Chapter 1: Introduction to Physics Physical quantities Base quantities QUANTITIES that are measurable

PHYSICAL QUANTITIES that cannot be defined in terms of other physical quantities but has its own definition

Derived quantities PHYSICAL QUANTITIES that are derived from base quantities by multiplication or division or both Scalar quantity Vector quantity QUANTITY which has only magnitude or size (time, temperature, mass, volume, distance, density, power) QUANTITY which has both magnitude or size and direction (force, velocity, displacement, acceleration, momentum)

Systematic errors CUMULATIVE ERRORS that can be corrected, if the errors are known. (zero error, incorrect calibration of measuring instrument) Random errors Zero error Parallax error ERRORS that arise from unknown and unpredictable variations in condition, and will produce a different error ERROR that arises when the measuring instrument does not start from exactly zero ERROR in reading an instrument because the observers eyes and the pointer are not in a line perpendicular to the plane of scale ABILITY to register the same reading when a measurement is repeated (improve eliminates parallax error, greater care, not detective instrument) DEGREE to which a measurement represents the actual value (improve repeat readings, avoid parallax/zero error, high accuracy instrument) ABILITY to detect quickly a small change in the value of a measurement (thermometer thin wall bulb, narrow capillary)

Consistency

Accuracy

Sensitivity

Chapter 2: Forces and Motion Distance how far a body travels during motion

Displacement CHANGE IN POSITION of an object from its initial position in a specified direction Speed Velocity Mass RATE OF CHANGE of distance RATE OF CHANGE of displacement AMOUNT of matter in the object RATE OF CHANGE of velocity

Acceleration

Inertia PROPERTY of matter that causes it to resist any change in its motion or state of rest Momentum PRODUCT of mass and velocity Force pulling or a pushing ACTION on an object

Impulsive force LARGE FORCE which acts over a very short time interval/RATE OF CHANGE in momentum Gravity FORCE originated from centre of the Earth that pulls all objects towards the ground Free fall FALLING of an object without encountering any resistance from a height towards the earth with an acceleration due to gravity

Forces in equilibrium An object is said to be in a state of equilibrium when forces act upon an object and it remains stationary or moves at a constant velocity Resultant force which act on an object SINGLE FORCE which combines two or more forces

Work Work is done when a force causes an object to move in the direction of the force. Energy CAPACITY of a system to do work

Gravitational PE ENERGY STORED in the object because of its height above the earth surface Elastic PE compressing it Kinetic energy ENERGY STORED in the object as a result of stretching or ENERGY possessed by a moving object

Power transferred Efficiency

RATE at which work is done or energy is changed and ABILITY of an electrical appliance to transform energy from one form to another without producing useless energy or wastage PROPERTY of an object that enables it to return to its original shape and dimensions after an applied force is removed FORCE needed to extend a spring per unit length

Elasticity Spring constant

Elastic limit MAXIMUM STRETCHING FORCE which can be applied to an elastic material before it ceases to be elastic PRINCIPLE Hookes Law the force, F applied to a spring is directly proportional to the springs extension or compression, x, provided the elastic limit is not exceeded. Principle of conservation of energy total energy in an isolated system is neither increased nor decreased by any transformation. Energy cannot be created nor destroyed, but it can be transformed from one kind to another, and the total amount stays the same. Principle of conservation of momentum in any collision or interaction between two or more objects in an isolated system, the total momentum of the system will remain constant; that is, the total initial momentum will equal the total final momentum. Newtons first law of motion a body will either remain at rest or continue with constant velocity unless it is acted on by an external unbalanced force. Newtons second law of motion the acceleration a body experiences is directly proportional to the net force acting on it, and inversely proportional to its mass. F =ma Newtons third law of motion to every action there is an equal but opposite reaction.

Chapter 3: Forces and Pressure Pressure FORCE acting normally on a unit surface area

Gas pressure FORCE per unit area exerted by the gas particles as they collide with the walls of their container (due to the rate of change of momentum) Buoyant force NET FORCE acting upwards due to the difference between the forces acting on the upper surface and the lower surface

PRINCIPLE Law of Flotation the weight of an object floating on the surface of a liquid is equal to the weight of water displaced by the object. (weight of object = weight of water displaced) Archimedes principle the buoyant force on a body immersed in a fluid is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by that object (buoyant force = weight of water displaced) Pascals Principle a pressure applied to a confined fluid is transmitted uniformly in all directions throughout the fluid. Bernoullis principle the pressure of a moving fluid decreases as the speed of the fluid increases, and the converse is also true.

Chapter 4: Heat Temperature DEGREE of hotness of an object

Thermometric property PHYSICAL PROPERTY of a substance which is sensitive to and varies linearly with the temperature change Thermal equilibrium A STATE when heat transfer between the two objects are equal and the net rate of heat transfer between the two objects are zero HEAT ENERGY required to raise its temperature

Heat capacity by 1C or 1 K

Specific heat capacity HEAT ENERGY required to produce 1C or 1 K rise in temperature in a mass of 1 kg. Latent heat HEAT ABSORBED OR RELEASED when a substance changes its state without a change in temperature is called the latent heat of the substance

Specific latent heat of fusionHEAT ENERGY required to change 1 kg of a substance from solid state to liquid state, without a change in temperature of vapourisation HEAT ENERGY required to change 1 kg of a substance from liquid state to gaseous state, without a change in temperature at its boiling point

PRINCIPLE Boyles Law the pressure of a fixed mass of gas is inversely proportional to its volume provided the temperature of the gas is kept constant(PV = k)

Pressure Law the pressure of a fixed mass of gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature (in Kelvin), provided the volume of the gas is kept constant (P/T = k) Charles Law the volume of a fixed mass of gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature (in Kelvin), provided the pressure of the gas is kept constant

Chapter 5: Light Refraction PHENOMENON where the direction of light is changed when it crosses the boundary between two materials of different optical densities as a result of a change in the velocity of light. Apparent depth,d DISTANCE of the image from the surface of water (or the boundary between the two mediums involved) Real depth,D DISTANCE of the object from the surface of the water (or the boundary between the two mediums involved)

Total internal reflection TOTAL REFLECTION of a beam of light at the boundary of two mediums, when the angle of incidence in the optically denser medium exceeds a specific critical angle Critical angle GREATEST ANGLE OF INCIDENCE in the optically denser medium for which the angle of refraction, r = 90 MEASURE OF ITS ABILITY to converge or diverge an

Power of lens incident beam of light

PRINCIPLE Laws of Reflection -the angle of incidence, i, is equal to the angle of reflection, r (i = r) -the incident ray, normal and reflected ray will all lie in the same plane Law of Refraction -The incident ray and the refracted ray are on the opposite sides of the normal at the point of incidence, all three lie in the same plane -Obey Snells law Snells Law The value of sin i/sin r is a constant IMAGE CHARACTERISTICS Virtual screen Real an image which cannot be projected (focused) onto a an image which can be projected (focused) onto a screen an image which left and right are interchanged an image which in vertical position image formed is smaller than the object

Laterally inverted Upright Diminished

Magnified

image formed is larger than the objec

Chapter 1 Waves Waves A TYPE OF DISTURBANCE produced by an oscillating or vibrating motion in which a point or body moves back and forth along a line about a fixed central point produces waves. Wavefront LINE OR PLANE on which the vibrations of every points are in phase and are at the same distance from the source of the wave. In phase = same direction, same displacement Transverse Wave WAVE in which the vibration of particles in the medium is perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the wave (water waves, light waves, electromagnetic waves) Longitudinal Wave WAVE in which the vibration of particles in the medium is parallel to the direction of propagation of the wave

(sound waves, ultrasound) Amplitude MAXIMUM DISPLACEMENT form its equilibrium position MEASURE of height of the wave crest or depth of the wave trough. Period TIME TAKEN to complete an oscillation, from one extreme point to the other and back to the same position. Frequency NUMBER OF COMPLETE OSCILLATIONS made by a vibrating system in one second Wavelength, DISTANCE between successive points of the same phase in a wave Damping DECREASE in the amplitude of an oscillating system is called damping (Internal damping: extension and compression of molecules External damping: frictional force/ air resistance) Resonance Resonance occurs when a system is made to oscillate at a frequency equivalent to its natural frequency by an external force. The resonating system oscillates at its maximum amplitude. Natural frequency FUNDAMENTAL FREQUENCY of which an object vibrates. It is the frequency of a system which oscillates freely without external force Reflection of wave Reflection of wave occurs when a wave strike an obstacle direction ; f = ; a = ; = Refraction of wave Refraction of wave occurs when a wave travel from one medium to another f = ; v ; ; direction

Diffraction of waves PHENOMENON in which waves spread out as they passed through an aperture or round a small circle f = ; = ; speed = ; v ; direction Interference of waves SUPERPOSITION of two waves originating from two coherent sources coherent = same frequency, amplitude and in phase Constructive interference Constructive interference occurs when the both crests or both troughs of both waves coincide to produce a wave with crests and troughs of maximum amplitude Destructive interference Destructive interference occurs when the crest of one wave coincides with the trough of the other wave, thus cancelling each other with the result that the resultant amplitude is zero. Antinode POINT where constructive interference occurs. Node POINT where destructive interference occurs

Electromagnetic waves PROPAGATING WAVES in space with electric and magnetic components. These components oscillate at right angles to each other and to the direction of propagation of wave. Monochromatic light LIGHT with only one wavelength and colour PRINCIPLE Principle of superposition Principle of superposition states that at any instant, the wave displacement of the combined motion of any number of

interacting waves at a point is the sum of the displacements of all the components waves at that point.

Chapter 2 Electricity Charge, Q WORK DONE to move a unit of voltage in a circuit Current, I RATE of flow of charge Potential difference, V WORK DONE in moving one coulomb of charge from one point to another in an electric field Electric field A FIELD in which electric charge experiences an electric force A FIELD in which electric force acts in a particle with electric charge Circuit CLOSED LOOP through which charge can continuously flow Resistance, R RATIO of the potential difference across the conductor to the current flowing through it MEASURE of the ability of the conductor to resist the flow of an electric current through it Superconductor

CONDUCTOR in which its resistance will suddenly become zero when it is cooled below a certain temperature called the critical temperature Electromotive force (e.m.f.) TOTAL ENERGY supplied by a cell to move a unit of electrical charge from one terminal to the other through the cell and the external circuit Power rating RATE at which it consumes electrical energy. PRINCIPLE Ohms Law Ohms law states that the electric current,I flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference across the ends of conductor, if temperature and other physical conditions remain constant. That is, v is directly proportional to r

Chapter 4 Electronics Thermoionic emission EMISSION of electrons from hot metal surface Work function MINIMUM ENERGY required to eject electrons from surface Cathode ray fast moving ELECTRONS travel in a straight line in vacuum Cathode ray oscilloscope measuring and testing INSTRUMENT used in study of electricity and electronics Conductor MATERIAL which allows current to flow through them Semiconductor MATERIAL whose resistance is between good conductor and insulator Insulator MATERIAL which does not conduct electric current Junction voltage POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE acting from n-type to p-type material of a diode across the depletion layer

Rectification CONVERSION of a.c. to d.c. by diode Smoothing PROCESS where output is smoothed by connecting a capacitor across load that acts as a reservoir and maintains potential difference across load Logic gates ELECTRONIC SWITCHES with one or more inputs and one output.

Chapter 5 Radioactivity Atom An atom consists of a nucleus which is made up of protons and neutrons, with electrons orbiting the nucleus. Nuclide TYPE of nucleus with particular proton number and nucleon number Proton number NUMBER of protons in the nucleus of an atom Nucleon number NUMBER of protons and neutrons in an atom Isotopes ATOMS of an element which have the same proton number but different nucleon number(similar chemical properties but differs in physical properties) Radioactivity SPONTANEOUS DISINTEGRATION of unstable nucleus into a more stable nucleus with the emission of energetic particles or protons

Radioactive decay PROCESS where an unstable nucleus becomes a more stable nucleus by emitting radiations Radioisotope ISOTOPE that has unstable nucleus that tends to undergo radioactive decay Half life TIME TAKEN for the activity of atoms to fall to half its original value TIME TAKEN for half the atoms in a given sample to decay Nuclear fission PROCESS involving the splitting of a heavy nucleus into two nuclei of roughly equal mass and shooting out several neutrons at the same time. Nuclear fusion PROCESS involving the fusion of two or more small and light nuclei come together to form a heavier nucleus. PRINCIPLE Einsteins Principle of Mass-Energy Conservation The change of energy is linked to the change of mass by the equation, E=mc2