume indicates both solids and pores. For measuring bulk density, following method is used (Wilde et al. 1964): 50 gm oven dry soil is taken in a measuring cylinder. The cylinder is tapped 4-5 times and the reading is noted. This gives the volume of the soil sample taken. Bulk Density is calculated by dividing the weight of soil with its volume. Bulk density= Weight of oven dry soil Volume of the soil 3.5.8.7 Soil porosity Following method is applied for the measurement of the soil porosity: 50 ml of distilled water is taken in a measuring cylinder and 50 gm of soil sample (whose volume reading was taken previously) is added to it. After few minutes the final reading in the cylinder is noted, this is called the real volume. Porosity = (Expected vol. Real vol.) X100 Vol. of soil 3.5.8.8 Soils water holding capacity Water holding capacity is determined with the help of Keen-Rackzowski Box method (Black, 1965; Jackson, 1967). Following are the steps of the procedure:
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The preweighed boxes were filled with soil and kept half dipped for saturating the soil for 24 hours. The weight of the box filled with water-saturated soil is taken. The boxes are oven dried. Weight of the oven boxes with oven-dried soils in them is taken. The weight of the water is calculated by subtracting the weight of the ovendried boxes from the water-saturated boxes. Water holding capacity is calculated as follows:
WHC = (weight of water saturated box -weight of the oven dried box) x 100 (Weight of the oven dried soil)
3.5.8.9 Soil depth Method 1. Measurement of soil depth at wells Wells provide convenient locations to measure soil depth by selecting several wells and recording at least 2 soil depths per well.
Take two measurements from the well - on opposite sides. Using measuring tape, take two measurements are needed to provide data on the average depth of the soil at that well. To ensure the measuring tape remains straight as you lower it into the well, you can tie a rock to the end of the tape. Soil depth along with soil texture and porosity tells us about the recharge capacity of the well. In the South of India, the depth of the casing on a well is often equivalent to the depth of the soil.
Method 2. Digging method for depth at ground Equipment You will need a shovel. A soil corer can be used instead, but a corer can miss hardpans if the user is not familiar with the soils in an area. In addition, a corer can often hit stones in rocky soils, making the user think that the soil is shallower than it actually is.
Methodology You will usually need to check soil depth in two or three places in a field. One place may be adequate if the crop looks uniform and is on a level area. If the crop looks different in different areas of the field, you will need to measure soil depth in each area.
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Site selection Pick an area where the plants look uniform, and start digging. It is best to do this when the soil is near field capacity, otherwise digging can be very difficult.
Sampling Dig until you strike any barrier to root growth through which roots do not penetrate. This can be a plow pan, a hard pan, a rock layer, an impermeable clay layer, acid subsoil, a water table, or a salt band in irrigated areas. If you are uncertain that what you find is a barrier, examine the roots of the crop to see if the they penetrate the area. Scraping along the face of the hole with a pocketknife will often help in detecting a compacted layer. Record this depth.
3.5.8.10 Soil texture Method 1: Feel Method Soil texture is qualitatively determined by a rapid feel method, which involves rubbing the soil between the thumb and fingers. In this procedure proficiency is gained through practice and making comparison with samples of known textural class determined by some quantitative methods as explained later in this chapter. Following steps give a way of determining the soil texture by way of feel method.
Steps for texture determination 1. A small quantity of the air-dry soil is moistened with water and mixed thoroughly on a glass or porcelain dish to form a soft ball and. then worked until stiff and squeezed out between thumb and fore-finger. 2. The feel to fingers, ease of forming ball, stickiness or grittiness, whether forming soil ribbons or merely crumbling on squeezing etc. are observed. The sample is assigned approximate textural class as follows:
Very coarse texture Sand: Very gritty, does not form ball, does not stain finger.
Coarse texture Loamy sand: Very gritty, forms ball but very easily broken, stains finger slightly. Sandy loam: Moderately gritty, forms fairly firm ball, which is easily broken, definitely
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stains finger. Medium texture Loam: Neither very gritty nor very smooth, forms firm ball but does not ribbon, stains finger appreciably. Silt loam: Smooth or sticky, buttery feel, forms firm ball, stains and has a slight tendency to ribbon with flaky surface. Fine texture Clay loam: Moderately sticky, slightly gritty feel, forms moderately hard ball when dry, stains, ribbons out on squeezing but the ribbon breaks easily. Silty clay loam: Same as above but very smooth, shows flaking on ribbon surface, similar to silt loam. Very fine texture Clay: Very sticky feel, forms ball which when dry cannot be crushed by fingers, stains heavily, squeezes out at right moisture into long (2-5 cm) ribbon. Another method of determining the soil texture is by way of making shapes of the moistened soil. Use the figure 3.13 to identify soil textural class based on the shapes, which can be formed using the moistened soil. Place approximately 1 tablespoon of fine, dry earth in the palm of your hand. Drip water slowly onto the soil until it approaches sticky point (i.e., the point at which the soil just begins to stick to your hand). Next form a ball about 2.5 cm in diameter. The extent to which the moist soil can be shaped is indicative of its texture. (A) Sand - Soil remains loose and single-grained; can only be heaped into a pyramid. (B) Loamy sand - The soil contains sufficient silt and clay to become somewhat cohesive; can be shaped into a ball that easily falls apart. (C) Silt loam - Same as for loamy sand but can be shaped by rolling into a short, thick cylinder. (D) Loam - About equal sand, silt, and clay means the soil can be rolled into a cylinder about 15 cm long that breaks when bent. (E) Clay loam - As for loam, although soil can be bent into a U, but no further, without being broken. (F) Light clay - Soil can be bent into a circle that shows cracks. (G) Heavy clay - Soil can be bent into a circle without showing cracks.
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Fig. 3.13 Determining soil texture by the Feel Method
Source:http://www.cimmyt.org/english/wps/maizedoctor/index_files/Soiltexture.htm
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Fig. 3.14 determining soil texture by shapes
(Method and drawings after Ilaco (1985))
The textural class of known soil samples taken for comparison is correctly ascertained from the percentage distribution of sand, silt and clay determined according to the international pipette method (Piper, 1966) or hydrometer method (Bouyoucos, 1962) and using the triangular diagram. The international pipette method is more accurate but time-consuming. The hydrometer method given below is quite convenient, reasonably accurate and suits requirement of soil testing.
Bouyoucos hydrometer method The method is based on the Stokes' Law, which states that the rate of fall of particles in a suspension is directly proportional to their size. Accordingly, larger particles (sand) will settle first followed by silt and then by clay. The resistance offered by the liquid to the fall of the particles varies with the radius of the sphere. The law is expressed as: 2 g r2 (D-d) v = -------------------9 Where, v = velocity of the fall of particle (cm sec-1) g = acceleration due to gravity, D = density of the particle, d = density of the liquid, and = absolute viscosity of the liquid
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Apparatus (i) Hydrometer (ii) Mechanical stirrer (iii) Thermometer (iv) Suspension cylinders with 342 cm height up to 1000 mL mark Reagent 10% Sodium hexametaphosphate: Dissolve 100 g of sodium hexametaphosphate in distilled water to make 1 L solution.
Procedure 1. Take 100 g of soil sample in a 500 mL beaker. Give H2O treatment to destroy the organic matter. Skip this step if sample has low organic matter. 2. Add 200 mL of distilled water, 100 mL of the sodium hexametaphosphate solution, stir well with the help of a glass rod, cover and keep for 4 to 5 hours but preferably overnight. 3. Transfer the contents quantitatively to the cup of the mechanical stirrer giving 4-5 washings of distilled water to transfer all soil particles, making the volume to about 500 mL. 4. Run the stirrer for ten minutes and transfer the contents to the suspension cylinder (1000 mL), giving 4-5 washings of distilled water and make the volume to mark. 5. Put the rubber stopper tightly and invert the cylinder carefully. Vigorously shake several times to allow the soil particles to disperse completely. 6. Keep the cylinder on the table, remove the stopper and bring back adhering liquid on the stopper by touching it to the side of the cylinder. Immediately place the hydrometer in the suspension, gently checking any up and down movement. 7. Record the reading exactly 40 seconds after placement of hydrometer. 8. Replace the rubber stopper and invert several times again to ensure complete dispersal of particles. Keep on the table. 9. Exactly after 2 hours, again place the hydrometer into the suspension and note the hydrometer reading. 10. Simultaneously run the blank without soil and record the room-temperature in oF. 11. In case the surface of the, suspension in the cylinder is not clear due to foam, add 2-3 drops of amyl alcohol.
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Calculation Correction Factor (CF) = (Actual room temperature in oF-68) x 0.2 Per cent silt + clay =[(S - B) + CF] x 100/ wt. of sample (g) where, S and B stand for sample and blank readings, respectively, taken at 40 seconds (first reading). (s - b) + CF Per cent day = --------------------------- X 100 weight of sample (g) where, s and b stand for sample and blank readings, respectively, taken after 2 hours. Per cent sand content can be calculated by difference i.e. Per cent sand = 100 - (silt + clay) With the help of the triangular diagram, the textural class name is assigned using the percent content of sand, silt and clay particles.
Fig. 3.15 Triangular diagram for locating textural class name
For using the triangular diagram take the following steps: 1. Locate the percent clay content of the sample on the left hand side and move horizontally.
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2. Locate the percent silt content of the sample on the right hand side and move on slanting line. Alternatively, sand content instead of silt may be located (on the lower side). 3. Find the point where the two lines cross each other to get the textural class.
3.5.8.11 Soil reaction Principle The pH is a measure of the hydrogen or hydroxyl ion activity of the soil-water system. It indicates whether the soil is acidic, neutral or alkaline in reaction. Since crop growth suffers much both under very low (strongly acidic) as well as very high pH (alkaline) conditions, appropriate reclamation measures become essential. The presence of neutral soluble salts as in saline soils is not normally reflected in its pH, but when its content is excessively high they tend to reduce H+ activity. Table 3.22 Effect of Soil pH on Nutrient Availability Acid 4 Nitrogen, N Phosphorus, P Potassium, K Calcium, Ca Magnesium, Mg Sulfur, S Iron, Fe Manganese, Mn Boron, B Copper, Cu Zinc, Zn Molybdenum, Mo
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_pH
Neutral 5.5
Alkali
4.5
6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 10
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Instrument pH meter Reagents Standard buffer solutions: Prepare buffer solutions of pH 4.0, 7.0 and 9.2 in pure water, or of other pH values in the acidic and alkaline range. Alternatively, dissolve one commercially available buffer tablet in freshly prepared distilled water and make the volume to 100 mL. Prepare a fresh buffer solution after every few days as these solutions do not keep for long. A 0.05M solution of AR grade potassium hydrogen phthalate (KHC8H4O4, mol. wt. 204.22) gives a pH of 4.00 at 25"C and this can also be used as a standard buffer. For this prepare a stock solution of 0.25M by dissolving 51.04 g of the pure dry salt in warm water and making volume to 1000 mL. Three to four drops of toluene are added to prevent growth of mould. A 10 mL portion of this solution diluted to 50 mL with distilled water gives 0.05M solution. Similarly, a solution containing 19.45 mL of 0.2M Na2HPO4 and 0.55 mL of 0.lM citric acid gives a buffer of pH 8.0.
Procedure for pH measurement a) pH in saturated soil paste 1. For making a saturated soil paste, take 100 g of soil sample in a 500 mL beaker. 2. Add small amounts of distilled water at 1-2 min. intervals to the soil while working with a spatula. 3. Allow the beaker with a cover on it to stand for about an hour. At saturation, the soil paste glistens, flows slightly when the container is tilted and slides freely and cleanly off the spatula. A perfect paste will neither show collection of free water on the soil surface nor lose its glistening characteristic on standing. 4. Adjust pH meter knob for the temperature. Calibrate with two buffers, one in the acidic and the other in the alkaline range or neutral pH. 5. Carefully insert the glass and calomel combined electrodes in the paste and measure pH. 6. Move the electrodes a little to ensure removal of water film around them and take the pH reading again when constant.
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b) pH in soil-water suspension The pH may be determined in soil-water suspension of varying ratios but the results should be expressed along with the ratio adopted. Conveniently, the suspension is prepared in 1:2 or 1:2.5 ratio. Procedure 1. Take 10 g of soil in a 50 mL or 100 mL beaker. 2. Add 20 or 25 mL of distilled water and stir well for about five minutes and keep for half an hour. 3. Again stir just before immersing the electrodes and take pH reading.
c) pH in 0.01 CaCl2 solution Procedure 1.Take 20 g of soil in a 100 mL beaker. 2. Add 40 mL of 0.01M CaCl2 solution (1.47 g AR grade CaCl2.2H2O dissolved in 1 L). 3. Stir the suspension well for 30 minutes and record the pH. In acid soils pH normally ranges from 4 to 5 and in calcareous ones between 6.9 and 7.2. The pH of near neutral soil in CaCl2 solution is usually around 6.0. Note: Before each determination, the electrodes must be washed with a jet of distilled water and dried with the help of a piece of filter paper or tissue paper.
Selection of method for pH measurement The saturated paste method is used for identifying specific soil problems like acidity or alkalinity and salinity. For making fertilizer recommendations, the 1:2 soil-water suspension is adopted. Besides, it is quite rapid. The pH in CaCl2 solution is measured to mask the variability in salt content of soil. The results are independent of dilution over a wide range of soil: solution ratio and more reproducible than those obtained in water. For a much more rapid, though not accurate pH test, the universal indicator can be used. In this case the supernatant solution from the soil-water suspension is used for pH estimation.
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3.5.8.12 Electrical conductivity Principle Ions, like metals, allow the electric current to pass through them. Hence, the electrical conductivity (EC) of the soil-water system rises with increasing content of soluble salts in the soil. Thus, the measurement of EC will give the concentration of soluble salts in the soil at any particular temperature. Instrument Conductivity meter Reagent 0.01N Potassium chloride solution: Dry a small quantity of AR grade potassium chloride at 60oC for 2 hours. Weigh 0.7456 g of it and dissolve in freshly prepareddistilled water and make to one litre. This solution gives an electrical conductivity of 1411.8 x10-3 i.e. 1.41 dS m-1 at 25oC
Procedure 1. Weigh 20 g of soil sample in a 100 mL beaker. 2. Add 40 mL of distilled water and shake intermittently for 1 h on a shaker. 3. Allow to stand until clear supernatant liquid is obtained. The clear extract after the pH measurement can be also used for EC measurement. 4. Calibrate the conductivity bridge with the help of standard KCl solution and determine the cell constant. 5. Determine the conductivity of the supernatant liquid with the help of the conductivity bridge. Note: Even if the scale is marked- to read directly as in most of the conductivity meters, it is necessary to check/calibrate the instrument with the standard KCl soIution.
3.5.8.13 Calcium carbonate A qualitative rapid test for free calcium carbonate (CaCO3) is made by adding about 10 mL of diluted HCl (1:3) to about 5 g of air-dry soil on a watch glass and observing the intensity of effervescence which results from the evolution of CO2, based 01' the degree of effervescence the amount of CaCO3 present in the soil can be broadly categorized into' "traces", "low", "medium", "high" and "very high".
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Soils having traces to low amounts of CaCO3 do not pose any problem. But for those showing medium to very high degree of effervescence, a separate quantitative analysis should be carried out by treating a known volume of sample with a known volume of excess standard (0.2 or 0.5N) HCl and back titrating after warming and shaking the unreacted acid with standard alkali (Piper,1966). The net quantity of the acid consumed can be attributed- to the presence of free CaCO3. 3.5.8.14 Available nitrogen Principle More than 90 per cent of soil N exists as a constituent of complex organic compounds, which the plants cannot use directly. It becomes available to plants after its mineralization. Only a minute fraction, usually 2 per cent, gets mineralized due to microbial activity in a growing season. Very little amount of N is also present in the ionic forms (NH4+, NO2- and NO3-). Determination of NH4+, -N and NO3--N formed on incubation of soil under aerobic and anaerobic conditions are also followed. These are considered to be quite satisfactory indices of N availability in arable soils. The estimation of CO2 evolved due to microbial growth or pigments produced on incubation of soil with N-free readily decomposable organic materiel or nutrient media and microbial cultures, are also carried out as indicators of N availability.
Aerobic incubation method Principle When a soil sample is incubated at 351oC, the organic matter present in the sample undergoes the process of decomposition and mineralization. The amount of NO3--N formed is said to be comparable to that obtained in field conditions (Fitts et al. 1955). But determination of total mineral-N-(NH4+ NO3-) is often taken as a better index. Also the inclusion of initially present NO3--N is suggested to give a reliable index of N-availability. Apparatus (i) Incubator (ii) Mechanical shaker (iii) N distillation set Reagents 2N KCI: Dissolve 149.10 g of KCl in water and make the volume to 1 L.
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2% Boric acid: Dissolve 20 g of boric acid powder in warm water by stirring, and dilute to 1 L. Mixed indicator: Dissolve 0.066 g of methyl red and 0.099 g of bromocresol green in 100 mL of ethyl alcohol. Add 20 mL of this mixed indicator to each litre of 2% boric acid solution. Adjust the pH to 4.5 with dil. HCl or dil. NaOH.
0.02N H2SO4: Prepare approximately 0.1N H2SO4 by adding 2.8 mL of conc. H2SO4 to about 990 mL of distilled water. From this, prepare 0.02N H2SO4 by diluting a suitable volume five times with distilled water. Standardise it against 0.1N NaOH solution.
Devarda's alloy
Procedure 1. Weigh 10 g of soil sample passed through 2 mm sieve. 2. Mix 30 g of acid-washed quartz sand of 30-60 mesh size with the soil sample. 3. Transfer the mixture to a 250 mL wide mouth square type bottle. 4. Add 6 mL of distilled water and mix thoroughly. 5. Close the bottle with a rubber cork with a hole in centre. 6. Pass a glass or plastic tube through the hole to the mixture at the bottom. 7. Keep the bottle in an incubator at 30 for 14 d ays. C 8. After 14 days, remove the tube and add 100 mL of 2N KCl solution. 9. Close firmly the mouth of the bottle with a solid rubber stopper and shake for one hour. 10. Filter the contents through Whatman No.1 or equivalent filter paper. 11. Measure 20 mL of the clear filtrate in a 250 mL boiling flask. 12. Add about 80 mL of distilled water, 02 g of freshly ignited and cooled MgO and 0.2 g of Devarda's alloy. 13. Distill the contents and collect ammonia in 20 mL of 2 per cent boric acid solution containing 20 mL mixed indicator per litre of boric acid. 14. Titrate against standard acid and find out the amount of N. 15. Carry out the distillation of soil without incubation and find out the N content. 16. Deduct this amount from that obtained after incubation to calculate the N released.
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Anaerobic incubation method Principle This method is based on the estimation of ammonia released under waterlogged conditions. It is preferred over the aerobic incubation as it does not require any aeration or amendment and the incubation period is short. Quartz sand is used to ensure a perfect and uniform contact if soil particles with water. However, in this incubation procedure the NO3--N present in the soil gets denitrified. Procedure 1. Transfer 5 g of soil sample to a 150 mL conical flask. 2. Add 12.5 mL of distilled water ensuring uniform wetting of soil. 3. Put rubber stopper and incubate at 40 for 7 da ys. C 4. After 7 days of incubation, add 25 mL of m KCl solution and shake for 30 minutes. 5. Filter the contents immediately through 'Whatman No.1 or equivalent filter paper. 6. Distill 15 mL of clear filtrate with 0.5 g of freshly ignited MgO. 7. Collect ammonia in 20 mL of 2 per cent boric acid containing mixed indicator and titrate against 0.02N H2SO4. 8. Run a blank with unincubated soil and deduct the amount of ammonia formed from that obtained after incubation. Alternatively, the following method may be adopted: 1. Take 20 g each of soil and quartz sand in a 100 mL conical flask and mix well. 2. Add enough distilled water so as to attain 2 cm water layer above the soil surface. 3. Incubate at 35 for one week. C 4. Filter the contents through Whatman No.1 filter paper and leach with 200 mL of 1N NaCI. 5. Distill the leachate and collect ammonia as described above. Calculation 1 mL of 0.02N H2SO4 = 0.00028 g. N. (A-B) x 0.00028 x 106 x volume of KCI or NaCl (mL) N released = --------------------------------------------------------------------------(mg kg-1) wt. of soil sample (g) volume of leachate/filtrate distilled (mL) Where A and B stands far the net titre values for incubated and unincubated
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samples. Note: Incubation methods are more time consuming and too cumbersome to be adapted in the routine soil testing programme.
3.5.8.15 Soil organic carbon Principle Soil organic matter (SOM) is the seat of nitrogen in sail and its determination is often carried out as an index of nitrogen availability. Two major methods are generally followed: i) the titration method (Walkley and Black,1934) and ii) the calorimetric method (Datta et al. 1962). In both the methods organic matter is oxidized with chromic acid (potassium dichromate + H2SO4). In the titration method, the unconsumed potassium dichromate is back titrated against ferrous sulphate or ferrous ammonium sulphate (Redox titration). Carbon in the sample is oxidized as fallows: 2H2Cr2O7 + 3C + 6H2SO4 = 2Cr2 (SO4)3 + 3CO2 + 8H2O Thus, 2H2Cr2O7 or 2K2Cr2O7 = 3C or 588 g of K2Cr2O7 = 36 g of C or 12 litres of IN K2Cr2O7 = 36 g of C or 1 mL of 1N K2Cr2O7 = 0.003 g of C In the calorimetric method, the intensity .of the green colour of chromic acid obtained due to its reduction is measured calorimetrically. This intensity is directly proportional to the amount of organic carbon present in the soil. Two methods widely used in sail testing laboratories are given here: A. Walkley and Black method Reagents 1N Potassium dichromate: Dissolve 49.04 g of AR grade K2Cr2O7 in about 500 mL of distilled water and make the volume to one litre. Conc. Sulphuric acid 0.5N Ferrous ammonium sulphate: Dissolve 196 g of ferrous ammonium sulphate in distilled water, add 20 mL of conc. H2SO4 and make volume to one litre. The ferrous ammonium sulphate should be from a fresh lot and light green in colour. Yellowing of the salt indicates its oxidation Diphenylamine indicator: Dissolve 0.5 g of the dye in a mixture of 20 mL of
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distilled water and 100 mL of conc. H2SO4 Orthophosphoric acid (85%) or sodium fluoride
Procedure 1. Weigh 1 g of 0.2 mm sail sample into 500 mL dry (corning/ borosil) Conical flask. 2. Add 10 mL of 1N K2Cr2O7 and 20 mL of conc. H2SO4. 3. Swirl a little and keep on an asbestos sheet far 30 minutes. Add slowly 200 mL of distilled water and 10 mL of orthophosphoric acid. 4. Add 1 mL of diphenylamine indicator. 5. Take 0.5N ferrous ammonium sulphate solution in 50 mL burette. Titrate the contents until green colour starts appearing. 6. If the titre value is <6, repeat taking 0.2 to 0.5 g of soil sample. Note Use of NaF along with H3PO4 gives sharper end paint. High chloride content, as in case of saline sails, interferes in the estimation. It can be prevented by adding Ag2SO4 @ 1.25 per cent to the conc. sulphuric acid. Calculation 10 (B - S) 100 Organic carbon (%) in soil = ------------x 0.003 x -------------B wt. of sample (g) Where Band S stand for the titre values (mL) of blank and sample, respectively.
Colorimetric method Instrument Colorimeter or spectrophotometer Reagents 1N Potassium dichromate: Dissolve 49.04 g of K2Cr2O7 in distilled water and make to 1 L. Conc. Sulphuric acid Anhydrous sucrose (AR grade/Exelar)
Procedure a. Weigh 1 g of 0.2 mm soil sample into a 100 mL conical flask. Add 10 mL of 1N K2Cr2O7 and 20 mL of conc. H2SO4. b. Swirl a little and keep on an asbestos sheet for 30 minutes.
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c. Decant about 15 to 20 mL of the supernatant liquid carefully into a centrifuge tube, retaining soil particles in the flask as far as possible. d. Centrifuge for about 5 minutes to ensure the complete settling of soil particles, if any. e. Carefully decant the clear liquid into the colorimeter/spectrophotometer tube and read the colour intensity using red filter/660 nm wavelength. Simultaneously run a blank without soil and a series of standards as follows: 1. Accurately weigh 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25 mg of anhydrous sucrose crystals into 100 mL conical flasks. 2. Proceed as above for oxidation of sucrose and colour intensity measurement. 3. Plot the colorimeter/spectrophotometer readings against quantity of sucrose or carbon. 4. Find out a factor to be multiplied by sample reading to get organic carbon content (%) of soil. If the standard curve is prepared accurately and repeatedly, the average value of this factor comes to be 0.0042 with little possible variation. Calculation Organic carbon (%) = Colorimeter reading x 0.0042. Condition: The centrifuge may get damaged due to accidental spilling of chromic acid during centrifuging the contents. Keeping overnight is suggested as an alternative. Appearance of chromic acid crystals is sometimes observed even before 30 minutes of keeping for oxidation. Dilution of the contents by adding 10 mL of distilled water after 30 minutes reaction followed by keeping overnight is useful if the soil texture is light. For fine textured soils it is, however, necessary to centrifuge.
3.5.8.16 Mineralisable nitrogen Principle The easily mineralisable nitrogen is estimated using alkaline KMnO4, which oxidises and-hydrolyses the organic matter present in the soil. The liberated ammonia is condensed and absorbed in boric acid, which is titrated against standard acid. The method has been widely adopted to get a reliable index of nitrogen availability in soil due to its rapidity and reproducibility. The process of oxidative hydrolysis is, however, a progressive one and hence a uniform time and heating temperature should be allowed for best results. Use of glass beads checks bumping while liquid
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paraffin checks frothing during heating. Apparatus Nitrogen distillation unit, preferably with six regulated heating elements. Reagents 0.32% KMnO4: Dissolve 32 g of KMnO4 in water and make to one litre. 2.5% NaOH: Dissolve 25g of sodium hydroxide pellets in water and make to one litre. 2% Boric acid: Dissolve 20 g of boric acid powder in warm water by stirring, and dilute to one litre. Mixed indicator: Dissolve 0.066 g of methyl red and 0.099 g of bromocresol green in 100 mL of ethyl alcohol. Add 20 mL of this mixed indicator to each litre of 2% boric acid solution. Adjust the pH to 4.5 with dil. HCl or dil. NaOH. 0.1N Potassium hydrogen phthalate: Dissolve 20.422 g of the salt in water and dilute to one litre. This is a primary standard and does not require standardization. 0.1N NaOH: Dissolve 4 g of NaOH in water and dilute to one litre. Standardize it against 0.1N potassium hydrogen phthalate solution. 0.02N H2SO4: Prepare approximately 0.1N H2SO4 by adding 2.8 mL of conc. H2SO4 to about 990 mL of distilled water. From this, prepare 0.02N H2SO4 by diluting a suitable volume five times with distilled water. Standardize it against 0.1N NaOH solution. Procedure 1. Weigh 20 g of soil sample in a 800 mL Kjeldahl flask. 2. Moisten the soil with about 10 mL of distilled water, wash down the soil adhering to the neck of flask, if any. 3. Add 100 mL of 0.32% KMnO4solution. 4. Add a few glass beads or broken pieces of glass rod. 5. Add 2-3 mL of paraffin liquid, avoiding contact with upper part of the neck of flask. 6. Measure 20 mL of 2% boric acid containing mixed indicator in a 250 mL conical flask and place it under the receiver tube. Dip the receiver tube end in the boric acid. 7. Run tap water in the condenser.
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8. Add 100 mL of 2.5% NaOH solution and immediately attach to the rubber stopper fitted in the alkali trap. 9. Switch the heaters on and continue distillation until about 100 mL of distillate is collected. 10. First remove the conical flask containing distillate and then switch off the heater to avoid back suction. 11. Titrate the distillate against 0.02N H2SO4 taken in burette until pink colour starts appearing. 12. Run a blank without soil with each set of five samples. 13. Carefully remove the Kjeldahl flask after cooling and drain the contents in the sink. Caution Check all the joints of the Kjeldahl apparatus to prevent any leakage and loss of ammonia. Hot Kjeldahl flasks should neither be washed with cold water immediately nor allowed to cool for long to avoid deposits at the bottom, which are difficult to remove. In case frothing takes place and reaches the trap and passes through to the boric acid, such samples should be discarded and fresh distillation done. Opening ammonia bottles in the laboratory should be strictly prohibited while distillation is on. The titration should be carried out in ammonia free atmosphere. In case the titration is not to be carried out immediately, the distillate should be stored in ammonia-free cupboards after tightly stoppering the flasks. Calculation Taking a simple equation: 2NH4OH + H2SO4 (NH4)2SO4 + 2H2O 98 g of H2SO4 (or 1L of 2N H2SO4) = 28 g N or 1 mL of 0.02N H2SO4 = 0.00028 g N Thus, Available (mineralisable) (S-B) x 0.00028 x 106 x 2.24 N in soil in kg ha-t = ---------------------------------------20 = (S-B) x 31.36
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Where, S and B stand for the titre values of sample and blank, respectively.
3.5.8.17 Available phosphorus
Principle In soil, phosphorus exists in the form of various types of Orthophosphates. A very small fraction of these is available to plants at a given time. Available phosphorus content of soil consists mainly of Ca, AI- and Fe-P. In the neutral and alkaline soils particularly, Ca-P is the dominant fraction. Organic-P fraction is also in considerable amount, but is usually not included in the determination of available phosphorus. A large number of extracting reagents from Dyer's 1% citric acid to some of the multinutrient extractants, buffer solutions, acids and chelating agents have been suggested for available phosphorus determination from time to time. However, no single extractant appears to be suitable for all types of soils. Two types of extraction methods are more popularly adopted. Under acidic soil conditions, Bray's P-1 (or Bray No.1), which involves soil extraction with a solution, containing 0.03N NH4F and 0.025N HCI is widely followed. The fluoride complexes Al and Fe in soil thus releasing some bound P besides the easily acid-soluble P (largely Ca-P). This extractant is suitable for soils containing less than 2% calcite or dolomite because in calcareous soils, carbonates quickly neutralize the acid, resulting in less extraction of P.
The other and most widely used extractant is the 0.5M NaHCO3 solution at pH 8.5. The reagent is most suitable for neutral to alkaline soils and is designed to control the ionic activity of calcium through solubility product of CaCO3 thus extracting the most reactive forms of P from AI-, Fe- and Ca-phosphates. Phosphorus in the extract can be determined using a suitable method of colour development and measuring the colour intensity at an appropriate wavelength.
Bray's P-1 Method (Bray and Kurtz, 1945) Instruments 1. Mechanical shaker 2. Colorimeter or spectrophotometer
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Reagents Bray's P-I extractant: Dissolve 1.110 g of AR grade ammonium fluoride in one litre of 0.025N HCl. 1.5% Dickman and Bray's reagent: Dissolve 15 g of AR grade ammonium molybdate in 300 mL of warm water, cool and add exact 350 mL of 10N HCl. Make the volume to one litre. 40% SnCI2 stock solution: Weigh 10 g of stannous chloride in a 100 mL glass beaker. Add 25 mL of conc. HCI and dissolve by heating. Cool and store in an amber coloured bottle in dark, after adding a small piece of Zn metal (AR grade) to prevent oxidation. From this prepare a dilute SnCI2 solution (0.5 mL diluted to 66 mL) immediately before use. 100 mg P L-1 stock solution: Weigh 0.439 g of AR grade KH2PO4 dried in oven at 60 for 1 h in a one litre beaker, add about 50 0 mL of distilled water and C dissolve. Add 25 mL of approx. 7N H2SO4 and make the volume to one litre. 2 mg P L-1 solution: Dilute a suitable volume of 100 mg P L-1 solution by 50 times to get 2 mg P L-1 solution. Procedure 1. Weigh 5 g of soil sample in a 150- mL conical flask. 2. Add 50 mL of Bray's P-l extractant and shake for 5 min. 3. Filter through Whatman No.1 filter paper quickly so as to collect the filtrate within 10 minutes. 4. Transfer 5 mL aliquot into a 25 mL volumetric flask. 5. Add 5 mL of ammonium molybdate solution, shake a little and dilute to about 22 mL. 6. Add 1 ml of diluted SnCl2 (0.5 mL diluted to 66 ml), mix by shaking a little, and make up the volume. 7. Run a blank without soil under identical conditions. 8. Measure the intensity, of the blue colour developed, using 660 nm wave length (red filter).
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Olsen's method (Olsen et al. 1954) Instruments (i) Colorimeter or spectrophotometer (ii) Mechanical shaker Reagents 0.5M NaHCO3: Dissolve 42 g of P-free sodium bicarbonate in about 500 ml of hot water and dilute to one litre. Adjust the pH to 8.5 using dil. NaOH solution or dil. HCl. Activated charcoal: Wash pure activated charcoal or commercially available Darco G-60 with acid to make P-free, even if having traces of P. 1.5% ammonium molybdate solution: Similar to that described in case of Bray's P-l except that use 400 mL of 10N HCl instead of 350 ml per litre. 40% SnCl2 solution: Same as in case of Bray's P-1. 100 mg L-1 P solution: Same as in case of Bray's P-1. 2 mg L-1 P working solution: Same as in case of Bray's P-1.
Procedure 1. Weigh 2.5 g of soil sample in 100 mL conical flask. 2. Add a pinch of Darco G-60 and 50 mL of Olsen's reagent (0.5M NaHCO3, pH 8.5). 3. Shake for 30 min. on a mechanical shaker. 4. Filter through Whatman No.1 filter paper. Transfer 5 mL of clear and colourless filtrate into a 25 mL volumetric flask. 5. Gradually add 5 ml of ammonium molybdate solution containing 400 ml of 10N HCl per litre. 6. Shake slowly and carefully to drive out the CO2 evolved. When frothing completely ceases, add distilled water, washing down the sides, to bring the volume to about 22 mL. 7. Add 1 mL of freshly diluted SnCl2 solution, shake a little and make the volume to 25 mL. 8. Read the blue colour intensity at 660 nm (red filter). 9. Run a blank without soil under identical manner. Preparation of standard curve for P 1. Take a series of 25 mL volumetric flasks.
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2. Pipette out 0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0 and 2.5 mL of 2 mg L-1 P solution. 3. Add 5 mL of the extractant (Bray's or Olsen's). 4. Add ammonium molybdate as for Bray's or Olsen's method and proceed to develop blue colour as described earlier. 5. Measure blue colour intensity and draw a standard curve by plotting concentrations of P in g against colorimeter readings. 6. If a straight line is obtained, find out a factor for each reading. Calculation Available P (kg ha-1) = Q x V x 2.24 x 106 = Q x V x 2.24 A x S X 106 Where, Q = quantity of P in g read on X-axis against a sample reading, V = volume of extracting reagent used (ml), A = volume of aliquot used for colour development (mL), and S = weight of soil sample taken (g). Thus, Bray's P (kg ha-1) = Q x 4.48, and Olsen's P (kg ha-1) = Q x 8.96 AxS
Ascorbic acid method of phosphorus estimation The major drawback with the Dickman and Bray's method of blue colour development is that the colour starts fading soon and hence the intensity has to be measured quickly. A method based on the use of ascorbic acid given by Watanabe and Olsen (1965) and described below provides a more stable blue colour and is, therefore, preferred over the former. Reagents Molybdate-tartrate solution: Dissolve 12 g of ammonium molybdate in about 250 mL of distilled water to get solution 'A'. Prepare solution 'B' by dissolving 0.291 g of antimony potassium tartrate in 100 mL of distilled water. Prepare one litre of 5N H2SO4 and add solutions 'A' and 'B' to it. Mix thoroughly and make the volume to 2 L with distilled water. Ascorbic acid solution: Dissolve 1.056 g of ascorbic acid in 200 mL of the molybdate-tartrate solution and mix well. Prepare it fresh as and when required.
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p-nitrophenol indicator: Dissolve0.5 g of p-nitrophenol in 100 mL of distilled water. 5N H2SO4: Carefully dilute 140 mL of conc. H2SO4 to 1 L with distilled water to get approx. 5N H2SO4.
Procedure 1. Pipette 5 mL of the Olsen's reagent to a 25 mL volumetric flask and add 2-3 drops of p-nitrophenol indicator. It develops yellow colour. 2. Add known quantity of 5N H2SO4 drop by drop to acidify the Olsen's reagent to pH 5 at which the yellow colour will disappear. Note the volume of 5N H2SO4 used. 3. Transfer a 5 mL aliquot of the Olsen's extract of soil to a 25 mL volumetric flask and add the required quantity of 5N H2SO4 to bring it to pH 5.0. 4. Dilute to 20 mL with distilled water. 5. Add 4 mL of the ascorbic acid solution, make the volume to 25 mL and shake well. 6. Wait for 10 min. and then measure the colour intensity at 730- 840 nm. 7. Run a blank with the extracting solution (without soil). 8. Prepare standard curve as described for Dickman and Bray's method. Note All glassware to be used for P determination should be cleaned with chromic acid followed by thorough washing to minimise contamination. In case of delay in measuring colour intensity, cover the samples store properly and add SnCl2 just before measurements. Colour intensity measurement should be carried out exactly 10 minutes after developing blue colour. In SnCl2 method, colour starts fading soon after development.
3.5.8.18 Available potassium Principle Potassium in soil exists as water soluble, exchangeable, non exchangeable (fixed) and lattice-K. The first two forms constitute only a small part, normally not more than one per cent of the total content and are considered to be easily available to plants. On amount basis, the exchangeable form (K+ ions adsorbed on exchange sites) far
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exceeds water-soluble fraction and the two are in equilibrium with each other. Only when these two forms are depleted, a part of the non-exchangeable K moves to the exchange sites and soil solution. This movement is a slow process and not sufficient to meet K requirement of plants. Therefore, most of the methods suggested are based on the determination of easily available fractions i.e. water soluble and exchangeable. Attempts, however, have been made to include a part of the nonexchangeable fraction in certain methods to increase the prediction value. Thus, methods for both available and non-exchangeable K have been in use. For all practical purposes, the extraction and estimation of exchangeable K along with water soluble K is good enough. The ammonium acetate method given below is most widely used. Ammonium ions are very close in size to K+ and replace the latter efficiently. During the estimation, acetate burns cleanly and does not leave any residue on the burner of flame photometer. Methods meant for non-exchangeable K permit breakdown of K+ bearing minerals and these are of great academic interest only. Ammonium acetate method of K determination Instruments (i) Flame photometer (ii) Mechanical shaker (iii) pH meter Reagents 1N Ammonium acetate: Dissolve 77.08 g of ammonium acetate in about 500 mL of distilled water and make the volume to one litre. Adjust the pH to 7.0 with glacial acetic acid or ammonia solution. This reagent may also be prepared by taking 800 mL of distilled water and adding to it 57 mL of glacial acetic acid and 68 mL of ammonia solution (sp. gr. 0.91) followed by dilution to 1 litre and adjusting pH at 7.0 after cooling. Standard K solutions: Prepare 1000 mg L-1 K solution by dissolving 1.908 g of dried (in oven) KCI salt per litre solution. Dilute suitable volumes of this solution to get 100 mL of working standards containing 10,15,20,25,30 and 40 mg K L-1. The working standards should be prepared in the medium of extraction.
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Procedure Weigh 5 g of soil sample in 100 mL conical flask. Add 25 mL of the neutral IN ammonium acetate solution and shake for 5 minutes. Filter through Whatman No.1 filter paper. Measure K concentration in the filtrate using flame photometer.
Preparation of standard curve for K Record the flame photometer readings for each of the working standards of K after adjusting blank to zero. Draw a standard curve by plotting the readings against K concentrations. Calculation 25 106 Available K (kg ha ) = C x ------ x ---- x 2.24 = C x 11.2 5 106 Where, C stands for the concentration of potassium in the sample obtained on
-1
X-axis, against the reading. Note The filtrate should be clear in order to avoid choking of capillary tube of the flame photometer, which occurs very frequently. During the operation of flame photometer, a constant air pressure and steady flow of gas (LPG) and air combination is absolutely necessary for precise estimation. An appropriate combination is achieved by fixing the air pressure around 0.45 psi and then adjusting the gas supply so as to get a non-luminous blue flame. Fans and coolers should be switched off so that flame is not affected. Ammonia bottle should be cooled before opening. Potassium standards should be prepared fresh after every 4-3 weeks. 3.5.8.19 Flame photometer method (K, Ca, Mg and Na) Reagents 1. Ammonium acetate 1 N: Add 700 of ammonium hydroxide to about 5 liters of distilled water. Then add 580 ml of acetic acid and make up to 10 liters. Shake vigorously. Adjust to pH 7.0 using a glass electrode pH meter.
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2. Standard solutions for potassium, calcium and sodium: The following amounts of pure primary reagents, dissolved in a small amount of distilled water and made up to 1 liter with ammonium acetate, are used for standard solutions of 1000 ppm of the element: a. Potasium 1.91 grams KCl b. Calcium - 2.4973 grams CaCO3 c. Sodium -2.5418 grams NaCl 3. Standard solution for magnesium: Dissolve 0.5 grams pure Mg ribbon and 2.4973 gram CaCO3 in 1:1 HCl and evaporate to dryness on hot plate. Take up residue in 500 ml flask. 4. NaOAc: add 125 ml of 1000 ppm solution, 50 ml of 1000 ppm Na solution, and make up to a liter with NaOAc. The magnesium standard solution should contain 1000 ppm Mg, 2000 ppm Ca, 125 ppm K, and 50 ppm Na. Procedure 1. Weigh or measure 2 grams of soil into a 50 ml shaking bottle, add 20 ml of the ammonium acetate extractant, and shake for 30 minutes. 2. Filter through Whatman No. 5 filter paper. 3. Determine with the flame photometer using the following wavelengths: a. b. c. d. Magnesium - 383 mu Calcium- 554 mu Sodium - 580 mu Potassium- 768 mu
4. Prepare a curve for each element by running a series of standards.
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Part 4: Three Phase Implementation Strategy

4.1 Introduction from theoretical, to practical, to implementation To make the monitoring framework actionable, an implementation strategy was created during discussion surrounding the March 14-16, 2007 workshop on biophysical and ecological monitoring at FES. This strategy provides a three phase plan that can be used to create and implement a monitoring program. Guiding the design of this strategy was the desire to integrate the monitoring framework into all stages of the project cycle. The three phases are: Phase I: Creation of an area profile Phase II: Detailed survey and creation of a monitoring plan Phase III: Implementation of the monitoring plan
To simplify this implementation strategy, it was assumed that the general site selection for a project had already taken place. For example, a particular watershed may have already been chosen based on such factors as a communities willingness to work together with the FES; well-established need such as multiple years of drought, obvious severe land degradation and high levels of poverty; or suitable location such as one that adjoins a current project area and thus requires work to treat the entire landscape. In spite of this, the implementation strategy would be equally valid for use in site selection as well.
4.2 Phase I: Creation of an Area Profile
4.2.1 Phase I Activities There are two main components of phase I: secondary research and primary surveys of the project area. Secondary data collection includes conducting a literature review, reviewing GoI data, conferring with other organizations that work or have worked in the area, and searching for studies that may contain information on the site. This research can inform a reconnaissance survey that will collect primary data regarding the ecosystem health of the area. The primary survey would be conducted through rapid scientific reconnaissance studies to assess biodiversity, biomass and soil status. Regarding water, a well inventory would be conducted to assess extraction patterns and contribute to a water resource estimation study at a
125
later stage.
A survey would also be carried out at the household level and/or
discussions regarding historical and current use patterns, issues important to the community. Particular attention would be given to identifying the extent, origin and type of stressors (human or other) on the ecosystem.
4.2.2 Phase I Outputs Out of these initial studies would come a general understanding of the landscape and of the relevant ecological issues that might require further attention. Identification of the extant ecological stressors would help to clarify draft ecorestoration goals. Baseline information collected on the status of water, soil, biodiversity and phytomass would allow for an initial report and recommendations. All of this information would be used to select sites and methodologies for the scientific studies conducted in phase II.
4.3 Phase II: Detailed Survey and Creation of a Monitoring Plan
4.3.1 Phase II Activities A variety of detailed scientific studies would be carried out in this phase. For assessment of soil, samples would be taken and tested with respect to various parameters. While the initial biodiversity study in phase I would have identified the existence of various species, the phase II study would collect data on abundance as well as more detailed data on the health and distribution of all species in the area. Water related studies by geologists would assess the characteristics of aquifers in the area and conduct a groundwater resource estimation study. Phytomass would also be quantified at this point. Also, any training necessary to instruct local people of PIA members on how to collect accurate data would be carried out in this phase.
All studies should be conducted with suitable control plots. Though methodologies would vary depending on site specificities and restoration goals, it would be possible to assemble a team to conduct many of these studies at the same time. On a single transect for example, data on floral and faunal species; Phytomass and soil can be collected. Previous studies completed by FES are listed in the table below:
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Table 4.1 Studies conducted by FES compiled from Jan-April 2007

S.No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Study Biomass Estimation (Working Madanapalle and Chintamani Paper 9) (2002) Contact Person Subba Vijay, Subba, Venkat Santosh Johnson Ravi & Divakar Reddy Johnson Divakar Reddy Ravi, Bijay Toppo Santosh Patnaik
Fodder Species Documentation (2006) Madanapalle Database on flora and fauna (2004) Madanapalle Availability of NTFP (roughly 2001) Madanapalle Water Resources Estimation with ATREE (expected 2007 completion) - Madanapalle and Chintamani. Hydrological Study with ACWADAM (expected 2007 completion) Mandanapalle Hydrogeological study in Papagni basin (ongoing)Madanapalle and Chintamani A Study on Biomass and Biodiversity in Satkosia Gorge Wildlife Sanctuary, Orissa, India (2005) Change Detection Studies (Working Paper 10). Report of the ICRAF Visit to SHT Mandanapalle (2006).
4.3.2 Phase II Outputs The detailed studies of Phase II would provide baseline data for the project. Stressors, such as overgrazing, excessive lopping and felling of trees, over extraction of ground water and human-induced erosion and habitat destruction of particular species would be clearly identified and quantified. This information would aid in the creation of ecorestoration goals, which would then guide a monitoring plan. The monitoring plan would select indicators and appropriate methodologies (including methods for site selection) to monitor progress against the chosen ecorestoration goals, using the practical framework as a resource. During the selection of indicators, the ecoservice-parameter charts (soil, water, and phytomass) would allow planners to list the relevant ecoservices, which could be tracked by the monitoring plan. Finally, a timetable, data management plan, budget would be created, and responsibilities would be defined for the various activities in the monitoring plan.
4.3.3 Guidelines for selecting indicators While designing the monitoring plan in Phase II, it is very important to consider carefully the selection of indicators. First, one should be clear of the goals of the program. If a goal is to reestablish the climatic climax species that has been over127
harvested in a particular landscape and if the species is currently living there, a possible indicator might be the distribution and abundance of that species. If the species has been completely removed from the area, then the previous indicator is still useable over a long period of time, but a more short-term indicator may be necessary. Such short-term indicators might be related to the state of the habitat required for the species to flourish.
It is also crucial to take into account who the end user of the information will be. Even if the initial focus of this manual is on strengthening the methods and monitoring plans of FES as an organization, integrating participatory monitoring practices at an early stage will ensure that the right information is collected and that is useful to those who need it most.
Selecting the right indicators for your needs can be confusing. To guide the indicator selection process, there are several commonly used mnemonic devices. The first is SMART. A SMART indicator is one that is: 1. Specific it reflects the things the project intends to change and avoid things that can be influenced by other outside factors; 2. Measurable it is precisely defined so that measurement is unambiguous; 3. Attainable it should be within the realm of project; 4. Reliable it must consider budget and feasibility of data collection; 5. Time bound (or timely) it describes when a certain change is expected and measure changes that will occur during the life of the project.
Good indicators may also be SPICED. SPICED indicators are: Subjective, Participatory, Interpreted and Communicated, Cross-checked and Compared, Empowering, and Diverse and Disaggregated. For a short review of Monitoring and Evaluation, types of evaluations and SMART and SPICED indicators, please see the short paper: Guidance Notes No. 4.3, produced by BOND a UK association of international development NGOs.
Finally, The CREAM methodology can be used to select indicators. CREAM indicators should be also cites useful criteria under the acronym CREAM: Indicators should be:
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1. Clear precise and unambiguous; 2. Relevant appropriate to the subject at hand; 3. Economic available at a reasonable cost; 4. Adequate providing a sufficient basis to assess performance; and 5. Monitorable amenable to independent validation.
The purpose of these mnemonic devices (SMART, SPICED, and CREAM) is to help ensure that the indicators chosen in a monitoring plan will effectively represent the changes we desire to monitor. In some cases, an indicator might seem perfect, but if it requires expensive remote sensing data or costly equipment, it might not be economical. Other indicators, such as changes in levels of wells may be commonly used, but taken alone they are not specific. That is, there are other factors that influence well levels that also must be considered. In this case, the indicator changes in well levels is still useable, if rainfall, evaporation, water use, and aquifer characteristics are taken into account.
4.3.4 Guidelines for selecting methods In the process of selecting indicators, some thought will no doubt be given to methods of monitoring the indicators. As is apparent from the section above, it would not make sense to choose indicators that cannot be effectively monitored. The below list provides a very brief guide of key points that should be considered when choosing methods. For each method, what are the: 1. Advantages compared with other possible indicators and with respect to the goals of the program; 2. Disadvantages; 3. Human resource requirements (technical know-how, number of people with required skills and their availability); 4. Financial resource requirements; 5. Scientific rigor acceptability of the method (international standards); and 6. Type of method is this a simple field method (perhaps ocular); is it a rigorous field method that gives solid scientific data; or is it a laboratory method? 7. Are data sheets available for organizing the information collected or will we have to create new forms?
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4.4 Phase III: Implementation of the Monitoring Plan
4.4.1 Phase III Activities Implementation of the biophysical and ecological monitoring plan, from start to finish, is carried out in this phase. Laying of permanent transects and/or establishing plots where studies will be conducted; routine collection of data to monitor the indicators selected in phase II; and analysis of data to inform, adjust or redirect project activities would form the bulk of this phase. Ongoing data on water supply and demand, in conjunction with extensive discussions with the community might result in the creation of a water budget. Periodic phytomass estimations could be carried to assess the overall impact of project activities. Yearly data on changing soil properties would inform plantation activities and allow for projections about the potential for phytomass regeneration. Ecological studies to monitor rare, threatened, endangered, invasive and exotic species would provide crucial feedback on progress towards biodiversity related ecorestoration goals. At the end of phase III, a final evaluation would be conducted on both control and study sites to allow for an accurate assessment of the project impacts and changes in the area.
4.4.2 Phase III Outputs As indicated by the activities above, phase III outputs would involve a range of ongoing studies, plus mid-term and final evaluations. Ongoing data collection in combination with periodic studies would enable mid-course corrections that are deemed necessary. The methodologies used to collect data (both in the field and from households), would be evaluated and improved in this stage. The list of monitoring parameters themselves could be amended as necessary. Thus a key output would be improvement of the monitoring framework. Reports generated may contain findings that could be used to inform policy recommendations.
130
Figure 4.1: Three phase Implementation Strategy Phase I

Area Profile
Phase II
Detailed survey and creation of a monitoring plan
Phase III
Implementation of the monitoring plan
Secondary Data Collection

Informs
Primary Data collection; GIS mapping and analysis
Detailed survey/ studies
Biophysical/ Ecological survey
Social survey
1. Monitoring plan executed 2. Ongoing analysis conducted 3. Course corrections made in monitoring plan and interventions 4. End of project evaluation conducted
Outputs of Phase I: 1) General understanding of the social and ecological status of the project area 2) Stressors on ecosystem identified 3) Survey Report and Recommendations generated (including draft ecorestoration goals) 3) Site and methodology for phase II studies selected
Outputs of Phase II: 1) Baseline data established 2) Stressors on ecosystem quantified 3) Ecorestoration goals selected 4) Monitoring plan created: Indicators selected Methods selected Site selection Time table created Data management plan created Budget created Responsibilities allocated (village-level monitoring team?)
Outputs of Phase III: 1) Periodic and final evaluations of biophysical/ ecological impacts 2) Revised monitoring plan (including lessons learned) 3) Policy recommendations
131
Appendices
132
Appendix 1: Ecosystem Services
Source: Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005)
133
Appendix 2: Examples of Datasheets for Ecological studies

Data sheet for the Quadrat method (Plant Species)
Date: Location(Village/landmark) Plot Number: Landuse Forest Pasture Time: Elevation: GPS Location
N: E:
Agriculture
Wasteland
Tree Species: 10 meter radius

S.No. Species GBH Height Misc. Info.
Shrub Species: 3 meter radius

S.No. Species LBH Number Misc. Info.
Herb/ Grass Species: 1m X 1m

S.No. Species Number Average Ht. Misc. Info.
134
Data sheet for the faunal diversity in the study area Faunal Diversity (Within Range of View or 50 m radius)
S.No. Species Number Species Number
Data sheet for the flora and fauna encountered in the transect method Transect Flora/ Fauna
Trees Shrubs/climbers Herbs/grasses Lower plants Birds Other Fauna
Reconnaissance survey format for Wild Fauna: General

Food availability for species Local importance of animal Conservation value Animal evidences # Local name Threats for survival Endemic/ exotic Sc. name Status *
S.No.
Place in food chain
Nocturnal
Omnivore
Herbivore
Carnivore
#: bank burrows, bear tree, canals, cut trees, debarking, dens, droppings, dung, feeding habits, ground holes, holes in trees, Kills, mounds, nests (pattern), pellets, pug marks, quills,
135
Predators
rubs, scat, scent, tooth marks, tracks, trail patterns, tree borings, tree cavities etc. (mention each occurrence)
*: R= rare/LC= less common/ C= common/ A= abund. / E= endemic/ Ex= exotic/ N=native/ Rd= red data sp./Dc= no. declining/ Ic= increasing/ S= stable/ P= pest/etc.
Animal - Plant interaction in local ecosystem

Heronry supporting trees Seed fruit dispersing agents (agentAnthesis promoters Vulture nest trees producing Nectar trees
Status
feed
Reconnaissance survey format for Wild Fauna: Birds

Location of nest Type of migrant Perceptions about the bird does it's presence of activities indicate anything? Use of the bird Type of nest Location (landmarks) Residential/ migratory Local name No. of ind.
Sc. name
#: FT (Counting fly-throughs): All birds that fly through a point count area (below the tallest structure in a census area) but do not land on any structure should be counted as FT. However, if you are sure that the flying bird came from somewhere in the point count, do not count it as an FT. Record the number of birds that are FT in the FT Column $: FO (Counting fly-overs): All higher-flying birds (above the tallest structure in a census area) should also be noted if they are within the boundaries of the point count area. Record the number of birds that are FO in the FO Column **: WM=Winter migrant/ SM= Summer migrant/ PM= Passage migrant/ S= Straggler (occasional/ irregular visitor)/ LM= Local migrant *: R= rare/LC= less common/ C= common/ A= abund. / E= endemic/ Ex= exotic/ N=native/ Rd= red data sp./Dc= no. declining/ Ic= increasing/ S= stable/ P= pest/etc.
Herbs & Grasses (Cover Estimation)
Out side
Sound
FO $
FT #
Sr
136
Egret roost trees
Bat roost trees
Bee hive trees
Bat feed trees
Pollinators plant)
Sloth trees
beer
Grid No. Latitude Longitude
Village Landuse/Landcover Remarks of Grid
GPS
Ground Cover Scientific Name Points Scientific Name
Points
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140
Data sheet for the collection of Soil related informations
137
Sample ID
pH (1:2.5)
EC (1:2.5)
OC (%)
Total-N (mg/kg)
OlsenP2O5(mg/kg)
Av.- K2O (mg/kg)
Av.-Na (mg/kg)
Total Mean Ag
138
Example of the data sheet for evaluation of general health of the Ecosystem
Ranking criteria
Parameter Floral diversity Rank 1 <5 2 6-10 3 11-15 4 16-20 5 >21 Remarks Species in 100 m periphery (including trees and ground flora) Species in 100 m periphery (birds, butterflies, lizards and mammals) Take into consideration the cow dung, goat droppings, lopping of trees for livestock
Faunal diversity
<5
6-10
11-15
16-20
>21 Area full of livestock signs and vegetation degraded extensively Area full of cut tree stumps cut signs on trees and vegetation degraded extensively
Livestock pressure
Least degradation
Some signs but not predominan t
Fair amount of pressure signs
Fair enough pressure signs and degraded vegetation
Anthropogenic pressure
Least degradation
Some signs but not predominan t
Fair amount of pressure signs
Fair enough pressure signs and degraded vegetation
Gum tapping, tree felling, encroachments etc.
Slope
<5o
6o-15o
15o-25o
25o-45o
>45o
Important for the designing water and soil conservation measures Within 100 m periphery
Habitat/ microhabitat diversity
Plain landscape Ht <10cm
2-3 identifiable habitats Ht 10-20cm Cover 2040 10-20 Dry conditions, xerophytic community but soil moist upon digging poor water source nearby Some erosion with sheet erosion marks and moderate slope
4-6 identifiable habitats Ht 20-30cm Cover 40-60
7-10 identifiable habitats Ht 30-40cm Cover <20
>10 identifiable habitats Ht 40-50cm
Grass productivity Cover <20
Height and Cover Cover <20 Visible periphery upto 50 m, Diameter >10cm only
Tree density
<10
20-30
30-40
>40
Water availability
Dry conditions, Xerophytic community, No water source nearby
Moderate conditions, a mix of xeric and mesophytic community, water available but not in plenty Moderate slope and fair amount of erosion with xerophytes
Mesophytic community with some hydrophytic and xeric plants, water easily available
Water in plenty like along river and having plenty of hydrophytic plants and grasses
Indications from the flora and faunal species to be observed carefully
Soil erosion
Least erosion with good soil depth and least stoniness
Gullies formation with fairly degraded vegetation
Deep gullies and Ravines with degraded vegetation
Indicators like grass species composition and soil moisture will help
139
Appendix 3: Implementation Chart of the Monitoring Framework

Component A. Summary of Phase I B. Required data from secondary research C. Primary data collection methods & protocol Instructions List goals, methodology, expected outcomes of Phase I List of types of data and sources for each type. Water Soil Biodiversity Phytomass
Phase I: Area Profile, Initial Analysis
What will be done and how. Are data collection sheets available? 1. General understanding of the ecological status and stressors on the area. 2. What type of report? What type of recommendations? 3. How will this data be used to contribute to the next phase? How will it help with site selection and methodology of your next study/survey) What determines how long this phase will last? Resources required (financial and other?)
D. Outcomes
Component
Instructions List goals, methodology, expected outcomes of Phase II. What data is required for final project evaluation? (Be sure your monitoring indicators will provide this data) How will you select your methods for this study?
Water
Soil
Biodiversity
Phytomass
A. Summary of Phase II Phase II: Detailed Survey/Study, Creation of Monitoring Plan
B. In-depth study
C. Analysis of results
What/who is required to analyze the results? How will this study contribute to establishment of a baseline? How will baseline data collected help identify ecorestoration goals?
D. Outcomes
How will this data feed into a monitoring plan? What determines how long this phase will last? How long might your study take? Time required for analysis? Time required for creation of monitoring plan? Resources required (financial and other?)
140
Instructions III: Implementation of Monitoring Program A. Summary of Phase III B. Data Managemen t
Component List goals, methodology, expected outcomes of Phase III How will managed? monitoring data be
Water
Soil
Biodiversity
Phytomass
How will selected indicators allow for mid-course corrections? What type generated? of reports will be
C. Outcomes
If analyzed at Cell or CO level, how will results analysis of results be communicated to teams, Field Associates, villagers? What data is required for final project evaluation? (Be sure your monitoring indicators will provide this data)
141
References
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Manual on soil properties and soil measurements: Environmental Quality Lab Manual Draft. Agriculture and Biological Engineering Department. Purdue University FAO Manual, 2005, p. 17 Michigan Forests Forever Teachers Guide: http://mff.dsisd.net/Environment/Succession.htm Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA). (2005). Ecosystems and human well-being: synthesis. Island Press, Washington, DC Miller, G.T. (2004). Living in the environment: Principles, connections and solutions (13th ed). Singapore: Thomas Learning Inc. Monitoring and Evaluation (2005). Guidance Notes No. 4.3. London: Bond Multiparty Monitoring. (2004). Multiparty monitoring handbook 4 Monitoring ecological effects. United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service. Retrieved on January 10, 2007 from http://www.fs.fed.us/r3/spf/cfrp/monitoring Muoz-Erickson, T. A., and Aguilar-Gonzlez, B.J. (2003). The use of ecosystem health indicators for evaluating ecological and social outcomes of the collaborative approach to management: the case study of the Diablo Trust. Online Journal of the Community based Collaborative Research Consortium. http://www.cbcrc.org/2003speakerpapers/Munoz%20and%20Aguilar%5B1%5D.v1% 20for%20web%20site.pdf Odum, Dr. P., and Barrett, Dr. G. (2006). Fundamentals of ecology (5th ed, 2nd reprint). Bangalore: Peter Marshal. Olsen, S. R. et al. 1954 Estimation of available phosphorus in soils by extraction with sodium bicarbonate. USDA Circular No. 939. Paranjape et al. (1998). Watershed Based Development: A source book Piper, C.S. 1942 Soil and Plant Analysis. The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia Rapport, D., Costanza, R., Epstein, P., Gauet, C. (1998). Ecosystem Health. Tokyo: Blackwell Science. Salvatore Shapiro-Campos 1999 article, Strengthening Performance in the Public Sector, published by the Asian Review of Public Administration. Schollenberger, C. J., and Simon, R. H. 1945 Determination of exchange capacity and exchangeable bases in soils - Ammonium acetate method. Soil Sci. 59:13-24 Society for Ecological Restoration International Science & Policy Working Group. (2004). The SER international primer on ecological restoration. www.ser.org & Tucson: Society for Ecological Restoration International. Troll (1969) as cited in Odum, Dr. P., and Barrett, Dr. G. (2006). Fundamentals of ecology (5th ed, 2nd reprint). Bangalore: Peter Marshal. p. 375. U. S. Department of Agriculture. 1954 Diagnosis and Improvements of Saline and Alkali Soils. Govt. Printing Office, Washington, D.C. Walkley, A. and Black, I. A. 1934 An examination of the Degtjareff Method for determining soil organic matter, and a proposed modification of the chromic acid titration method. Soil Sci. 37:29-38. Woodruff, C. M. 1948 Testing soils for lime requirement by means of a buffered solution and the glass electrode. Soil Sci. 66:53-64
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Websites/WebPages http://www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fertility_(soil) http://www.redefiningprogress.org/programs/sustainabilityindicators/glossary/terms.html http://www.soil.gsfc.nasa.gov/pvg/chartoc.htm http://www.cimmyt.cgiar.org/english/wps/maizedoctor/index_files/Soildepth.htm http://www.cimmyt.org/english/wps/maizedoctor/index_files/Soiltexture.htm http://www.cimmyt.org/english/wps/maizedoctor/index_files/Soiltexture.htm http://www.epa.nsw.gov.au/soe/95/28.htm http://www.ext.colostate.edu/drought/soilmoist.html http://www.fao.org/docrep http://www.ipm.iastate.edu/ipm/icm/2000/4-24-2000/evalsoilmoist.html http://www.public.iastate.edu http://www.soil.gsfc.nasa.gov/index.html http://www.cbcrc.org http://www.epa.gov/greatlakes/solec/peer_reviewed/dev_implement_indicators.pdf http://www.normanbirdsanctuary.org/nbu/succession/stages.html http://www.mff.dsisd.net/Environment/Succession.htm
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FES IntErnal SourcEBook

Biophysical and Ecological Monitoring

A framework for Biophysical and Ecological Monitoring

A Framework for Biophysical and Ecological Monitoring

FOUNDATION FOR ECOLOGICAL SECURITY 2008

A framework for Biophysical and Ecological Monitoring

A framework for Biophysical and Ecological Monitoring

Executive Director Foundation for Ecological Security Anand, Gujarat

A framework for Biophysical and Ecological Monitoring

Part 2: Conceptual Framework

Part 3: Practical Framework-Indicators and Methods

Part 4: Three phase Implementation Strategy

A framework for Biophysical and Ecological Monitoring

Shivramakrishnan, Mr. Piyush, Mr. Bandhari and Mr. Ashok Jani.

A framework for Biophysical and Ecological Monitoring

A framework for Biophysical and Ecological Monitoring

A framework for Biophysical and Ecological Monitoring

A framework for Biophysical and Ecological Monitoring

List of Boxes, Figure and Tables Boxes

A framework for Biophysical and Ecological Monitoring

A framework for Biophysical and Ecological Monitoring

A framework for Biophysical and Ecological Monitoring

A framework for Biophysical and Ecological Monitoring

maintained for a longer period of time

because of increased predation by the owls

A framework for Biophysical and Ecological Monitoring

A framework for Biophysical and Ecological Monitoring

Box 1.2 Why monitor biophysical and ecological changes?

A framework for Biophysical and Ecological Monitoring

Part 2: Conceptual Framework

A framework for Biophysical and Ecological Monitoring

A framework for Biophysical and Ecological Monitoring

Figure 2.1 Unifying Conceptual Model 1. Ecosystem Health

Monitoring Framework for watershed-based development Levels of analysis

Watershed Categories of biophysical & ecological change

Soil Water Phytomass Biodiversity

Supporting services Regulating services Provisioning services Cultural services

Directional changes in structure and function

A framework for Biophysical and Ecological Monitoring

A framework for Biophysical and Ecological Monitoring

A framework for Biophysical and Ecological Monitoring

A framework for Biophysical and Ecological Monitoring

A framework for Biophysical and Ecological Monitoring

Figure 2.2 Path of succession in a forest ecosystem

Sou rce: http://mff.dsisd.net/Environment/Succession.htm

A framework for Biophysical and Ecological Monitoring

A framework for Biophysical and Ecological Monitoring

A framework for Biophysical and Ecological Monitoring

A framework for Biophysical and Ecological Monitoring

A framework for Biophysical and Ecological Monitoring

Part 3: Practical Framework Indicators and Methods

A framework for Biophysical and Ecological Monitoring

A framework for Biophysical and Ecological Monitoring

Ecosystem Organization (Structure)

Ecosystem Vigor (Function)

Air Quality (regulatory process) Climate Regulation (Regulatory process)

A framework for Biophysical and Ecological Monitoring

A framework for Biophysical and Ecological Monitoring

3.2.5 Food/Fodder/Timber/Fuel /Fiber

Yes Yes Yes

A framework for Biophysical and Ecological Monitoring

A framework for Biophysical and Ecological Monitoring

A framework for Biophysical and Ecological Monitoring