Synopsis: Osmotic Power Generation.

Osmotic power or salinity gradient power is the energy available from the difference in the salt concentration between seawater and river water. Two practical methods for this are reverse electrodialysis (RED) and pressure-retarded osmosis. (PRO). Both processes rely on osmosis with ion specific membranes. The key waste product is brackish water. This byproduct is the result of natural forces that are being harnessed: the flow of fresh water into seas that are made up of salt water. The technologies have been confirmed in laboratory conditions. They are being developed into commercial use in the Netherlands (RED) and Norway (PRO). The cost of the membrane has been an obstacle. A new, cheap membrane, based on an electrically modified polyethylene plastic, made it fit for potential commercial use.[3] Other methods have been proposed and are currently under development. Among them, a method based on electric double-layer capacitor technology. and a method based on vapor pressure difference. The world's first prototype osmotic power station came on stream, Sited on the banks of the Oslo fjord in southern Norway, it generates electricity using the natural process that keeps plants standing upright and the cells of our own bodies swollen, rigid and hydrated. Osmosis occurs wherever two solutions of different concentrations meet at a semipermeable membrane. The spontaneous passage of water from dilute to concentrated solutions through the membrane generates a pressure difference that can be harnessed to generate power. "The potential is huge," said Terje Riis-Johansen, the Norwegian minister for petroleum and energy, speaking at the new plant's opening ceremony in Tofte, near Oslo, on Tuesday.

Statkraft, the renewable-energy giant running the project, estimates the total global potential of osmotic power to be around 1700 terawatt-hours per year about 10 per cent of the world's current electricity consumption. In the prototype plant, the two solutions used are salt and fresh water, siphoned from near the point where they meet at the mouth of the fjord.

The two liquids are pumped to either side of a membrane, where osmosis creates a pressure equivalent to a column of water 120 metres high. This is used to drive a turbine and generate electricity. Many of the world's major cities are on river estuaries that could be ideal for osmotic power generation. Unlike wind and solar power, it can provide a continuous source of energy, although seasonal river-level changes do cause some fluctuations. Discounting the power used to pump the water into the facility in the first place, the Tofte plant is currently producing just 4 kilowatts enough to continuously boil two or three kettles. Scaling up the technology could prove difficult, critics say, because fundamental questions such as the effect of silt and river bacteria on the membranes' performance over time have not been resolved. Stein Erik Skilhagen, head of osmotic power at Statkraft, admits the uncertainties, but says it is important to have made a start. "There are no doubt many challenges to come," he says. "I can't tell you what they will be."

http://youtu.be/YZV86xqELNc http://youtu.be/Oc5bXa5PcWo
Osmotic power is clean, renewable energy, with a global potential of 1600 to 1700 TWh - equal to China's total electricity consumption in 2002. To find out more go to: http://www.statkraft.com/energy-sources/osmotic-power/ When freshwater meets saltwater, for example where a river flows out into the sea, enormous quantities of energy are released. This energy can be utilised to generate power through the natural phenomenon of osmosis. Osmosis is the transport of water from an area with low concentration of dissolved substances (e.g. salt) through a membrane to an area with a higher concentration. The membrane is semi-permeable. It allows some substances to pass through, but stops other substances. Nature will seek to equalise the difference in concentration between the two sides of the membrane. It is this mechanism which enables plants to absorb moisture through there leaves and retain it. As water is drawn through the membrane one way only, a pressure is generated on the "inside", which in an osmotic power plant can be utilised to generate electricity.

How does osmotic power work?

When freshwater and seawater meet on either side of a membrane, the natural phenomenon of osmosis will cause the freshwater to be drawn towards the seawater side. The membrane only allows freshwater to flow trough and stop

the saltwater. Thus creating a pressure on the seawater side that can be used to drive a turbine. The pressure is 12 BAR, equivalent to a 120-metre waterfall.

What are the advantages of osmotic power, compared to other energy sources?
Osmotic power is a renewable, environment-friendly energy source. Power plants can in principle be built anywhere freshwater meets seawater. They can generate power 24/7, regardless weather conditions.

What are the most important parts of an osmotic power plant?

The membrane is the heart of the technology, while a turbine is needed to generate electricity, as well as pumps and pipes to transport water throughout the plant. The plant also comprises a water cleaning unit (to prevent clogged/damaged membranes) and a cleaning unit for the membranes (which must be washed regularly).

What is the production potential?

According to our calculations, osmotic power has a global potential of 1600-1700 TWh annually, or equivalent to 50 per cent of current power production in the EU. The potential is approx. 180 TWh in Europe and 12 TWh in Norway.

Why has Statkraft decided to invest in osmotic power?

This is in line with our vision of meeting the world's need for cleaner energy. At the same time, we can exploit our hundred years of experience in using river water and turbines to generate power.

Is your facility at Tofte the world's first osmotic power prototype?

This is the first time anyone has generated electricity by mixing freshwater and seawater.

How is the prototype constructed?

The prototype consists of membranes, pipes, a cleaning unit, pressure exchangers and a turbine. The plant is modular and consists of 66 pressure pipes with rolled-up membranes on the inside. The advantage of a modulebased plant is that parts of the facility can be taken out of operation for cleaning and maintenance while the rest of the facility remains in operation. The Tofte prototype holds a total of 2000 m2 of membranes.

What is the membrane's efficiency?

The one we are going to test now has a efficiency of less than 1 watt per square metre, but we plan to install membranes that can deliver 2-3 watts after we have run the plant for awhile. The objective is to reach 5 watts.

How much electricity will the prototype generate?

It's designed for 10 kW, but will initially be around 2-4 kW, enough to operate a coffee-maker.

Will the plant be connected to the grid?

Whatever we generate will be supplied to the Hurum Energiverk power grid.

When will Statkraft build a full-scale osmotic power plant?

The prototype will be in operation for 2-3 years, the next phase is a 1-2 MW pilot facility, before we build a full-scale facility, if viable. The ambition is to build a full-scale osmotic power plant in 2015.

What do you need to build a full-scale power plant?

First and foremost, the membrane must be better. We must also be able to transfer the pressure to the turbine without using too much of the energy in the system. Membrane performance must be increased up towards 5 watts per square metre.

What will a full-scale power plant look like?

A power plant the size of a football stadium could have a capacity of 25 MW, which would require five million square metres of membrane. The plant could produce 166 GWh of electricity per year enough to supply 30 000 European households.

How much water is needed for a full-scale plant?

To achieve an output of 1 MW, one cubic meter of freshwater (per second) must be mixed with two cubic meters of seawater at 12 bar. This means that a typical 25 MW plant will need 25 m3 of freshwater and 50 m3 of seawater per second. As the technology is based on modules, the power plant can be scaled up or down according to the available resources.

Where are possible building sites in Norway?

Anywhere where clean freshwater runs into the sea. Preferably close to consumers/the grid. Most relevant in Western Norway and northwards along the coast, where the water in the rivers is often very clean.

Which parts of the world have the best conditions for production of osmotic power?
All areas of the world that have ample access to both freshwater and saltwater. In the northern hemisphere, this is particularly interesting for Scandinavia, Russia and Canada because of the water resources. Comparable resources also exist in South America and Africa.

Who came up with the idea of developing osmotic power?

The late US professor Sidney Loeb had the idea to use membranes for desalination in the early 1970s when he discovered that a similar process could be used to generate power, that is, osmotic power. Back then, power prices

were so low that no one was interested in investing to develop the technology. Later on, the researchers Dr. Thor Thorsen and Dr. Torleif Holt at SINTEF began to research osmotic power. These men contacted Statkraft in 1996, which led to the beginning of the development up to the present day.

Bibliography www.statkraft.com/energy-sources/osmotic-power/ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osmotic_power http://osmoticpower.com/

Basics of salinity gradient power

Pressure-retarded osmosis

Salinity gradient power is a specific renewable energy alternative that creates renewable and sustainable power by using naturally occurring processes. This practice does not contaminate or release carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions (vapor pressure methods will release dissolved air containing CO 2 at low pressuresthese non-condensable gases can be re-dissolved of course, but with an energy penalty).

Also as stated by Jones and Finley within their article Recent Development in Salinity Gradient Power, there is basically no fuel cost. Salinity gradient energy is based on using the resources of osmotic pressure difference between fresh water and sea water.
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All energy that is proposed to use salinity gradient technology relies on the

evaporation to separate water from salt. Osmotic pressure is the "chemical potential of concentrated and dilute solutions of salt".
[12]

When looking at relations between high osmotic pressure and low, solutions

with higher concentrations of salt have higher pressure. Differing salinity gradient power generations exist but one of the most commonly discussed is Pressure Retarded Osmosis (PRO).This method of generating power was invented by Prof. Sidney Loeb in 1973 at the Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beersheba, Israel.
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Within PRO seawater is pumped into a

pressure chamber where the pressure is lower than the difference between fresh and salt water pressure. Fresh water moves in a semipermeable membrane and increases its volume in the chamber. As the pressure in the chamber is compensated a turbine spins to generate electricity. In Braun's article he states that this process is easy to understand in a more broken down manner. Two solutions, A being salt water and B being fresh water are separated by a membrane. He states "only water molecules can pass the semipermeable membrane. As a result of the osmotic pressure difference between both solutions, the water from solution B thus will diffuse through the membrane in order to dilute the solution". pressure drives the turbines and power the generator that produces the electrical energy. Osmosis might be used directly to "pump" fresh water out of The Netherlands into the sea. This is currently done using electric pumps. [edit]Methods While the mechanics and concepts of salinity gradient power are still being studied, the power source has been implemented in several different locations. Most of these are experimental, but thus far they have been predominantly successful. The various companies that have utilized this power have also done so in many different ways as there are several concepts and processes that harness the power from salinity gradient. [edit]Pressure-retarded
[14]

The

osmosis
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One method to utilize salinity gradient energy is called pressure-retarded osmosis.

In this method,

seawater is pumped into a pressure chamber that is at a pressure lower than the difference between the pressures of saline water and fresh water. Freshwater is also pumped into the pressure chamber through a membrane, which increase both the volume and pressure of the chamber. As the pressure differences are compensated, a turbine is spun creating energy. This method is being specifically studied by the Norwegian utility Statkraft, which has calculated that up to 25 TWh/yr would be available from this

process in Norway.

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Statkraft has built the world's first prototype osmotic power plant on the Oslo fiord
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which was opened by Her Royal Highness Crown Princess Mette-Marit of Norway

on November 24,

2009. It aims to produce enough electricity to light and heat a small town within five years by osmosis. At first it will produce a minuscule 4 kilowatts enough to heat a large electric kettle, but by 2015 the target is 25 megawatts the same as a small wind farm. [edit]Reversed
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electrodialysis

A second method being developed and studied is reversed electrodialysis or reverse dialysis, which is essentially the creation of a salt battery. This method was described by Weinstein and Leitz as an array of alternating anion and cation exchange membranes can be used to generate electric power from the free energy of river and sea water. The technology related to this type of power is still in its infant stages, even though the principle was discovered in the 1950s. Standards and a complete understanding of all the ways salinity gradients can be utilized are important goals to strive for in order make this clean energy source more viable in the future. [edit]Capacitive

method
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A third method is Doriano Brogioli's

capacitive method, which is relatively new and has so far only been

tested on lab scale. With this method energy can be extracted out of the mixing of saline water and freshwater by cyclically charging up electrodes in contact with saline water, followed by a discharge in freshwater. Since the amount of electrical energy which is needed during the charging step is less than one gets out during the discharge step, each completed cycle effectively produces energy. An intuitive explanation of this effect is that the great number of ions in the saline water efficiently neutralizes the charge on each electrode by forming a thin layer of opposite charge very close to the electrode surface, known as anelectric double layer. Therefore, the voltage over the electrodes remains low during the charge step and charging is relatively easy. In between the charge and discharge step, the electrodes are brought in contact with freshwater. After this, there are less ions available to neutralize the charge on each electrode such that the voltage over the electrodes increases. The discharge step which follows is therefore able to deliver a relatively high amount of energy. A physical explanation is that on an electrically charged capacitor, there is a mutually attractive electric force between the electric charge on the electrode, and the ionic charge in the liquid. In order to pull ions away from the charged electrode, osmotic pressure must dowork. This work done increases the electrical potential energy in the capacitor. An electronic explanation is that capacitance is a function of ion density. By introducing a salinity gradient and allowing some of the ions to diffuse out of the capacitor, this reduces the capacitance, and so the voltage must increase, since the voltage equals the ratio of charge to capacitance.

[edit]Absorption

refrigeration cycle

For the purpose of dehumidifying air, in a water-spray absorption refrigeration system, water vapor is dissolved into a deliquescent salt water mixture using osmotic power as an intermediary. The primary power source originates from a thermal difference, as part of a thermodynamic heat engine cycle. [edit]Solar

pond

At the Eddy Potash Mine in New Mexico, a technology called "salinity gradient solar pond" (SGSP) is being utilized to provide the energy needed by the mine. This method does not harness osmotic power, only solar power (see: solar pond). Sunlight reaching the bottom of the saltwater pond is absorbed as heat. The effect of natural convection, wherein "heat rises", is blocked using density differences between the three layers that make up the pond, in order to trap heat. The upper convection zone is the uppermost zone, followed by the stable gradient zone, then the bottom thermal zone. The stable gradient zone is the most important. The saltwater in this layer can not rise to the higher zone because the saltwater above has lower salinity and is therefore less-dense and more buoyant; and it can not sink to the lower level because that saltwater is denser. This middle zone, the stable gradient zone, effectively becomes an "insulator" for the bottom layer (although the main purpose is to block natural convection, since water is a poor insulator). This water from the lower layer, the storage zone, is pumped out and the heat is used to produce energy, usually by turbine in an organic Rankine cycle.
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In theory a solar pond could be used to generate osmotic power if evaporation from solar heat is used to create a salinity gradient, and the potential energy in this salinity gradient isharnessed directly using one of the first three methods above, such as the capacitive method. [edit]Possible

negative environmental impact

Marine and river environments have obvious differences in water quality, namely salinity. Each species of aquatic plant and animal is adapted to survive in either marine, brackish, or freshwater environments. There are species that can tolerate both, but these species usually thrive best in a specific water environment. The main waste product of salinity gradient technology is brackish water. The discharge of brackish water into the surrounding waters, if done in large quantities and with any regularity, will cause salinity fluctuations. While some variation in salinity is usual, particularly where fresh water (rivers) empties into an ocean or sea anyway, these variations become less important for both bodies of water with the addition of brackish waste waters. Extreme salinity changes in an aquatic environment may result in findings of low densities of both animals and plants due to intolerance of sudden severe salinity drops or spikes.
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According to the prevailing environmentalist opinions, the possibility of these negative effects

should be considered by the operators of future large blue energy establishments.

Furthermore, impingement and entrainment at intake structures are a concern due to large volumes of both river and sea water utilized in both PRO and RED schemes. Intake construction permits must meet strict environmental regulations and desalination plants and power plants that utilize surface water are sometimes involved with various local, state and federal agencies to obtain permission that can take upwards to 18 months. Finally, some scientists have predicted that if China does not check their irrigation withdrawals from rivers, ALL Chinese rivers will not meet the ocean at least during some part of the year by 2025. This has already happened with the mother of Chinese rivers, the Yellow river. An investment in osmotic power must consider future upstream use in the long-run.