Autonomous Mobile Robots, Chapter 3

Mobile Robot Kinematics

Requirements for Motion Control
Kinematic / dynamic model of the robot Model of the interaction between the wheel and the ground Definition of required motion -> speed control, position control Control law that satisfies the requirements
Localization
Environment Model Local Map "Position" Global Map

Cognition
Path

Perception

Real World Environment

Motion Control
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Autonomous Mobile Robots, Chapter 3

Introduction:

Mobile Robot Kinematics

Aim
Description of mechanical behavior of the robot for design and control Similar to robot manipulator kinematics However, mobile robots can move unbound with respect to its environment
o there is no direct way to measure the robots position o Position must be integrated over time o Leads to inaccuracies of the position (motion) estimate -> the number 1 challenge in mobile robotics

Understanding mobile robot motion starts with understanding wheel constraints placed on the robots mobility

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Autonomous Mobile Robots, Chapter 3

3.2.1

Introduction:

Kinematics Model

Goal:

& & establish the robot speed & = x y steering angles i , steering speeds robot (configuration coordinates). forward kinematics

T & & as a function of the wheel speeds i , & and the geometric parameters of the
i

yI v(t) s(t)

& x y = f ( ,K , ,K , ,K ) & & & &1 &n 1 = & m 1 m &

Inverse kinematics
& [
1

xI

& n

1 K m

& & 1 K m

& & & = f ( x , y , )

why not

x y = f ( ,K , ,K ) -> not straight forward 1 n 1 m

R. Siegwart, I. Nourbakhsh

Autonomous Mobile Robots, Chapter 3

3.2.1

Representing Robot Position

Representing to robot within an arbitrary initial frame
Initial frame: Robot frame:

{X I , YI } {X R ,YR }

YI YR

Robot position:

I = [x

y ]T
P

XR

Mapping between the two frames T & & & & R = R( ) I = R( ) x y &

XI

cos R( ) = sin 0

sin cos 0

0 0 1

YI

XR

Example: Robot aligned with YI

YR XI
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Autonomous Mobile Robots, Chapter 3

3.2.1

Example
Presented on blackboard
YI YR XR P

XI
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Autonomous Mobile Robots, Chapter 3

3.2.1

Example

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Autonomous Mobile Robots, Chapter 3

3.2.3

Wheel Kinematic Constraints: Assumptions

YI YR

Movement on a horizontal plane Point contact of the wheels Wheels not deformable Pure rolling
vc = 0 at contact point

& r
P

XR

No slipping, skidding or sliding No friction for rotation around contact point Steering axes orthogonal to the surface Wheels connected by rigid frame (chassis)

XI

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Autonomous Mobile Robots, Chapter 3

Wheel Kinematic Constraints:

3.2.3

Fixed Standard Wheel

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Autonomous Mobile Robots, Chapter 3

. (l) . (l) cos()

3.2.3

. l sin()

Robot chassis

.
. y sin(+)

. x cos(+)
) (+

l . x

v=r

) + (

. y (-cos(+)) . x sin(+)

& & & R = [x y ] T

. y
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Autonomous Mobile Robots, Chapter 3

3.2.3

Example

Suppose that the wheel A is in position such that = 0 and = 0 This would place the contact point of the wheel on XI with the plane of the wheel oriented parallel to YI. If = 0, then the sliding constraint reduces to:

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Autonomous Mobile Robots, Chapter 3

Wheel Kinematic Constraints:

3.2.3

Steered Standard Wheel

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Autonomous Mobile Robots, Chapter 3

Wheel Kinematic Constraints:

3.2.3

Castor Wheel

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Autonomous Mobile Robots, Chapter 3

Wheel Kinematic Constraints:

3.2.3

Swedish Wheel

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Autonomous Mobile Robots, Chapter 3

Wheel Kinematic Constraints:

3.2.3

Spherical Wheel

Rotational Axis of the wheel can have an arbitrary direction

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Autonomous Mobile Robots, Chapter 3

3.2.4

Robot Kinematic Constraints

Given a robot with M wheels
each wheel imposes zero or more constraints on the robot motion only fixed and steerable standard wheels impose constraints

What is the maneuverability of a robot considering a combination of different wheels? Suppose we have a total of N=Nf + Ns standard wheels
We can develop the equations for the constraints in matrix forms: Rolling f (t ) J & & J1 ( s ) = 1 f J 2 = diag (r1 L rN ) J1 ( s ) R ( ) I + J 2 = 0 (t ) = s (t ) J1s ( s ) Lateral movement
& C1 ( s ) R ( ) I = 0

(N f + N s )1

(N f + N s )3

C C1 ( s ) = 1 f C1s ( s )

(N f + N s )3

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Autonomous Mobile Robots, Chapter 3

3.3

Mobile Robot Maneuverability

The maneuverability of a mobile robot is the combination
of the mobility available based on the sliding constraints plus additional freedom contributed by the steering

Three wheels is sufficient for static stability

additional wheels need to be synchronized this is also the case for some arrangements with three wheels

It can be derived using the equation seen before

Degree of mobility Degree of steerability Robots maneuverability
m s M = m +s
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Autonomous Mobile Robots, Chapter 3

3.3.1

Mobile Robot Maneuverability: Degree of Mobility

To avoid any lateral slip the motion vector R( )&I has to satisfy the following constraints:
& C1 f R ( ) I = 0

& C1s ( s ) R ( ) I = 0

C C1 ( s ) = 1 f C1s ( s )

Mathematically:
& R( ) I must belong to the null space of the projection matrix C1 ( s )

Null space of C1 ( s ) is the space N such that for any vector n in N

C1 ( s ) n = 0

Geometrically this can be shown by the Instantaneous Center of Rotation (ICR)

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Autonomous Mobile Robots, Chapter 3

3.3.1

Mobile Robot Maneuverability: Instantaneous Center of Rotation Ackermann Steering Bicycle

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Autonomous Mobile Robots, Chapter 3

3.3.1

Mobile Robot Maneuverability: More on Degree of Mobility Robot chassis kinematics is a function of the set of independent constraints rank [C1 ( s )]
the greater the rank of , C1 ( s ) the more constrained is the mobility

Mathematically

m = dim N [C1 ( s )] = 3 rank [C1 ( s )]

o no standard wheels o all direction constrained

rank [C1 ( s )] = 0 rank [C1 ( s )] = 3

0 rank [C1 ( s )] 3

Examples:
Unicycle: One single fixed standard wheel Differential drive: Two fixed standard wheels
o wheels on same axle o wheels on different axle
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Autonomous Mobile Robots, Chapter 3

3.3.2

Mobile Robot Maneuverability: Degree of Steerability

Indirect degree of motion
s = rank [C1s ( s )] The particular orientation at any instant imposes a kinematic constraint However, the ability to change that orientation can lead additional degree of maneuverability

Range of s : Examples:

0 s 2

one steered wheel: Tricycle two steered wheels: No fixed standard wheel -> common axle car (Ackermann steering): Nf = 2, Ns=2

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Autonomous Mobile Robots, Chapter 3

3.3.3

Mobile Robot Maneuverability: Robot Maneuverability

Degree of Maneuverability
M = m +s

Two robots with same M are not necessary equal Example: Differential drive and Tricycle (next slide) For any robot with M = 2 the ICR is always constrained to lie on a line For any robot with M = 3 the ICR is not constrained an can be set to any point on the plane

The Synchro Drive example:

M = m + s =1+1 = 2
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Autonomous Mobile Robots, Chapter 3

3.3.3

Mobile Robot Maneuverability: Wheel Configurations

Differential Drive Tricycle

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Autonomous Mobile Robots, Chapter 3

3.3.3

Five Basic Types of Three-Wheel Configurations

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Autonomous Mobile Robots, Chapter 3

3.3.3

Synchro Drive
M = m + s =1+1 = 2

Video: J. Borenstein

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Autonomous Mobile Robots, Chapter 3

3.4.1

Mobile Robot Workspace: Degrees of Freedom

Maneuverability is equivalent to the vehicles degree of freedom (DOF) But what is the degree of vehicles freedom in its environment?
Car example

Workspace
how the vehicle is able to move between different configuration in its workspace?

The robots independently achievable velocities

= differentiable degrees of freedom (DDOF) = m Bicycle: M = m + s = 1 + 1 DDOF = 1; DOF=3 Omni Drive: M = m + s = 3 + 0 DDOF=3; DOF=3

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Autonomous Mobile Robots, Chapter 3

3.4.2

Mobile Robot Workspace: Degrees of Freedom, Holonomy DOF degrees of freedom:

Robots ability to achieve various poses

DDOF differentiable degrees of freedom:

Robots ability to achieve various path

DDOF m DOF
Holonomic Robots
A holonomic kinematic constraint can be expressed a an explicit function of position variables only A non-holonomic constraint requires a different relationship, such as the derivative of a position variable Fixed and steered standard wheels impose non-holonomic constraints
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Autonomous Mobile Robots, Chapter 3

Mobile Robot Workspace:

3.4.2

Examples of Holonomic Robots

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Autonomous Mobile Robots, Chapter 3

3.4.3

Path / Trajectory Considerations: Omnidirectional Drive

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Autonomous Mobile Robots, Chapter 3

3.4.3

Path / Trajectory Considerations: Two-Steer

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