Helwan University Faculty Of Engineering Mechanical Power Department

Mechanical Properties of Materials

Report created and presented by:

Ahmed Mohamed Ibrahim Abdelfattah ... Sec2

Under Supervision Of: Dr. Amal Afifi:

Dr. of Engineering Materials and Science

Mechanical Properties of Materials

Definition:
The mechanical properties of a material describe how it will react to physical forces. Mechanical properties occur as a result of the physical properties inherent to each material, and are determined through a series of standardized mechanical tests. List of Mechanical Properties: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) Density Compressive strength/ Tensile strength Yield strength Poisson's ratio Young's modulus Ductility Shear modulus Shear strength Shear strain

1. Density:
The mass density or density of a material is defined as its mass per unit volume. The symbol most often used for density is (the Greek letter rho). Different materials usually have different densities, so density is an important concept regarding buoyancy and purity. In other words density is defined as The degree of compactness of a substance The density at any point of a homogeneous object equals its total mass divided by its total volume. The mass is normally measured with an appropriate scale or balance; the volume may be measured directly (from the geometry of the object) or by the displacement of a fluid. Hydrostatic weighing, for instance uses, the displacement of water due to a submerged object to determine the density of the object. If the body is not homogeneous, then the density is a function of the position. In that case the density around any given location is determined by calculating the density of a small volume around that location. In the limit of an infinitesimal volume the density of an inhomogeneous object at a point becomes: (r)=dm/dV, where dV is an elementary volume at position r. The mass of the body then can be expressed as

The Spectacular Density of Water: The density of water is approximately one gram per cubic centimeter. More precisely, it is dependent on its temperature, but the relation is not linear and is not even monotonic. When cooled from room temperature liquid water becomes increasingly dense, just like other substances. But at approximately 4 C, pure water reaches its maximum density. As it is cooled further, it expands to become less dense. This unusual negative thermal expansion is attributed to strong, orientation-dependent, intermolecular interactions.

2. Compressive and Tensile Strength:

Compressive strength is the capacity of a material or structure to withstand axially directed pushing forces. When the limit of compressive strength is reached, materials are crushed. Ultimate tensile strength (UTS) often shortened to tensile strength (TS) or ultimate strength is the maximum stress that a material can withstand while being stretched or pulled before the specimen's cross-section starts to significantly contract. Tensile strength is the opposite of compressive strength and the values can be quite different. Major Differences When a specimen of material is loaded in such a way that it extends it is said to be in tension. On the other hand if the material compresses and shortens it is said to be in compression. On an atomic level, the molecules or atoms are forced apart when in tension whereas in compression they are forced together. Since atoms in solids always try to find an equilibrium position and distance between other atoms forces arise throughout the entire material which opposes both tension and compression. The phenomena prevailing on an atomic level are therefore similar. On a macroscopic scale, these aspects are also reflected in the fact that the properties of most common materials in tension and compression are quite similar. The major difference between the two types of loading is the strain which would have opposite signs for tension (positiveit gets longer) and compression (negativeit gets shorter). By definition, the compressive strength of a material is that value of uniaxial compressive stress reached when the material fails completely. The compressive strength is usually obtained experimentally by means of a compressive test. The apparatus used for this experiment is the same as that used in a

tensile test. However, rather than applying a uniaxial tensile load, a uniaxial compressive load is applied. As can be imagined, the specimen (usually cylindrical) is shortened as well as spread laterally. A Stress strain curve is plotted by the instrument and would look similar to the following:

Stress-Strain curve for a typical specimen The compressive strength of the material would correspond to the stress at the red point shown on the curve. Even in a compression test, there is a linear region where the material follows Hooke's Law. Hence for this region = E where this time E refers to the Young's Modulus for compression. This linear region terminates at what is known as the yield point. Above this point the material behaves plastically and will not return to its original length once the load is removed.

3. Yield Strength (y)

The yield strength or yield point of a material is defined in engineering and materials science as the stress at which a material begins to deform plastically. Prior to the yield point the material will deform elastically and will return to its original shape when the applied stress is removed. Once the yield point is passed some fraction of the deformation will be permanent and non-reversible. In the three-dimensional space of the principal stresses (1,2,3), an infinite number of yield points form together a yield surface. Knowledge of the yield point is vital when designing a component since it generally represents an upper limit to the load that can be applied. It is also important for the control of many materials production techniques such as forging, rolling, or pressing. Yield strength testing involves taking a small sample with a fixed cross-section area, and then pulling it with a controlled, gradually increasing force until the sample changes shape or breaks. Longitudinal and/or transverse strain is recorded using mechanical or optical extensometers.

4. Poissons Ratio
Poisson's ratio (), named after Simon Poisson, is the ratio, when a sample object is stretched, of the contraction or transverse strain (perpendicular to the applied load), to the extension or axial strain (in the direction of the applied load). When a material is compressed in one direction, it usually tends to expand in the other two directions perpendicular to the direction of compression. This phenomenon is called the Poisson effect. Poisson's ratio (nu) is a measure of the Poisson effect. The Poisson ratio is the ratio of the fraction (or percent) of expansion divided by the fraction (or percent) of compression, for small values of these changes. Conversely, if the material is stretched rather than compressed, it usually tends to contract in the directions transverse to the direction of stretching. Again, the Poisson ratio will be the ratio of relative contraction to relative stretching, and will have the same value as above. In certain rare cases, a material will actually shrink in the transverse direction when compressed (or expand when stretched) which will yield a negative value of the Poisson ratio. A perfectly incompressible material deformed elastically at small strains would have a Poisson's ratio of exactly 0.5. Most steels and rigid polymers when used within their design limits (before yield) exhibit values of about 0.3, increasing to 0.5 for post-yield deformation (which occurs largely at constant volume.) Rubber has a Poisson ratio of nearly 0.5. Cork's Poisson ratio is close to 0: showing very little lateral expansion when compressed. Some materials, mostly polymer foams, have a negative Poisson's ratio; if these materials are stretched in one direction, they become thicker in perpendicular directions. Anisotropic materials can have Poisson ratios above 0.5 in some directions. Assuming that the material is stretched or compressed along the axial direction

where is the resulting Poisson's ratio, is transverse strain (negative for axial tension (stretching), positive for axial compression) is axial strain (positive for axial tension, negative for axial compression).

5. Youngs Modulus
In solid mechanics, the slope of the stress-strain curve at any point is called the tangent modulus. The tangent modulus of the initial, linear portion of a stress-strain curve is called Young's modulus, also known as the tensile modulus. It is defined as the ratio of the uniaxial stress over the uniaxial strain in the range of stress in which Hooke's Law holds. It is a measure of the stiffness of an elastic material and is a quantity used to characterize materials. It can be experimentally determined from the slope of a stress-strain curve created during tensile tests conducted on a sample of the material.

The Young's modulus calculates the change in the dimension of a bar made of an isotropic elastic material under tensile or compressive loads. For instance, it predicts how much a material sample extends under tension or shortens under compression. Some calculations also require the use of other material properties, such as the shear modulus, density, or Poisson's ratio. It also helps in selection of materials for particular structural applications.

Young's modulus, E, can be calculated by dividing the tensile stress by the tensile strain in the elastic (initial, linear) portion of the stress-strain curve:

where
E is the Young's modulus (modulus of elasticity) F is the force applied to the object; A0 is the original cross-sectional area through which the force is applied; L is the amount by which the length of the object changes; L0 is the original length of the object. (a) Force exerted by stretched or compressed material

The Young's modulus of a material can be used to calculate the force it exerts under specific strain.

Where F is the force exerted by the material when compressed or stretched by L.

Hooke's law can be derived from this formula, which describes the stiffness of an ideal spring:

Where

6. Ductility
Ductility is a solid material's ability to deform under tensile stress; this is often characterized by the material's ability to be stretched into a wire. Malleability, a similar property, is a material's ability to deform under compressive stress; this is often characterized by the material's ability to form a thin sheet by hammering or rolling. Both of these mechanical properties are aspects of plasticity, the extent to which a solid material can be plastically deformed without fracture. Also, these material properties are dependent on temperature. The Science Behind It:Ductility is especially important in metalworking, as materials that crack or break under stress cannot be manipulated using metal forming processes, such as hammering, rolling, and drawing. Malleable materials can be formed using stamping or pressing, whereas brittle metals and plastics must be molded. High degrees of ductility occur due to metallic bonds, which are found predominantly in metals and leads to the common perception that metals are ductile in general. In metallic bonds valence shell electrons are delocalized and shared between many atoms. The delocalized electrons allow metal atoms to slide past one another without being subjected to strong repulsive forces that would cause other materials to shatter Ductility can be quantified by the fracture strain , which is the engineering strain at which a test specimen fractures during a uniaxial tensile test. Another commonly used measure is the reduction of area at fracture

Stress
Stress is a measure of the internal forces acting within a deformable body. Quantitatively, it is a measure of the average force per unit area of a surface within the body on which internal forces act. These internal forces are a reaction to external forces applied on the body. Because the loaded deformable body is assumed to behave as a continuum, these internal forces are distributed continuously within the volume of the material body, and result in deformation of the body's shape. Beyond certain limits of material strength, this can lead to a permanent shape change or physical failure.

7. Shear Stress
Shear Stress denoted , is defined as a stress which is applied parallel or tangential to a face of a material, as opposed to a normal stress which is applied perpendicularly. The formula to calculate average shear stress is :-

where = the shear stress; F = the force applied; A = the cross sectional area.

Beam shear
Beam shear is defined as the internal shear stress of a beam caused by the shear force applied to the beam.

where V = total shear force at the location in question; Q = statical moment of area; t = thickness in the material perpendicular to the shear; I = Moment of Inertia of the entire cross sectional area. This formula is also known as the Jourawski formula

8. Shear strength
Shear strength in engineering is a term used to describe the strength of a material or component against the type of yield or structural failure where the material or component fails in shear. A shear load is a force that tends to produce a sliding failure on a material along a plane that is parallel to the direction of the force.

9. Shear modulus
The shear modulus is one of several quantities for measuring the stiffness of materials. All of them arise in the generalized Hooke's law: The shear modulus is concerned with the deformation of a solid when it experiences a force parallel to one of its surfaces while its opposite face experiences an opposing force (such as friction).

Shear modulus or modulus of rigidity, denoted by G, or sometimes S or , is defined as the ratio of shear stress to the shear strain

where = shear stress; F is the force which acts A is the area on which the force acts = shear strain; x is the transverse displacement l is the initial length Shear modulus is usually expressed in gigapascals (GPa) or thousands of pounds per square inch (ksi).

In structural and mechanical engineering the shear strength of a component is important for designing the dimensions and materials to be used for the manufacture/construction of the components