Aquatic Plant Ecology

Jennifer Gutscher M.S. student South Dakota State University Nov. 2007

Aquatic Plant Ecology

Habitat Classification Major Families Life History Strategies Seed Ecology Abiotic & Biotic Influences Competition Exotic Species Wetland Plant Adaptations
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What are Aquatic Plants?

growing in water or on a substrate that is at least periodically deficient in oxygen as a result of excessive water content (Cowardin et al. 1979). Evolved from terrestrial plants, invading water in 50-100 separate events Approximately 60% of aquatic species have ranges on more than one continent Due to moderate environmental conditions in water habitats Often on certain latitudes N & S of equator, but not between (waterfowl seed dispersal) More than of worlds wetlands are in tropical or subtropical areas Endemics high in geographically isolated areas

3 Bacopa monnieri

Wetland Plant Benefits

Roots Stabilize sediments Can take up metals/pollutants out of sediments Roots accumulate nutrients from sediments, release into water column Senescence/decomposition & loss of organic compounds from tissues Leaves Evapotranspiration returns moisture to atmosphere Floating-leaved plants can reduce evaporation off water surface Reduce wave erosion on shorelines Habitat & forage for invertebrates Seed production for waterfowl MANY OTHERS!!!
4 Rhynchospora corymbosa

LAKES: Lacustrine Larger, deeper, more permanent >2 m deep OR... >8 ha in size Classified by productivity of water zone, shape of basin and # times the water column mixes

WETLANDS: Palustrine Smaller, shallow, dry out occasionally Only moist soil Classified by hydroperiod, physiognomy (plant species structure), sediment types

Littoral Habitat
= Edge to limit of rooted aquatic plants (hydrophytes)
Merritt & Cummins (1996)

Emergent < 2 m deep Cyperaceae (sedges), Poaceae (grasses), Juncaceae (rushes), Typhaceae (cattails) Floating-leaved attached < 4 m deep Nymphaeaceae (water lily), Nelumbonaceae (lotus), Potamogetonaceae (pond weed) Submerged < 10 m deep Most rooted, some free float in water column 6 Elodea (waterweed), Haloragaceae (water milfoil), Potamogetonaceae (pond weed), Ceratophyllaceae (hornwort), Lentibulariaceae (bladderwort)

Habitat
Merritt & Cummins (1996)

Sublittoral Small zone b/w littoral and profundal zone Shade-tolerant plants Limnetic Open water from surface to where light does not penetrate Free-floating Lemnaceae (duckweed), Pistia stratoides (water lettuce), Eichhornia crassipes (water hyacinth) Profundal Deep water from limit of light penetration to bottom substrate

Major Aquatic Plant Families

CYPERACEAE = Sedges Monocot Inflorescence = spikelets, usually surrounded by leaf-like bracts Leaves = flat, 3 vertical rows, alternate, sometimes bladeless Stem = trigonous, solid Fruit = achene Carex (sedge), Cyperus (flatsedge/nutsedge), Schoenoplectus (bulrush), Eleocharis (spikerush) JUNCACEAE = Rushes Monocot Inflorescence = terminal Leaves = flat to rounded with large vein divisions, 2 vertical rows, often all basal, often reduced or sometimes bladeless Stem = round, solid Fruit = 3-valved capsule, many seeded Juncus (rush)

Rushes are round

Sedges have edges

8 Eleocharis obtusa

Major Aquatic Plant Families

POACEAE = Grasses Monocot Inflorescence = terminal, either panicle, spike, or rame Leaves = flat, 2 vertical rows, alternate Stem = round, hollow (except at nodes) Fruit = grain Agrostis (bentgrass), Urochloa mutica (California grass), Poa (bluegrass) ASTERACEAE = Asters/Sunflowers Dicot Inflorescence = involucrate head (many little flowers = ray &/or disk florets), 1+ series of bracts Leaves = variable Fruit = achene with awns/bristles Achillea (yarrow), Solidago (goldenrod), Erigeron (daisy fleabane)

Ray Disk
www.wikipedia.com www.wikipedia.com

Major Aquatic Plant Families

POLYGONACEAE = Smartweeds Dicot, annual Inflorescence = raceme, terminal panicle, axillary clusters Leaves = simple, alternate Stems = swollen nodes with papery sheath Fruit = trigonous or biconvex achene Polygonum (smartweed) LEMNACEAE = Duckweed Inflorescence = rarely seen, tiny Leaves = elliptic to oblong Roots = hang into water column Small to tiny plant Free-floating Lemna (duckweed), Wolffia (watermeal)

Polygonum punctatum

Lemna aequinoctialis (large) & Wolffia globosa (small)

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Flowering Plants: Monocot vs. Dicot

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www.images.encarta.msn

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MONOCOTS
Spikerush Eleocharis obtusa Nutsedge/Flatsedge Cyperus polystachos

Climbing dayflower Commelina diffusa

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DICOTS
Primrose willow Ludwigia octovalvis Valley redstem Ammania coccinea

Water hyssop Bacopa monnieri

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EFFECTS OF MOWING

GROWING POINT AT BASE

GROWING POINT AT TIP

MONOCOTS

DICOTS
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Reproductive Strategies
Annuals
Early-successional species Colonize disturbed areas devoid of vegetation Complete life cycle in one year Reproduce entirely by seed Prolific! Seeds remain in seed bank for many years Bidens (beggarstick), Echinochloa (barnyard grass), Cyperus (flatsedge)

Cyperus difformis

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Reproductive Strategies
Perennials
Survive few - many years Reproduce by seed, vegetative means, or both Shorter-lived species may reproduce entirely by seed Most longer-lived species may reproduce by both seed and vegetative means Colonize new areas by seed Then, spread extensively by vegetative reproduction Many can tolerate extended flooding Aerenchyma tissues Adventitious roots Typha (cattail), Schoenoplectus (bulrush), Boltonia (aster), Sagittaria (arrowhead), Sparganium (burreed)
19 Sagittaria latifolia

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Seed Bank
All viable seeds and/or propagules present on or in the soil or associated litter (Simpson et al. 1989). # of spp. in seed bank reflects community diversity better than just whats growing Older wetlands tend to have more total seeds BUT!...lots of variation b/w wetlands Most seeds are long lived Polygonaceae (smartweed), Schoenoplectus (bulrush), Typha (cattail), Chenopodium (goosefoot) Cyclic hydrology (rather than stability) increases seed bank diversity Wind, water, birds, fish, etc... disperse seeds Sedimentation buries seeds deeper, some decompose Seedlings from large seeds can push through soil better than small seeds
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Seed Bank
Whats in my seed bank? Take soil cores, allow germination in diff. abiotic conditions Temp., drawdown rate, etc... I.D. seeds from samples Good to know for restoration projects

Inaccuracy Some quickly predated Microorganism attack Bacteria Fungi Dispersal dependants decompose easily Phragmites australis (common reed) Many plants depend mostly on rhizomes/other asexual reprod. methods
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Size & Diversity of Wetland Seed Banks

WETLAND TYPE
FRESH FRESH TEMPORARY BRACKISH LAKESHORE RIVERINE SWAMP SALT

DENSITY (x/m)
29,753 110,000 17,943 3,577 10,089 2,576

RANGE (m)
10,875 - 36,230 42,000 - 255,000 11,455 - 24,430 93 - 8,253 1,862 - 19,798 759 - 4,392

SPECIES RICHNESS
45 50 21 34 41 59

LOCATION
IOWA IOWA NEW JERSEY MANITOBA ONTARIO SOUTH CAROLINA UTAH

REFERENCE
VAN DER VALK AND DAVIS (1978) VAN DER VALK AND DAVIS (1979) MCCARTHY (1987) PEDERSON (1981) KEDDY AND REZNICEK (1982) SCHNEIDER AND SHARITZ (1986) KADLEC AND SMITH (1984) 23

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50 - 430

ADAPTED FROM LECK (1989)

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Dispersal Mechanisms of Seeds

Dispersal Agent & Adaptations Animal Chemical attractant Clinging Structures Wind Size reduction High Surface/Volume Ratio Water Resistance to sinking Uses surface tension Low specific gravity Modification Hooks, Viscous material colored seed coat Comments Sticks to fur/feathers Eaten by birds

Dustlike seeds Wings, plumes, Balloons

Up to Millions/plant Balloons uncommon

Hairs or slime Small Size, Unwettable Air spaces, Cork, Oil

Submerged transport Float until wetted Float long distances

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Seed Longevity
Species
Lupinus arcticus (Arctic Lupin) Chenopodium album Spergula arvensis Nelumbium nucifera (Indian lotus) Canna compacta Rumex crispus (Curled dock) Oenothera biennis (Evening primrose) Amaranthus retroflexus Setaria media Agrostis vulgaris Grindelia squarrosa

Age (years)
10,000 1,700 1,700 100 3,000 550 80 80 >30 >30 <10 <10

Naturally Preserved
+ + + + +

Natural Field Conditions

Location
Yukon Territory Scandinavia Manchuria, Tokyo, Great Britain Argentina Michigan

+ + + + + +

Michigan Michigan Michigan Michigan Virginia Virginia 26

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Depth of burial
3 cm deep Can bring up seeds from inactive depths through tilling/discing/scraping

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What you see is not always what you have!

Seed Bank & Standing Veg. Species Diversity

Wetland type Fresh Temporary Brackish Lakeshore Riverine Swamp Salt Seed Bank 45+ 21 29+ 41 59 9 Veg 34 29 18 45 49 14 Total 48 31 35 50 73 15 Location Iowa New Jersey Manitoba Ontario S Carolina Utah Reference
Van Der Valk & Davis (1978) McCarthy (1987) Pederson (1981) Keddy & Reznicek (1982) Schneider & Sharitz (1986) Kadlec & Smith (1984) 30

Using Seed Banks to Your Benefit

Seed banks can be exploited to promote desirable vegetation communities Success depends on: 1. 2. Presence of seeds of preferred species Suitable conditions for germination and establishment of preferred species are met Absence of seeds of unwanted species, or these seeds are uncommon Conditions for germination and establishment of unwanted species are not met
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3. 4.

Hydrologic Germination Requirements

Each species responds to a unique combination of abiotic and biotic factors to break dormancy and/or germinate Requirements can be very different from what mature plants can handle Drawdown Most all emergents Potamogeton (smartweed), Fimbristylus littoralis (fimbry) Flooding A few emergents, i.e. Sparganium (burreed) Most all submergents Najas guadalupensis (Southern naiad) Wet meadow hardest to reestablish Generally poor dispersers PLUS, cant persist in seed bank Carex (sedge)
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Fimbristylus littoralis

Rock

Succession
Weathering & Erosion Ferns Grasses Forbs Annuals Perennials Germination sets in motion a pathway of succession

Lichen & Moss

IF NO DISTURBANCE: Lower Seed Production More Perennials More Woody Vegetation

Shrubs Seedlings

Trees
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Influences on Aquatic Plant Communities

Position in Landscape Hydrology Soils Light Temperature Water chemistry Seed bank Competition Other Biota
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Wetlands in the Landscape... Relationship with Hydrology

Recharge Discharge Flow Through

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Recharge

Wetland Types

Discharge

Flow-through

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Hydrologic Disturbances
Wet conditions Submerged, floating-leaved, emergent plants, and algae Dry conditions Emergents, mud-flat annuals What makes conditions change? Yearly/cyclical fluctuations in water quantity Hydrologic disturbance of nearby river, lake, etc... Floods Can bring in new sediment, remove the old change vegetation community Hurricanes/Tornados Can create patchy network of vegetation Water quality Like pushing reset button on succession
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Typical Zone Vegetation

Aquatic Nearly continuous flooding at low elevations Potamogeton (pondweed) Marsh Most flooded for majority of growing season Fimbristylus (fimbry) Wet Meadows Occasional flooding kills woody plants Cyperus (nutsedges/flatsedges) Shrubs Shrubs/Forested Wetlands Periodic flooding (part of year multiple years) Not enough flooding to kill woody vegetation Salix (willows) Aquatic Wet Meadow Marsh Amplitude of long-term water fluctuations
38 Adapted from Cronk & Fennessy 2001

Fimbristylus littoralis

Wetland Hydrologic Controls

Stabilizing water levels (2 - 3+ yrs) can reduce plant species and community diversity Significantly reduce emergent vegetation cover Increase open water Increase # & dominance of exotics/aggressive perennials Typha (cattail) and Urochloa mutica (California grass) Allow monospecific vegetation stands &/or one structural type Decrease species richness Decrease fungal or pollinator mutualistic relationships Reduce or eliminate wet meadow and/or marsh zone

Shrubs Wet Meadow Marsh Aquatic

Adapted from Cronk & Fennessy 2001

Amplitude of long-term water fluctuations Aquatic

Shrubs

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Riverine Hydrologic Controls

Tropical rivers flood during rainy season Riparian plant community composition dependant on physical disturbance Intermediate disturbance hypothesis (Cronk & Fennessy 2001) Too little disturbance competitive exclusion tends to reduce diversity Too much disturbance only highly tolerant species are able to persist Plant diversity also dependant on: River discharge velocity Stream order Soils Microtopographic relief Upstream plant diversity

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Soils
Soil temperature Affects germination Soil Color Can change with redox reactions Microbes obtain O2 from mineral oxides = reduction Indicates hydric soils Soil Texture Ribbon test Gritty sand

loamy silt

soft, tight clay

Soil moisture Capillary fringe Rises higher with tighter pores Found w/in 12 of soil surface = wetland High organic content slippery feel, easily deformed

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Soils
Organic Content Black, porous, light weight, smelly Methane & sulfide are smelly!!! hydric redox rxn hydric soil

Residual Plant Material Anoxic conditions slow plant decomposition Soil Stratigraphy Cognizant of horizons Mineral composition helps control hydrology & water chemistry Clay soils hold water Sand lenses transmit water laterally Hard Fe (iron) precipitate in HI bogs can cause ponding Hydric soils get down 45 cm (18) to test Soils become hypoxic within a few days of flooding anoxic
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Light
Most important factor for submerged plant distribution <50% incident natural sunlight penetrates 1 m of pure water Most light reflected when long light, i.e. sunrise/sunset, winter months Photic zone = Surface to depth where 1% of surface light reaches into water column Approx. 10 m Submerged plants need red and blue light for photosyn. Red 1 m, yellow 10 m, green 50 m, blue 100 m Humic and tannic acid absorb blue, violet, and UV light

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Light
Suspended solids, dissolved organic and inorganic compounds Scatter light & absorb heat Boat traffic, shoreline erosion, bottom feeding fauna, high wind action Heavy periphyton coating can reduce productivity Shading by other vegetation Residual plant material Time of Year Day length Intensity of light

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Temperature
Water Fluctuations much less rapid and extreme Increases cosmopolitan species Phragmites australis (common reed), Lemna spp. (duckweed), Ceratophyllum demersum (hornwort/coontail) High specific heat of water thermal stability

Solar radiation only reaches the uppermost few meters & affects... Aquatic plants, O2, chemicals, aquatic insects, etc... Plants Increase ET Lose more H2O when open pores to intake CO2, exhale O2 Soil Increase in temp. fluctuations can incite germination

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Water Chemistry
Soil & bedrock composition is huge influence

Higher pH, conductivity higher site fertility more spp. richness pH Increases during day use CO2 less carbonic acid (H2CO3) Decreases at night opposite rxn. Higher in urbanizing areas Conductivity (S/cm) Total dissolved salts (TDS) or total dissolved ions Increases with more evaporation (concentrates salts) Bigger watershed more contact with soil before entering water more ions Too many accumulated ions can be toxic Ca2+, Mg2+, SO4-, CO32-, HCO3-, Cl-, Na+
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Water Chemistry
Dissolved gases O2 Oxidated, hypoxic, or anoxic soils Most plants require soil O2 levels high enough for respiration in order to germinate Echinochloa crus-galli (barnyard grass) can germinate in anoxic conditions Floating vegetation mats vegetation/phytoplankton Decomposition heavy shading reduces O2 reduces submerged

increased O2 demand by bacteria

reduced O2

CO2 sometimes limiting factor in submerged communities

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Leptochloa fusca

Water Chemistry
Salinity Brackish = 0.5 ppt (1.4% seawater) Fresh water hard to obtain Necessary ion uptake more difficult CO2 uptake difficult (opening stomata incurs water loss) Reduces plant productivity Toxic to freshwater plants Can be used to your advantage! Nutrients Phosphorus tends to be limiting nutrient in oligotrophic systems [N] = 1.5% (Cronk & Fennessy 2001) [P] = 0.13% Nitrates common in fertilizers/runoff Pollutants More in human land use areas Ammonia, orthophosphate, chloride Can change vegetation community
Batis maritima

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Biotic Influence
Trails form open water pathways Forage Plant often dies b/c oxygen supply is cut off Can change plant community Decreases amount of certain species, allowing others to outcompete Nesting materials Wider less strands needed Tougher less likely to break down More aerenchyma floatation Droppings increase plant productivity
USFWS

Can increase open water habitat

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Plants Compete Too!

The better competitors: Make more biomass Can gather nutrients when theyre at low levels (& still survive!)

However, high nutrient enrichment (eutrophication) decreases spp. richness Exotics often win this competition

Increasing MICROtopography... Increases heterogeneity Increases # individual plants Increases biomass Reduces competition

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Plants Compete Too!

Light Floating-leaved plants can shade out submerged spp., esp. if high turbidity Nymphaea (water lily) Submerged spp. can form mats to shade out new growth from bottom Ceratophyllum (hornwort) Some emergent monocots reproduce vegetatively, shade out submerged/floating Carex (sedge), Cyperus (flatsedge/nutsedge), Typha (cattail)

Nutrients Ability to assimilate nutrients faster is advantage

Nymphaea capensis 54

Schoenoplectus juncoides

Plants Compete Too!

Space Dense, monospecific stands produced by vegetative growth Myriophyllum (water milfoil) Fire Increases space less aboveground standing stock reduces competition Increases nutrient availability through oxidation (from plants to free in soil) Maintains current stage or resets succession Was it a part of natural regime?

Deep water Diffusive O2 flow to roots outcompeted by pressurized O2 ventilation Pressurized in some spp. of Nymphaea (water lily), Eleocharis (spikesedge), Schoenoplectus (bulrush), Typha (cattail) Skinny, tall leaves can be better in deep water than short, wide leaves

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Competitors
Low disturbance High productivity habitat Low reprod. ability, high growth rate Capture available resources well

Biomass storers Low disturbance Low productivity/low light/high salinity High vegetative reproduction Rhizomes/tubers store biomass and nutrients

Elodea (waterweed) Typha (cattail) Carex echinata (star sedge) Polygonum punctatum (dotted smartweed)

Ruderals
High disturbance (not competitive) High productivity habitat High reprod. ability, fast growth, short life Annuals - disperse!

Stress-tolerators
High disturbance Low productivity habitat 56 Low reprod. ability, low growth rate

Allelopathy
Secondary metabolic compounds Root exudates Leached from leaves or litter Thought that chemicals are expensive to make, so usually compete using only its physiological adaptations (Cronk & Fennessy 2001) Therefore, chemicals only produced under crowding stress Cyperus (flatsedge), Eleocharis (spikesedge), Polygonum (smartweed), Nuphar (water lotus)

57 Nuphar (water lotus)

Why are Exotic Species so Competitive?

Rapid regeneration through prolific seeds & vegetative reproduction The vegetative spread of submerged or floating species is most rapid in the tropics and where water levels remain constant (Cronk and Fennessy 2001). Eichhornia crassipes (water hyacinth) can double areal extent in 3.5 days Pests/herbivores not evolved to attack/consume exotic plant Little competition from other plants Native plants evolved to exploit separate niches Exotics competitors rarely present in new range Can grow quickly by capturing resources & light

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Why are Exotic Species so Competitive?

Aquatic environment is relatively uniform Wide ecological tolerances (generalists) Can become dominant most anywhere if given the chance Many are cosmopolitan (occur across the world) Pistia stratoides (water lettuce) Some resistant to fire, flood, drought

59 Pistia stratoides (water lettuce)

Exotic Species...
...on Islands Proportion of exotics on islands...up to 50% Proportion of exotics on continents...up to 20% Hawaii Few plants colonized mostly evolved once they got here Generally no frost would eliminate many exotics Transportation stop b/w Asia & N.A. ...on Disturbed areas Very susceptible to invasion Natural Fire, flood, drought, biota Human Damming/impoundment Fragmentation Urbanization Pipes/irrigation/drains that change salinity Climate change Coastal areas Weather pattern changes Veg. movement towards poles

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Invasive Infestation
Change community structure Rhizophora mangle (red mangrove) planted on Oahu Shade out natives Dense root system altered animal movements & community Altered soil O2 Hybridize with natives Can be more adapted, but just as invasive Reduce seed bank diversity Draw water level down with high evapotranspiration rates Surface & ground water

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Invasive Infestation
Thick submergents Provide refuge for fish fry, allowing high survival stunting Hard for predator fish to hunt overpopulation,

Dense floating mats Eichhornia crassipes (water hyacinth) Inhibit O2 diffusion into water kill fish, invertebrates, plants Accumulate heavy metals & toxic compounds ingestion can kill animal Hard for chicks to maneuver

Alters fire regimes Dry leaves of Arundo donax (Spanish reed) catch fire easily BUT...plant is fire-tolerant
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Invasive Plant Growth Requirements

Species American Lotus Common Reed Reed Canarygrass Broadleaf Cattail Narrowleaf Cattail Salinity Tolerance None Low Low Low Medium pH range 4.59 7.40 4.50 8.0 5.50 8.0 5.50 7.50 3.70 8.50 Propagated Seed Sprig Seed and Sprig Sprig Seed and Sprig
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Nuphar rhizome

Biomass of Vegetatively Reproducing Perennials

Need to consider below ground biomass more! Mowing to cut off meristematic tissue is often not enough Must grub/scrape/dig to disrupt rhizomes/tubers

Production (lb/acre) Species Phragmites Typha Nuphar Common name Common reed Cattail Water lotus Above 9,580 7,580 5,400 Below 64,060 16,060 10,225
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Adaptations
Roots Adventitious = laterally from main stem base into soil surface In positions they normally dont occur Replace deep roots that die b/c anoxia Sagittaria latifolia Stabilize & increase O2 to roots Salix (willow), Rumex (dock) Shallow rooting Allows access to NO3- (nitrate), and O2 Prop & drop roots on red mangrove plants Covered with lenticels for O2/CO2 exchange Stability Buttressed trunks Jurassic Park Stems Elongation to access light, O2, CO2 Sagittaria latifolia (arrowhead)

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Adaptations
Rhizomes Larger carbohydrate storage allows more ATP production for cell metabolism More ATP needed in anoxia Phragmites australis (common reed), Schoenoplectus (bulrush), Typha (cattail) Aerenchyma = tissue with large intercellular spaces (lacunae) O2 to roots, brings CO2 from roots & out stomata May be 50-60% of root area in flood-tolerant plants Stem floating to access light, O2, CO2 Swelling at stem base to enhance aeration Some invertebrates tap into this to respire Coleoptera larvae (Donacia sp. - Chrysomelidae) Diptera larvae (Mansonia sp. Culicidae & Chrysogaster sp. Syrphidae)

Schoenoplectus juncoides 67

Ludwigia palustris

Adaptations
Leaves Some float off long stems, spread out to access light, O2, CO2 Heterophylly Emergent leaves ovate/elliptic/rounded Submerged leaves ribbon-like/dissected Ludwigia palustris (marsh seedbox), Sagittaria (arrowhead)

Chemical defenses Herbivory Nymphaeaceae (water lily), Arundo donax (giant reed), Colocasia esculenta (taro) Against invertebrates: Ceratophyllum (hornwort), many submergents

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Adaptations
Salinity Increase internal solutes

freshwater comes in

Batis maritima

Exclude or secrete salts, leaf shedding, leaf/shoot succulence Nutrients Mycorrhizae = symbiotic fungi Approx. 85% of all aquatic plants Increases water, P, N, K+ available for plant, takes carbohydrates from roots N-fixing bacteria in root nodules Sesbania (legumes), Alnus (alder), grey, white, and red mangrove plants Move nutrients from aboveground tissues to roots, rhizomes, tubers, bulbs Energy for start up next growing season
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Submergence Adaptations
Leaves Chloroplasts in epidermis Ribbon-like or highly dissected More light to chloroplasts More surface area for gas & nutrient exchange Shoots can absorb water & nutrients Less xylem & lignification Thin cuticle No stomata Gas exchange through diffusion Recycle CO2 from respiration into photosyn. Elodea nuttallii (western waterweed) More aerenchyma Buoyancy for proximity to light, O2, CO2 More gas transport Dissolved bicarbonate (HCO3-) in photosyn. Myriophyllum spicatum (Eurasian water milfoil)

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Threats
Wetland loss 50% loss on U.S. mainland 1/3 T&E plant spp. in U.S. depend on wetlands 30 T&E wetland plants in Hawaii alone Hydrologic alterations Agriculture Groundwater drawdown Flood control Stabilized water levels Altered topography Pollution

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Threats
Exotic species 20 spp. exotic biota introduced to HI/year Monocultures less biodiversity Extirpation of native species Alter nutrient cycles More invasives with more ecosystem degradation

Urochloa mutica

Global climate change Some wetlands will dry up (i.e. seasonal), others will expand E.P.A. estimates 15-34 cm sea rise in next century (65 cm possible)

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Strategy
Monitoring Limit Exotics & Perennials Multiple Treatments PATIENCE

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H.Gee

HOW???
Set Back Succession Flooding/Drawdowns Gradual basin slope ideal Small drops in water level can expose large areas Must understand water budget before flood/drawdown Impact on invertebrates, waterfowl, other fauna Tilling/Discing Consider high degree of substrate disturbance Mowing Consider meristematic tissue (monocots vs. dicots) Herbicides Consider impacts on desired species Get down to mineral soil
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THANK YOU!!!

jennifer.gutscher@sdstate.edu

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Literature Cited
Cronk, J. K., and M. S. Fennessy. 2001. Wetland Plants: Biology and Ecology. Lewis Publishers. Boca Raton, FL. Erickson, T. A., and C. F. Puttock. 2006. Hawaii Wetland Field Guide. Bess Press Books. Honolulu, HI. Larson, Gary. 2005. Aquatic Plants. South Dakota State University. Brookings, SD. Merritt, R. W., & K. W. Cummins. 1996. An Introduction to the Aquatic Insects of North America, 3rd ed. Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company. Dubuque, IA. Ward, J. V. 1992. Aquatic insect ecology, Vol. 1. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York, NY.

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***Thanks to Hugo Gee for many of the vegetation pictures