International Journal of Emerging Electric Power Systems

Volume 2, Issue 2 2005 Article 1039

Time-Overcurrent Relay Coordination: A Review

Dinesh Birla, IIT Roorkee Rudra Prakash Maheshwari, IIT Roorkee Hari Om Gupta, IIT Roorkee

Recommended Citation: Birla, Dinesh; Maheshwari, Rudra Prakash; and Gupta, Hari Om (2005) "Time-Overcurrent Relay Coordination: A Review," International Journal of Emerging Electric Power Systems: Vol. 2: Iss. 2, Article 1039. DOI: 10.2202/1553-779X.1039 Available at: http://www.bepress.com/ijeeps/vol2/iss2/art1039 2005 by the authors. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher, bepress, which has been given certain exclusive rights by the author. International Journal of Emerging Electric Power Systems is produced by Berkeley Electronic Press (bepress).

Time-Overcurrent Relay Coordination: A Review

Dinesh Birla, Rudra Prakash Maheshwari, and Hari Om Gupta

Abstract
When two protective apparatus installed in series have characteristics, which provide a specified operating sequence, they are said to be coordinated or selective. The coordination of directional overcurrent relays poses serious problems in the modern complex power system networks, which are interconnected. Researchers have looked upon the problem of coordination from different considerations by making use of computer aids. Many efforts have been made to the automation of the coordination process in the area of relay coordination. This paper compiles the most of the significant developments in the area of time-overcurrent relay coordination using different techniques and methodologies. It is hoped that this work will be useful for future generation researchers to find the relevant references to advance the research work in future. KEYWORDS: Coordination, Overcurrent relays (OCRs), Directional overcurrent relays (DOCRs), Breakpoints set (BP), Relative sequence matrix (RSM), Set of selection pairs (SSP), Time dial settings (TDS), Pickup current settings (Ip), Evolutionary programming (EP), Genetic algorithm (GA).

Birla et al.: Time-Overcurrent Relay Coordination: A Review

1. INTRODUCTION
Overcurrent relays (OCRs) and Directional overcurrent relays (DOCRs) are widely used for the protection of radial and ring sub transmission systems, and distribution systems. Directional overcurrent relaying is mainly used for the primary protection of ring distribution systems as the same magnitude of fault current can flow in either direction [1]. They are also used for secondary protection in transmission systems. Relays in different locations will detect greatly different currents during the same fault. The relay coordination problem is to determine the sequence of relay operations for each possible fault location so that the faulted section is isolated to provide sufficient coordination margins without excessive time delay [2]. The ultimate objective being improved power system reliability; this paper is an attempt to compile most of the significant developments in the area of relay coordination using different techniques and methodologies. The interconnected power transmission systems are protected by directional overcurrent relays, which are stand-alone devices and strategically placed throughout the system [3]. Main problem arises in performing the relay coordination with this type of protection in interconnected, multiloop power systems, where it is very difficult to set and coordinate the relays. The main difficulty arises in setting the last relay of a closed loop with proper and satisfying coordination with the relay set initially in that loop. If it does not, one will have to proceed again for coordination, around the loop. Further, a given relay usually participates in more than one loop [4, 5]. Proper identification of sequence of relays to be considered for coordination is also necessary. If an arbitrary order is assumed, changing the parameters of one relay for obtaining coordination for all the relevant primary/backup fault current pairs can disturb the proper coordination of some of the relay pairs already checked [6]. Earlier, the coordination of directional relays was performed by timeconsuming and tireless manual calculations. The use of computers in the coordination process has relieved engineers from these laborious calculations. This could be possible only when mathematical modeling of overcurrent relays for computer representation was presented [7, 8 and 9]. Now, sophisticated algorithms are available, which allow active interaction between the user and the computer [4, 5, 10 and 11]. Basically, two types of approaches are used for finding proper coordination, conventional philosophy, and the parameter optimization techniques. The basis of the conventional protection philosophy is the concept of pre-determinism i.e. analysis of all faults, abnormal operating conditions and system contingencies are predetermined [3, 12]. Drawback of this method being inability to determine relay response for a condition not previously included in the analysis, since it is practically impossible to handle

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International Journal of Emerging Electric Power Systems, Vol. 2 [2005], Iss. 2, Art. 1039

all the operating conditions of concern in advance. Breakpoints (BPs) are the desired locations of the starting relays in the coordination procedure. The breakpoints are used to decrease the number of iterations in a coordination process. The sequence for setting the relays is displayed by a relative sequence matrix (RSM). To set a relay, it must be known, to which relays this relay is backup. This relay is then set accordingly for satisfactory backup protection on all fault currents. The set of all primary/backup relay pairs sorted by backup relays is the set of selection pairs (SSP). Elaborate and complex topological analysis programs have been prepared to determine the breakpoints set, the relative sequence matrix, the set of selection pairs etc, and the facility for data management [4, 5, 13, and 14]. The optimization theory has simplified the coordination philosophy and because of the inherent advantages, it is gaining popularity. Most important advantage of optimization techniques is elimination of need to determine breakpoint set and hence the elaborate and complex topological analysis programs are not required. Other important advantage is that settings obtained are optimal whereas in the conventional methods the settings obtained are not optimal [6]. The evolution of the development of computer methods for implementing coordination using adaptive, traditional and optimization techniques is traced in this paper.

2. METHODOLOGIES USED TO ACHIEVE COORDINATION

As has already been stated, in the era prior to advent of digital computers, one of the problems associated with coordination of directional overcurrent relays was the tedious and time-consuming task of manual settings of protective relays. The problem was more complex in multi-loop, multi-source networks. The availability of digital computers led to rapid advancements in relay coordination process. In the early phase, only off-line computer relay coordination was reported [7, 15 and 16]. First significant attempt for the relay coordination using digital computers was reported in 1964 [15]. In this work a relay coordination program using a batch off-line approach was introduced. A case study applying this program to a utilitys transmission system was reported in [18]. A subsequent study followed a similar batch approach detailing various coordination criterions to be adopted [16]. In all these batch approaches, the protection engineer does not interact with the computer during the coordination process. Hence, effective use of engineers expertise and knowledge about the system is not utilized. These off-line approaches paved the way for the interactive methods [4, 5, 10 and 11] to develop. The absence of a systematic procedure and efficient ordering of relays for coordination in all these methods resulted in repeated iterations through all the system relays [17]. To tackle this problem heuristic scheme was proposed wherein relays were arranged in a

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Birla et al.: Time-Overcurrent Relay Coordination: A Review

sequence before they were considered for coordination [21]. One more approach proceeded along this line of thought to obtain optimum starting points and an optimum relay sequence using graph theory concepts [14]. These two approaches provided the basic groundwork for systematically analyzing the topology of the system, but did not include any of the relay coordination procedures. In the initial phase, the breakpoints set and relative sequence matrixes were found to carry out the relay coordination procedure [4, 5, 13, 14, 19, 20 and 21]. The development of a method for determining the minimum set of breakpoints was reported [13]. This method has been subsequently improved in further work [19]. A relatively better method has also been reported in which only the fundamental circuits of the system graph are used [20]. Extending the concepts introduced by [14], systematic algorithms for determining RSM and a corresponding SSP have been proposed [4, 5 and 10]. These have also proposed actual coordination algorithms using the RSM and SSP for the given transmission network. Research work on coordination of relays for specific area like radial distribution of lines was reported [22]. Algorithms and methodologies for system-wide coordination were described [4, 5, 10 and 11]. Need for subsystem coordination may arise when it is felt to modify the settings of a part of the large system for proper coordination, due to some changes in the system. One such algorithm for subsystem coordination was presented in 1990 [23]. In this paper the problem and methods to modify a small subset of relays, in response to changes in the system structure are described. Algorithms using different methodologies have been reported for coordination of directional overcurrent relays in interconnected and industrial networks [2, 22, 24 and 25]. However, these algorithms did not yield the optimal results [26]. 2.1 ADAPTIVE COORDINATION PHILOSOPHY Adaptive protection was defined in general terms and specific applications were highlighted which could be implemented using this philosophy [28]. In this referred paper, the adaptive relay setting is described as a possible application for implementing the coordination philosophy in the general framework of adaptive protection. At the same time another paper presented ideas about adaptive relaying [30]. Their treatment of the subject is also conceptual and general. One of the main differences between the two papers is that the later paper recognizes the timely human intervention as part of the overall adaptive protection philosophy. Traditionally, the directional overcurrent relays consisted of analog type electromechanical or solid-state relays, until their digital equivalent, microprocessor based relays came. It made possible to implement several types of characteristics in the same hardware or with a minimum change of hardware. Development of VLSI technology and the advent of power microprocessors have made the implementation of digital protection cost
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International Journal of Emerging Electric Power Systems, Vol. 2 [2005], Iss. 2, Art. 1039

effective [1]. It also made implementation of the adaptive protection feasible, facilitating change of relay settings on-line according to changed system requirements in line with relay coordination demands [3, 27, 28, 29, and 30]. An adaptive algorithm has been developed which would set and coordinate the relays in response to changes in system topology and load levels in an on-line mode by decomposing the network using the concept of parallel processing [3]. A method for adaptive coordination of overcurrent relays was proposed by dynamically varying the pick-up current as the load current varies [31]. In this, the relays are made to respond to the changing conditions, operational or structural, of a power system in a self-adaptive manner. A new adaptive protection scheme has used linear programming technique for optimal coordination of overcurrent relays [12]. Recently in 2003, an on-line adaptive scheme of relay-settings is proposed using an expert system, which detects and proposes the corrections of erroneous settings following changes in state of network [52]. 2.2 OTHER COORDINATION PHILOSOPHIES The various methods and techniques, which have been used, in the development of relay coordination can be categorized as under: (i) Curve fitting techniques. (ii) Graph theoretical techniques (iii) Optimization techniques. (a) Conventional optimization techniques like simplex, two-phase simplex, dual simplex, and Rosenbrock-Hillclimb methods. (b) Optimization using artificial intelligence techniques like fuzzy logic, neural networks, expert systems, genetic algorithm etc. (c) Optimization using interior point primal-dual algorithm. Work done by various researchers in the preceding categories of relay coordination techniques is presented in the following. (i) Curve fitting techniques The relay characteristics need to be modeled and stored in computer memory for performing relay coordination. Researchers have made many attempts in the past to model relay characteristics. Specifying many points of relay characteristic curve and storing in computer memory has disadvantage of occupying the large computer memory. The curve fitting techniques are used for determining the best function to represent data. The relay characteristics are modeled mathematically by polynomial form using curve-fitting techniques [15, 32, and 33].

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Birla et al.: Time-Overcurrent Relay Coordination: A Review

(ii) Graph theoretical techniques Graph theoretical techniques in the area of relay coordination are also reported [4, 5, 10, 13, 14, 21, 22, 24, 25 and 35]. They utilize the network structure for analyzing the information about minimum set of breakpoints, the sequence for setting relays and all primary/backup relays and line directionality for directional relays. An approach to identify and analyze all simple loops of the network in both directions was presented [14]. This provided the basis for relay setting algorithm developed thereafter. The database use and algorithms developed later have been explained for the purpose of development of relay coordination process [4, 5 and 10]. The concepts of functional dependency arising in data base system have also been utilized for topological analysis of the power systems. These overcome the drawback of high time taken for coordination in a system having large number of relays. Constraints on relay settings were expressed through a set of functional dependencies [35]. (iii) Optimization techniques (a) Conventional optimization: The determination of the time dial settings (TDS) of directional overcurrent relays must ensure a properly coordinated operation of relays. The time dial setting determination in interconnected power systems has been described as an optimization problem [37]. In general, directional overcurrent relays allow for continuous time dial settings (TDS) but discrete pickup current settings. (Ip). In the referred study, however, both TDS and Ip were assumed to be continuous variables, in order to avoid the use of mixed nonlinear-integer programming techniques. Researchers have described various optimization methods to find the directional overcurrent relay settings [36, 37, 39, 42 and 45]. The linear programming techniques like simplex, two-phase simplex and dual simplex methods have been tried in performing the coordination of overcurrent relays [36, 37, 39, 41 and 43]. Rosenbrock-Hillclimb method of non-linear programming has been used for determining the optimal settings of the pick-up current [43]. Pick-up current has been selected based on natural wisdom of experiences also [36]. The operating time of the relays is minimized by constituting the objective function, subject to the coordination criteria in different ways [36, 38, 39, 40 and 41]. The coordination criteria implement the coordination rules in the form of constraints. Based on optimization methodology, an algorithm, using linear programming technique has been described recently [12]. In this referred paper, it is assumed that there is no effect of weight factors and far-end faults on the optimal solution of the problem. In the paper,

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International Journal of Emerging Electric Power Systems, Vol. 2 [2005], Iss. 2, Art. 1039

the objective function is taken as the sum of the time dial settings of all primary relays irrespective of time and location of the fault and constraints are considered depending on only maximum near-end faults. Evolutionary programming is a multipoint searching optimization algorithm. Optimization technique based on evolutionary programming also has been reported recently [44]. Topology changes in the power networks affect the coordination, giving rise to an embarrassing situation to alter the original relay settings. Multiple objective optimizations was tried to reset the original relay settings for reduced number of relays due to a topology change in the system [36]. The selectivity of operation of a protective system is adversely affected by dynamic changes in the network topology of a system. This aspect has been considered in performing relay coordination using linear programming lately [45]. (b) AI based optimization: Artificial intelligence techniques have also attracted the interest of the researchers. A method for calculation of time dial settings and operating time of overcurrent relays (t) based on neural networks and fuzzy logic has been reported [34]. In this referred paper the full counter propagation neural network to determine time dial settings from operating time of relays and plug setting multiplier is proposed. To find relay operating time from time dial settings and plug setting multiplier fuzzy logic is used. Genetic algorithm based grading coordination of OC relays has been presented [46, 47]. An evolutionary algorithm is applied as constrained satisfaction optimization tool to search for the optimal relay coordination [38]. As mentioned earlier, optimization technique has been presented based on evolutionary concepts also [44]. Expert systems for protective device coordination using expert system technology have been presented in [48, 49, 50 and 51]. It was reported in [51] that methodologies presented in earlier work [49, 50] were mainly suitable for the design or planning phase and not suitable for dispatch centers, where original relay settings may miscoordinate as a result of change in topology. An expert system for relay setting value checking during the change of power system topology due to normal switching operations was presented [51]. Using expert system, an on-line adaptive scheme of relay settings based on fast determination of set of break-points relays has been reported recently [52]. (c) Interior point primal-dual algorithm for optimization: The problem of coordination has been analyzed, based on the constraints imposed by

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Birla et al.: Time-Overcurrent Relay Coordination: A Review

definite time relaying also, i.e. instantaneous units, distance relays and breaker failure relays [53]. Solutions for the same have been presented by use of traditional simplex method of linear programming [54]. A different approach based on the interior point primal-dual algorithm developed by Gondzio [55] has been presented recently to resolve the problem for same constraints of distance relays and breaker failure relays [56].

3. PROBLEMS WITH EXISTING METHODS AND FUTURE SCOPE

Most of the techniques used by researchers for carrying out relay coordination work are presented in this paper. All the off-line approaches and interactive methods mentioned above started the coordination process from arbitrary relays and proceeded with other relays one by one until all the relays were properly coordinated. But the inherent loop structures found in typical transmission network necessitate a large number of interactive calculations to be performed by proceeding around the loop. In spite of performing large number of iterations, final converged solution for the system was not guaranteed. In the traditional methods, the curve fitting techniques were used for finding the time dial settings and operating time of relays. In curve fitting techniques, the mathematical equation contains different coefficients for different curve characteristic. Different operating times also contain different accuracy. In these methods, if the variation of the time dial settings, (TDS) versus operating time of relays (t) is assumed linear it introduces the error. The problems such as logarithmic and antilogarithmic also exist. Curve-fitting techniques are inaccurate for currents less than 1.3 times pick-up, but elsewhere the error can be reduced to 3 cycles or 1 percent for most electromechanical or static relays. Therefore, these methods include some errors. Fuzzy logic and neural networks have been used to reduce these errors [34]. However, microprocessor relays are designed with the curve equations given, so the error for these relays should be negligible. Application of interactive graphics in the setting and coordination process was recommended [11]. However, operating time being polynomial function of the number of relays, the graph theoretical techniques suffer from drawback of large time to actually determine the settings and coordinate the relays. Moreover, not only a lot of intermediate data is generated but they fail to provide the optimum solution also. Optimum solution is the best solution considering all aspects. Functional dependency approaches reduce the disadvantage of large operation time of graph theoretical schemes but these also provide only the best solution of the alternative settings considered, not the optimal [36].

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International Journal of Emerging Electric Power Systems, Vol. 2 [2005], Iss. 2, Art. 1039

Finding the breakpoints i.e. the starting points of desired locations for setting the relays is the all-important point to initiate the coordination process. Optimization techniques eliminate the need to find the set of breakpoints. Nonlinear optimal programming techniques are complex. In all linear programming techniques like simplex, two-phase simplex and dual-simplex methods, the auxiliary variables are introduced. These should be equal to the number of constraints. Hence, the use of these methods has limitations in terms of low number of constraints [26]. Further, the traditional optimization techniques are based on an initial guess and may be trapped in the local minimum. Since the problem of coordination has multi-optimum points, ordinary mathematical based optimization technique will fail. New optimization techniques other than conventional such as evolutionary programming (EP) and genetic algorithm (GA) have come up which can be used to adjust the settings of relays. By the evolutionary programming technique, the relay settings may be optimized. Evolutionary programming is a stochastic multi-point searching optimization algorithm and is capable of escape from local optimum problems. Genetic algorithm is an optimization method to overcome the problems of classical optimization methods. Genetic algorithm may prove to be a dependable tool to find the optimum relay settings. In optimization methods, the objective value is sensitive to one parameter whilst large changes are needed in other parameters to effect appreciable changes, genetic algorithm is no exception. However, larger number of generations and population size produce better results while using genetic algorithm. The recent advancement in coordination area is to tackle the possible infeasibility problem which may be faced by rounding off the optimal IP values to the nearest discrete IP setting in performing simultaneous optimization of TDS and IP. A new problem formulation is proposed recently to find the solution of this problem [57]. There is ample potential to advance the research work in coordination area tackling this problem. The proper solution to this problem may be a milestone. It could provide practical and optimal settings utilizing the real use of more refined IP received from simultaneously optimizing the settings by nonlinear programming methods as compared to the judiciously preassumed IP values in linear programming methods.

4.
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Birla et al.: Time-Overcurrent Relay Coordination: A Review

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Published by Berkeley Electronic Press, 2005

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