50th AIAA/ASME/ASCE/AHS/ASC Structures, Structural Dynamics, and Materials Conference<br>17th 4 - 7 May 2009, Palm Springs, California

AIAA 2009-2348

Composite Materials and Structures Failure Research in the UK

Michael R Wisnom 1 Advanced Composites Centre for Innovation and Science, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1TR, UK

This paper reviews recent published research on failure of fibre reinforced composite materials and structures in the UK. A number of themes are covered: Microstructural Effects, Transverse Cracking, Enhanced Interlaminar Properties, Cohesive Zone Modelling, Compression, Impact, High Strain Rate Behaviour, Fatigue, Failure Criteria and Prediction, Scaling Effects and Multiscale Modelling, Damage Detection, 3-D Woven Composites and Civil Engineering Composites.

I. Introduction
There is a strong research activity on failure of fibre reinforced composite materials and structures in the UK. A summary by theme, lead researcher and organisation is presented in Table 1, and brief details and references are given in the text below. Table 1. Summary of Research Topics

Topic
Unit Cell Micromechanical Models Cellulose Fibre Composites Structure-Property Relationships Energy Based Methods Microstructural Randomness Equivalent Constraint Model Continuum Damage Modelling Matrix Cracking Observations Z-Direction Reinforcement Improved Damage Tolerance Concepts Chamfering at Ply Drops Nano-Reinforced Matrices Shaped Fibres Self-Healing Composites Cohesive Law Formulations Application to Fatigue Automatic Insertion of Elements
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Lead Reseacher(s)
Microstructural Effects Li, Potluri Eichhorn, Peijs Thomason, Jones, Soutis Transverse Cracking McCartney Silberschmidt Kashtalyan, Soutis Li Ogin, Smith, Drinkwater, Guild Enhanced Interlaminar Properties Partridge, Zhang Greenhalgh Wisnom, Potter Kinloch Bond Bond Cohesive Zone Modelling Hallett, Wisnom Pinho, Iannucci, Robinson Robinson, Hallett Davies

Organisation(s)
Manchester Manchester, QMUL Strathclyde, Sheffield NPL Loughborough Aberdeen, Sheffield Manchester Surrey, Bristol Cranfield Imperial Bristol Imperial Bristol Bristol Bristol Imperial Imperial, Bristol Imperial

Refs
1-4 5, 6 7-12 13, 14 15, 16 17-19 20 21-23 24-28 29 30 31 32, 33 34-37 38, 39 40, 41 42-45 46-48

Professor of Aerospace Structures, Advanced Composites Centre for Innovation and Science, Department of Aerospace Engineering, University of Bristol, Queens Building, University Walk, Bristol BS8 1TR, UK. 1 American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics

Copyright 2009 by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc. All rights reserved.

Compression Notched Strength Postbuckling Failure Random Fibre Waviness Interfacial Cracks and Instability Detecting Impact Damage Modelling Impact Edge Impact Compression After Impact Crush Energy Absorbtion Effect of Water Immersion Penetration and Shock Notched Strength Blast Response Test Methods Impact Fatigue of Joints Natural Fibre Composites World-Wide Failure Exercise Physically Based Failure Models Delamination Prediction Progressive Damage Ship Structures Response in Fire Scaling Effects in Notched Composites Multi-Scale Fracture Low Velocity Impact Full-Field Techniques 3D X-Ray Tomography Thermoelastic Stress Analysis Acoustic Emission and Lamb Waves Soutis Weaver , Falzon Fleck, Sutcliffe Guz, Soutis Impact Almond, Cawley, Olsson Olsson, Iannucci, Hodgkinson Li, Reid Pavier, Guild Butler, Almond, Hunt, Zhou Soutis Hogg High Strain Rate Behaviour Hazell, Vignjevic Hallett Cantwell Fatigue Gower, Shaw, Broughton Silberschmidt Ansell Failure Criteria and Prediction Hinton, Kaddour Pinho, Iannucci, Robinson Blackman, Williams, Kinloch Martin Petrinic, Wiegland Shenoi Gibson Scaling Effects and Multiscale Modelling Wisnom, Hallett, Soutis Beaumont Cantwell Damage Detection Wisnom, Pierron, Zhou, Huntley Bristol, Loughborough Sinclair, Spearing Southampton Barton Southampton Barton, Wilcox, Wisnom, Southampton, Bristol, Soutis Sheffield Fibre Optics Ogin, Zhou Surrey, Loughborough SMA Wires Soutis Sheffield Fractography Greenhalgh Imperial 3-D Textile Composites Unit Cell Modelling Long, Jones, Warrior Nottingham Meso-Scale Modelling Hallett Bristol Failure of 3D Textile Composites McIlhagger, Quinn, Potluri Ulster, Manchester Civil Engineering Composites Pultruded Structural Elements Turvey Lancaster Composite Reinforcement Sebastian, Ibell Bristol, Bath 2 American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics 111-115 116,117 118,119 120,121 122 123-125 126 127 128-130 131,132 133-136 137-140 141,142 Bristol, Sheffield Cambridge Liverpool 103-108 109 110 QinetiQ Imperial Imperial MERL Oxford Southampton Newcastle 87-89 90-93 94, 95 96 97,98 99-101 102 NPL Loughborough Bath 81 82-84 85, 86 Shrivenham, Cranfield Bristol Liverpool 74-78 79 80 Bath, Imperial Imperial Manchester Bristol, Imperial Bath, Loughborough Sheffield Queen Mary London 59, 60 61-63 64 65 66-71 72 73 Sheffield Bristol, Imperial Cambridge Aberdeen, Sheffield 49 50-53 54 55-58

II.

Microstructural Effects

A. Unit Cell Micromechanical Models A methodology for performing micromechanical analyses, especially in connection with the use of FE has been established by Shuguang Li at the University of Manchester1,2, providing a sound basis for appropriate use of unit cells. Prasad Potluri at Manchester has proposed non-orthogonal unit cell analyses for interlaced textile composites3,4.
B. Cellulose Fibre Composites

Work by Stephen Eichhorn at the University of Manchester has recently focussed on micromechanics of polysaccharide-based (nano)composites5. This has utilised Raman spectroscopy to map the interface and make fundamental measurements of the properties of these interesting materials. Ton Peijs at Queen Mary, Univereity of London is also working on all-cellulose composites6.
C. Structure-Property Relationships

James Thomason at Strathclyde has been investigating thermoplastic composites for high volume semi-structural weight saving applications, focusing on retention of fibre length, tailoring of the interphase, multiscale modelling, and environmental effects in polyamide based materials7-10. Joint work with Frank Jones at Sheffield has looked at fibre surface and sizing, and composite interface relationships in high performance composites11. Other work at Sheffield is looking at optimisation of the interface of glass fibre composites by plasma polymerisation12.

III. Transverse Cracking

A. Energy Based Methods Composites modelling work by Neil McCartney at the National Physical Laboratory has focused on consolidating an energy-based methodology to predict progressive ply crack formation in laminates, where account is taken of thermal residual stresses for general in-plane loading combined with through-thickness loading, and for combined in-plane biaxial loading and orthogonal bending13,14. B. Microstructural Randomness Vadim Silberschmidt at Loughborough has been researching the effect of microstructural randomness of CFRPs on modelling of various damage mechanisms15,16. This research concentrates on the effects of spatial randomness of reinforcement at the micro scale on matrix cracking and delamination in laminates. The methodology includes the use of scaling analysis for characterisation and multi-scale numerical simulations to study their effect on residual stiffness as well as damage propagation. C. Equivalent Constraint Model Recent studies by Maria Kashtalyan at Aberdeen on modelling damage in composites laminates have focused on validation of the model developed in collaboration with Costas Soutis at Sheffield for analysis of multilayer damage in composite laminate using Raman spectroscopy data, and also on application of the model to ceramic-matrix composites17-19. D. Continuum Damage Modelling A model has been implemented in the ABAQUS commercial FE code at Manchester, and used for modelling transverse cracking in filament wound tubes20. E. Matrix Cracking Observations Experiments led by Steve Ogin at Surrey have studied the occurrence of cracks in weft knitted composites21,22. Joint work with Bristol has investigated a wide range of laminates containing various angle-plies23.

IV.

Enhanced Interlaminar Properties

A. Z-direction Reinforcement Work by Ivana Partridge at Cranfield focuses on Z-Fibre pinning of pre-consolidated prepreg laminates and glass or carbon thread tufting of dry preforms which are then infused with liquid resin24,25. Both techniques achieve significant increases in the delamination resistance, which have been measured using standard beam coupons. Single pin and single tuft experiments have been carried out to establish the bridging laws required for modelling, which is felt to be the most effective means for parametric studies. The accompanying reduction in the in-plane 3 American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics

strength of z-pinned or tufted composites means that there are frequent instances of alternative failure modes occurring in more complex, locally reinforced, structures. Modelling work led by Xiang Zhang has yielded a simple and efficient method for analyzing the benefit of through thickness reinforcement for suppressing delamination and disbonding in structural joints26,27. The models can be used to track the evolution of competing failure mechanisms, including failure associated with pin rupture or pullout. Calculations have demonstrated the importance of incorporating the complex fracture modes in the analysis. Improvements in resistance to low-velocity impact and CAI by z-fibre pinning have also been demonstrated28. Z-pinning reduced the impact damage area by 19-64% and increased the CAI strength by about 45%, depending on the specimen thickness and impact energy. These experiments were analysed with models that were developed previously to predict the critical impact force and z-pinning performance in terms of the laminate in-plane stiffness and mode I delamination fracture toughness with the z-fibre bridging effect. B. Improved Damage Tolerance Concepts Research at Imperial compared two concepts: improved toughness matrix and Z-pinning using a stiffener pulloff test, which is a typical element test used to characterise structural performance of full-scale components29. Both concepts had a negligible effect on initiation of failure, but Z-pinning did stiffen the element, leading to lower strains at damage initiation. However, the Z-pins promoted additional energy absorbing mechanisms which resulted in stable growth and a considerable increase in load carrying capacity. The effect of increasing matrix toughness was less significant, leading to an increase in scatter but some stable damage growth. C. Chamfering at Ply Drops Research at Bristol has shown remarkable improvements in strength of tapered laminates by chamfering the ply drops30. Static and fatigue test results have demonstrated complete suppression of delamination and 1578% higher strengths compared with conventional specimens. D. Nano-Reinforced Matrices Research at Imperial College led by Tony Kinloch has demonstrated large increases in mode I and II fracture toughness of composites with nanosilica incorporated in the resin31. E. Shaped Fibres A variety of shaped fibre composites have been manufactured in work led by Ian Bond at Bristol University using a bespoke fibre making facility32,33. Significantly improved fracture toughness (>20%) has been demonstrated in both mode I and II compared with equivalent circular fibre reinforced composites. F. Self-Healing Composites Other work led by Ian Bond at Bristol has created a self-healing functionality based on embedded resin filled hollow fibres34-36. Upon a damage event, these fibres can be tailored to rupture allowing the liquid healing agent within to infiltrate cracks and delaminations before curing and restoring mechanical properties. Significant restoration (>80%) in compression after impact strength has been demonstrated. Similarly, in composite sandwich structures, integrated pervasive vascular systems have been developed which supply a self-healing agent throughout the structure37. Such systems have been demonstrated to recover up to 100% of compressive strength after impact.

V. Cohesive Zone Modelling

A. Cohesive Law Formulations A robust cohesive zone interface element has been developed in LS-DYNA in work led by Stephen Hallett and Michael Wisnom at Bristol, and has been successfully applied to modeling transverse cracking and delamination in notched tensile specimens38. The constitutive behaviour of the elements has been further extended to take account of the inhibiting effect of out of plane compressive stress on delamination39. Three different constitutive laws have been developed and implemented in LS-DYNA at Imperial College and compared40. Interface elements have also been applied to dynamic analysis41. B. Application to Fatigue Interface elements have been developed for application to fatigue in work led by Paul Robinson at Imperial42. Research at Bristol has successfully addressed initiation as well as propagation of cracking43,44 and has been applied to predicting delamination from ply drops under fatigue45. 4 American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics

C. Automatic Insertion of Elements Other work at Imperial under the FLAVIIR programme led by Glyn Davies has been modelling in-plane and through-thickness failure of realistic structures from initiation through to propagation using ABAQUS. A procedure has been developed to insert cohesive elements only where they are needed, in an automatic way46-48. A strategy has been developed using a meshless method to refine the model only around the crack tip and to carry this refinement through as the crack propagates and possibly changes mode.

VI. Compression
A. Notched strength Costas Soutis at Sheffield has successfully applied cohesive-zone models to predicting the growth of fibre microbuckling from a hole in composite laminates under compression49. A plastic fibre kinking analysis and a linear softening cohesive-zone model are used for the prediction of the unnotched and open-hole compressive strength and the theoretical results are found to be in a good agreement with experimental data.
B. Postbuckling Failure

Paul Weaver at Bristol is conducting research on postbuckling analysis of composite plates50, and stringer debonding51. Brian Falzon while at Imperial also studied structural failure due to postbuckling and stiffener-skin separation using non-linear FE analysis52,53. Genetic algorithms have been used for optimising the lay-up to delay the occurrence of secondary instabilities leading to failure C. Random Fibre Waviness Research led by Norman Fleck at Cambridge has been using statistical measurements and modelling of waviness in composites to predict Weibull statistics of strength in compression54. D. Interfacial Cracks and Instability The effect of interaction of interfacial cracks on the onset of fracture in layered and fibrous composite materials under compressive static loading has been studied at Aberdeen by Igor Guz55,56. The influence of frictionless Hertzian contact of the crack faces was clarified, and the mechanisms governing onset of fracture were established for different volume fractions of the layers. A mechanism of compressive fracture by internal fibre/layer instability for elastic and elastic-plastic composites with interfacial adhesion defects has also been investigated57,58.

VII. Impact
A. Detecting Impact Damage In work led by Darryl Almond at Bath, Thermosonics, or ultrasound stimulated thermography, has been shown to reveal structural defects such as impact damage in CFRP that are not detectable by conventional optically stimulated thermography59. Robin Olsson at Imperial has quantified damage by determining the constitutive properties of impact damage zones by iteratively matching an FE model to displacement fields measured optically during post-impact loading60. Tensile stiffness gradually decreases towards the damage centre, but stiffness reductions are confined to a small central region with fibre fracture. B. Modelling Impact Robin Olsson at Imperial has derived a criterion for delamination onset in laminated plates under small mass, high velocity impact61. The resulting delamination threshold load is about 21% higher than the corresponding quasistatic threshold load. A closed form approximation for the peak impact load is then used to predict the delamination threshold velocity. Research led by Lorenzo Iannucci and colleagues at Imperial has used a continuum damage mechanics approach with a failure model coded in LS-DYNA for analysing damage in woven composite laminates under low-velocity impact damage62,63. Fundamental studies of modelling damage arising from impact of laminated composites have been carried out by Shuguang Li and Steve Reid at Manchester64. This is based on the approach developed for analysis of transverse matrix cracking and a mixed mode delamination propagation criterion which is also applicable to multiple delamination problems. The model has been applied to generic problems, such as quasi-static indentation of filament-wound pipes as widely used in offshore and many other industries.

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C. Edge Impact Collaborative research on edge impact between Martyn Pavier at Bristol and Felicity Guild at Imperial involves both experimental investigations and finite element simulations of impact damage normal to the plane of the laminate and on the edge of the laminate65. The results demonstrate the vulnerability of composite laminates to onedge impact. D: Compression After Impact Research by Richard Butler and colleagues at Bath has developed new analytical methods for predicting compressive strength of impact damaged composites66,67. Their quasi-static fatigue model is based on the conditions apparent in the final stages of fatigue damage growth where delaminations at a significant depth within the sample are assumed to have buckled and subsequently opened. The model found the level of strain below which damage propagation did not occur, i.e. the threshold strain, to be within 5% of experimental fatigue limits. The extension of the model to static strength problems was dealt with in a subsequent paper68. Gang Zhou at Loughborough has been conducting research on impact damage tolerance assessment, focusing on understanding the reduction mechanisms of compression-after-impact strengths of preconditioned monolithic laminates69 and sandwich panels70. The latter have also been studied under quasi-static loading71. E. Crush Energy Absorbtion Research led by Costas Soutis at Sheffield has looked at low velocity impact, crushing and energy absorption in sandwich panels and monolithic laminates72. F. Effect of Water Immersion Paul Hogg, formerly at Queen Mary London, studied the effect of moisture absorption on impact response and compression after impact73.

VIII. High Strain Rate Behaviour

A. Penetration and Shock Paul Hazell is leading research at Shrivenham on impact and penetration of woven laminates by a high velocity steel sphere both at normal and oblique incidence74. The shock behaviour along the fibre direction of a woven laminate has also been studied75 and the shock response of a RTM6 resin measured to elucidate the behaviour of the laminate76. Research at Cranfield led by Rade Vignjevic involves modelling shock waves and studying the effect of fibre orientation on the shock response of a two-dimensional carbon fibre-epoxy using the technique of plate impact77,78. B. Notched Strength Experimental and modeling investigations are underway at Bristol led by Stephen Hallett on high strain rate behaviour of open-hole specimens loaded in tension79. C. Blast Response Fibre metal laminates based on thin sheets of aluminium alloy and glass fibre reinforced polypropylene are being investigated in a collaboration between Wesley Cantwell at Liverpool and the University of Cape Town80. Tests are being undertaken on a ballistic pendulum using plastic explosive. Results have shown that these multi-layered targets are very effective at absorbing localised blast loading.

IX. Fatigue
A. Test Methods At the National Physical Laboratory test methods and predictive models are being developed for constant and variable amplitude cyclic fatigue, including open-hole tension and compression81. A new biaxial test method employing a cruciform geometry is being developed as part of a VAMAS exercise. B. Impact Fatigue of Joints Study of repeated low-energy low-velocity impacts in adhesively bonded composite joints is being carried out at Loughborough led by Vadim Silberschmidt, based on a combination of advanced mechanical testing, microstructural analysis and finite-element simulations82-84. Impact fatigue significantly affects failure in composite joints, increasing the delamination propagation rate by up to two orders of magnitude. 6 American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics

C. Natural Fibre Composites Research by Martin Ansell at Bath has produced constant life diagrams for natural fibre composites85,86. These are similar to those for FRPs but fatigue performance in compression-compression and compression-tension is not so good because of buckling failure in the hollow fibre bundles. Work is also being undertaken on using cohesive zone interface elements for modeling fatigue, as noted in section V.B and also on analytical methods for fatigue following impact, as mentioned in section VII.D.

X. Failure Criteria and Prediction

A. World-Wide Failure Exercise The first exercise led by Mike Hinton and Sam Kaddour at QinetiQ has assessed the maturity and the boundaries of applicability of current failure criteria for fibre reinforced polymer composites87. The Second World-Wide Failure Exercise is currently looking at benchmarking of failure criteria under tri-axial stresses for fibre-reinforced polymer composites88, and the Third Exercise is on damage, fracture and continuum mechanics theories for fibrereinforced polymer composites89. B. Physically based Failure Models Research at Imperial by Silvestre Pinho and colleagues is developing failure criteria for laminated composites, including in-situ effects, and with emphasis on fibre kinking90-92. Improved physically-based failure criteria have been developed and numerical models for damage propagation, taking into account the fracture toughness associated with each failure mode. Techniques for measuring the fracture toughness for fibre direction tensile failure and for fibre kinking93 are also being developed. C. Prediction of Delamination and Debonding Bamber Blackman, Gordon Williams and Tony Kinloch at Imperial have undertaken research on fracture toughness testing and application to delamination and strength of adhesively bonded joints94,95. Rod Martin at MERL is active in fracture mechanics and damage tolerance methodologies, studying testing procedures and numerical modelling to predict delamination initiation and propagation96. D. Progressive Damage: Work at Oxford led by Nik Petrinic has developed a damage model based on the approach by Matzenmiller, Lubliner, and Taylor97. The model is developed in a three-dimensional context with modified formulation for the constitutive law and damage evolution. An orthotropic composite subjected to mixed failure modes is assumed. Research has also been conducted on modeling inter-fibre fracture98. E. Ship Structures Ajit Shenoi at Southampton is working on modelling of damage99 and assessment and failure prediction of ship structures99-101. F. Response in Fire Geoff Gibson at Newcastle has been investigating the behaviour of composites in fire102.

XI. Scaling Effects and Multiscale Modelling

A. Scaling Effects in Notched Composites The effect of specimen size on unnotched and open-hole strength of carbon-epoxy laminates has been investigated in a joint programme between Bristol University (tension) and Sheffield University (compression)103,104. Tests have been carried out on scaled specimens, varying both in-plane dimensions and thicknesses, and using both sublaminate and ply-level scaling. Results show similar reductions in strength with hole size for tension105 and compression106 despite the completely different failure mechanisms104. Compression is controlled by the fracture toughness associated with propagation of kink bands, whereas tension failure is controlled by the extent of splitting and delamination at the notch on blunting the stress concentration. Thick ply blocks have a particularly important effect on delamination. Models have been developed representing the damage with cohesive zone interface elements that predict the wide range of experimentally observed phenomena and strengths very well107. Unnotched specimens also show significant size effects in tension108.

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B. Multi-Scale Fracture Physical models have been formulated by Peter Beaumont at Cambridge based on observing individual cracking processes and understanding the coupling between them109. Existing empirical design methodologies at the higher (macroscopic) structural size scales are supported and justified by fundamental understanding at lower (microscopic) size scales through the physical models. C. Low Velocity Impact Scaling effects in the low velocity impact response of composites and hybrid materials are being investigated at Liverpool110. A similitude analysis is being used to investigate damage initiation and propagation in layered structures. Tests on plates of varying sizes have shown that scaling procedures can be applied to accurately predict the response of larger, more representative structures.

XII. Damage Detection

A. Full-Field Techniques Work at Bristol by Michael Wisnom and Fabrice Pierron from ENSAM has assessed damage development in open-hole tensile specimens based on full field surface displacements using grids bonded to the specimens111,112. A technique for automatically detecting and determining the length of surface cracks has been implemented113. The Virtual Fields Method is also being applied to quantify the reduction of elastic properties due to damage in plates loaded in bending making use of deflectometry114. A novel procedure has been developed at Loughborough for the identification of the planar location, size, orientation and depth of delaminations from digital speckle pattern interferometry based on out-of-plane displacement measurements115. B. 3D X-Ray Tomography Recent developments in micro-computed tomography tools and synchrotron-generated X-ray tomography allow previously unachievable 3-D resolution of composite damage. Use of these techniques at Southampton led by Ian Sinclair and Mark Spearing has enabled quantitative data to be extracted for local displacements and strain fields around damage116,117. This work has the potential to have a large impact on the prediction of composite failure and durability including the effect of defects. C. Thermelastic stress analysis Janice Barton at Southampton is developing thermographic and thermoelastic stress analysis techniques to study damage and fracture118,119. D. Acoustic Emission and Lamb Waves AE is being applied to damage in composite materials in work by Janice Barton at Southampton120. Research at Bristol by Paul Wilcox and colleagues has adopted a quantitative approach to study damage mechanisms considering important practical issues such as source characterization121. Lamb wave propagation through plates is treated numerically and used to make phase velocity and attenuation predictions in a carbon fibre cross-ply plate which are then compared with measurements. Costas Soutis at Sheffield has been applying low frequency Lamb waves generated by PZT transducers to detect damage122. E. Fibre Optics Work at Surrey led by Steve Ogin has used optical fibre sensors to detect matrix cracks in laminates and disbonding in composite joints123,124. Gang Zhou at Loughborough has used embedded EFPI strain sensors for damage evaluation in smart composite beams125. F. SMA Wires Costas Soutis at Sheffield has been carrying out experimental research on strain monitoring in composite plates using embedded SMA wires126. G. Fractography Emile Greenhalgh at Imperial has recently summarized the status of fractography of composites127.

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XIII. 3-D Textile Composites

A. Unit Cell Modelling Researchers at the University of Nottingham led by Andrew Long have been developing unit cell analyses to predict the mechanical behaviour of textile composites, based on their "TexGen" textile modelling schema128. TexGen can model the geometry of 2D and 3D weaves, triaxial braids and non-crimp fabrics, and incorporates functions to discretise tow and resin volumes, and assign material properties and boundary conditions automatically. For structural FEA simulations, elastic properties and failure criteria for the tows are based on micromechanics, and a simple continuum damage model is used to predict stress-strain to final failure. This has been applied recently to quasi-static129 and fatigue130 loading. B. Meso-Scale Modelling Work led by Stephen Hallett at Bristol has focussed on characterising and modelling deformations during processing of composites with complex 3D woven architectures131. Numerical methods based on the Domain Superposition Technique have been developed to allow the model scale to extend beyond predictions for unit cells, whilst still preserving details of the tow architecture which dominates failure behaviour132. C. Failure of 3D Textile Composites Alistair McIlhagger and Justin Quinn at the University of Ulster have been involved in the development of technical textiles, principally 3D woven and multi-axis (5 axis) preforms, for use in the aerospace and other transportation sectors. The use of these novel fabrics provides performance advantages in terms of damage tolerance, and compression after impact, and they have many potential advantages in terms of manufacture133-135. Prasad Potluri at Manchester has been investigating the behaviour of biaxial and triaxial braided composites136.

XIV. Civil Engineering Composites

A. Pultruded Structural Elements Research by Geoff Turvey at Lancaster is focused on understanding the load - deformation behaviour of pultruded GRP structural elements, structures and joints, particularly quantifying the failure loads and modes of the web-flange junctions of pultruded profiles (I, channel and angles sections) and bolted joints between profiles137-140. B. Composite Reinforcement Wendel Sebastian at Bristol has undertaken research on steel beams with adhesively bonded composite reinforcing strips141. Tests were used to deduce the mechanics of stress build up in the steel-to-strip interface up to failure. Tim Ibell at Bath has studied the shear behavior of FRP-reinforced and FRP-prestressed concrete beams containing continuous FRP helical transverse reinforcement142. Tests were conducted on ordinary reinforced beams and FRP-prestressed concrete beams. The results showed that full-depth unbonded rectangular helixes were more effective than unbonded circular helixes for equal quantities of material.

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K., Rezai, A., Exploring mechanical property balance in tufted carbon fabric/epoxy composites, Composites Part A, Vol. 38, 2007, pp. 2366-2373. 26 Grassi, M., Cox, B., Zhang, X., Simulation of pin-reinforced single-lap composite joints, Compos Sci. & Tech., Vol. 66, 2006, pp. 1623-1638. 27 Allegri, G., Zhang, X, On the delamination suppression in structural joints by z-fibre pinning, Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing, Vol. 38, 2007, pp. 11071115. 28 Zhang, X., Hounslow, L., Grassi, M., Improvement of low velocity impact and compression-after-impact performance by z-fibre pinning, Compos Sci. & Tech,. Vol 66, 2006, pp. 27852794. 29 Greenhalgh, E., Lewis, A., Bowen, R., Grassi M., Evaluation of toughening concepts at structural features in CFRP Part 1: Stiffner pull-off, Composites Part A Applied Science and Manufacturing, Vol. 37, No. 10, 2006, pp. 1521-1535 30 Khan, B., Potter, K., Wisnom, M. 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38 Jiang, W-G., Hallett, S. R., Green, B. G., Wisnom, M. R., A concise interface constitutive law for analysis of delamination and splitting in composite materials and its application to scaled notched tensile specimens, International Journal for Numerical Methods in Engineering, Vol. 69, 2007, pp 19821995. 39 Li, X., Hallett, S. R., Wisnom, M. R., Predicting the Effect of Through-Thickness Compressive Stress on Delamination using Interface Elements, Composites Science and Technology, Vol. 39, No. 2, 2008, pp.218-230. 40 Pinho, S. T., Iannucci, L., Robinson, P., Formulation and implementation of decohesion elements in an explicit finite element code, Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing Vol. 37, No.5, 2006, pp.778-789. 41 Iannucci, L., Dynamic delamination modelling using interface elements, Computers & Structures, Vol. 84, No.15-16, Jun 2006, pp. 1029-1048. 42 Munoz, J. J., Galvanetto, U., Robinson, P. 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M., Cosentino, E., Approximate nonlinear analysis method for debonding of skin/stringer composite assemblies, AIAA Journal, Vol. 46, No. 5, 2008, pp. 1144-1159. 52 Faggiani, A., Falzon, B.G., An optimisation strategy for minimising damage in postbuckled stiffened composite, AIAA Journal. Vol. 45, No. 10, 2007, pp. 2520 - 2528. 53 Falzon, B.G., Cerini, M., "A study of secondary instabilities in postbuckling composite aerostructures," Aeronaut. Journal, Nov. 2007, Vol. 111, pp. 715-729. 54 Liu, D., Fleck, N. A., Sutcliffe, M. P. F., Compressive strength of fibre composites with random fibre waviness, Journal of Mechanics and Physics Solids, Vol. 52, No. 7, Jul. 2004, pp. 1481-1505. 55 Winiarski, B., Guz, I. 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67 Rhead, A.T., Butler, R., Hunt, G.W., Post-Buckled Propagation Model for Compressive Fatigue of Impact Damaged Laminates, International Journal of Solids and Structures, 2008, doi: 10.1016/j.ijsolstr. 2008.03.014. 68 Rhead, A.T., Butler, R., Compressive Static Strength Model for Impact Damaged Laminates, Composites Science and Technology, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compscitech.2009.01.010 69 Zhou, G., Rivera, L. A., Investigation for the reduction of in-plane compressive strength in preconditioned thick composite panels, Journal of Composite Materials, Vol. 41, 2007, pp. 1961-1994. 70 Zhou, G., Hill, M. D., Impact damage and residual compressive strength of honeycomb sandwich panels, Proceedings of ICCM16, Kyoto, July 2007. 71 Zhou, G., Hill, M. D., Hookham, N., Investigation of parameters governing the damage and energy-absorbing characteristics of honeycomb sandwich panels Journal of Sandwich Structures and Materials, Vol. 9, 2007, pp. 309-342. 72 Velecela, O., Found, M.S., Soutis, C. Crushing energy absorption of GRP sandwich panels and corresponding monolithic laminates, Composites Part A, Vol. 38 No. 4, 2007, pp. 1149-1158. 73 Berketis, K., Tzetzis, D., Hogg, P. J., The influence of long term water immersion ageing on impact damage behaviour and residual compression strength of glass fibre reinforced polymer (GFRP), Materials & Design, Vol. 29, No. 7, 2008, pp. 13001310. 74 Hazell, P. 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94 Blackman, B. R. K., Brunner, A. J., Williams, J. G., Mode II fracture testing of composites a new look at an old problem, Engineering Fracture Mechanics, Vol. 73, No. 16, Nov 2006, pp. 2443-2455. 95 Blackman, B. R. K., Johnsen, B. B., Kinlock, A. J., Teo, W. S., The effects of pre-bond moisture on the fracture behaviour of adhesively-bonded composite joints, Journal of Adhesion, Vol. 84, No. 3, 2008, pp. 256-276. 96 Martin, R. H., Incorporating interlaminar fracture mechanics into design, Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part L: Journal of Materials: Design and Applications, Vol. 214, 2000, pp. 91-97. 97 Sosa, J. L. 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G., Jiang, W. G., Wisnom, M. R., An experimental and Numerical Investigation into the Damage Mechanisms in Notched Composites. Composites Part A, submitted. 108 Wisnom, M. R., Khan, B., Hallett, S. R., Size effects in unnotched tensile strength of unidirectional and quasi-isotropic carbon/epoxy composites, Composite Structures, Vol. 84, 2008, pp21-28. 109 Beaumont, P. W. R., Multi-scale Modelling of Composite Material Systems, Chapter 3: Cracking Models, edited by C Soutis and P W R Beaumont CRC/Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2005. 110 McKown, S., Cantwell, W. J., Jones, N., Investigation of scaling effects in fiber-metal laminates, Journal of Composite Materials, Vol 42, 2008, pp. 865-888. 111 Pierron, F., Green, B., Wisnom, M. R., Full-field assessment of the damage process of laminated composite open-hole tensile specimens. Part I: Methodology, Composites Part A, Vol. 38, 2007, pp2307 2320. 112 Pierron, F., Green, B., Wisnom, M. R., Hallett, S. 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125 Zhou, G., Sim, L. M., Damage evaluation of smart composite beams using embedded EFPI strain sensors: bending and interlaminar shear strengths assessment, in press in Optics and Lasers in Engineering. 126 Qiu, Z-X., Yao, X-T., Yuan, J. and Soutis, C. Experimental research on strain monitoring in composite plates using embedded SMA wires, Smart Materials & Structures, Vol. 15, No. 4, 2006, pp. 1047-1053. 127 Greenhalgh, E.S, Failure analysis and fractography of polymer composites, Woodhead Publishers, ISBN 1 84569 217 9, August 2009 128 URL: http://texgen.sourceforge.net 129 Kari, S., Crookston, J., Jones, I. A., Warrior, N. A., Long, A. C., Micro and meso scale modeling of mechanical behaviour of 3D woven composites, Proceedings of 29th SAMPE Europe International Conference, Paris, Apr 2008, pp. 497-502. 130 Crookston, J. J., Ruijter, W., Long, A. C., Jones, I. A., Modelling mechanical performance including damage development for textile composites using a grid-based FE method with adaptive mesh refinement, Proceedings of 8th International Conference on Textile Composites (TEXCOMP-8), Nottingham, UK, Oct 2006. 131 Mahadik, Y., Hallett ,S. R., Finite Element Modeling of Tow Geometry in 3D Woven Fabrics, 9th International Conference on Textile Composites (TEXCOMP9), Delaware, 2008. 132 Jiang, W. G., Hallett, S. R., Wisnom, M. R., Development of Domain Superposition Technique for the Modelling of Woven Fabric Composites, in Mechanical Response of Composites, edited by P. P. Camanho, C. G. Dvila, S. T. Pinho, J. J. C. Remmers, Springer, 2008. 133 McIlhagger, R., Quinn, J. P., McIlhagger, A., Wilson, S., Simpson, D., Wenger, W., "The influence of binder tow density on the mechanical properties of spatially reinforced composites. Part 2 - Mechanical properties", Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing, Vol. 39, No. 2, Feb 2008, pp. 334-341. 134 McIlhagger, R., Quinn, J. P., McIlhagger, A., Wilson, S., Simpson, D., Wenger, W., "The influence of binder tow density on the mechanical properties of spatially reinforced composites. Part 1 - Impact resistance", Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing, Vol. 38, No. 3, Mar 2007, pp 795-801. 135 Quinn, J. P., McIlhagger, A., McIlhagger, R., "Examination of the failure of 3D woven composites", Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing, Vol. 39, No. 2, Feb 2008, pp 273-283. 136 Potluri, P., Manan, A., Francke, M., Day, R. J., Flexural and torsional behaviour of biaxial and triaxial braided composite structures, Composite Structures, Vol. 75. 2006, pp. 377-386. 137 Turvey, G. J., Zhang, Y., Shear failure strength of web-flange junctions in pultruded GRP WF profiles, International Journal of Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 20, No. 1-2, 2006, pp. 81-89. 138 Turvey, G. J., Zhang, Y., Characterisation of the rotational stiffness and strength of web-flange junctions of pultruded GRP WF-sections via web bending tests, Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing, Vol. 37, No. 2, 2006, pp. 152-164. 139 Turvey, G. J., Zhang, Y., A computational and experimental analysis of the buckling, postbuckling and initial failure of pultruded GRP columns, Computers and Structures, Vol. 84, No. 22-23, 2006, pp. 1527-1537. 140 Turvey, G. J., Wang, P., Failure of PFRP single-bolt tension joints under hot-wet conditions, Composite Structures, Vol. 7, No. 4 2007, pp. 514-520. 141 Sebastian, W., Luke, S., Interface failure mechanics of elastically (advanced composite) reinforced steel members, Journal of Structural Engineering ASCE, Vol. 133, No. 5, May 2007, pp. 683-694. 142 Whitehead, P. A., Ibell, T. J., Novel shear reinforcement for fiber-reinforced polymer-reinforced and prestressed concrete, ACI Structural Journal, Vol. 102, No. 2, Mar-Apr 2005, pp. 286-294.

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