Paper innovation in China

Printing block oI the early invention oI printing in

China
rocess of paper manufacLurlng
Sample of a paper produced ln
Chlna
emp
Rattan
Printing in China



Question 02)
a) Arabic Civilization in the Middle Ages and their energy sources to power their machines.
Arabic countries still portrays a prominence in the developing world also. Their wide
knowledge in the engineering concepts and also the application they used centuries ago, are
still evitable. Arabic nations even though having non renewable resources they still have
problems considering the availability oI water. It`s a deserted vast land area. Natural
resources like water are more precious Ior them.
Considering that they innovated many methods Ior the storage oI water, eventually aIter
invention oI small scale machineries they powered it thorough the energy gained Irom the
kinematics oI water. Water power was also used in Arab Ior other industrial purposes.. It
seems that the use oI water power in industrial applications was already established at an
early date. Its power derives almost entirely Irom the velocity oI the water, and it is thereIore
aIIected by seasonal changes in the rate oI Ilow oI the stream over which it is erected. Water
circulated within the chamber helps to maintain a constant gain oI energy Ior the machines
purposes.
The geographical conditions oI the Arab world nations are with plenty oI deserts and the
amount oI water is less. They have a kind oI dry weather compared to other countries in the
world. So in the dry conditions storage oI water is a diIIicult task to maintain Ior a longer
period. So they have an intense to Iind another source oI energy.
In the vast desert land, the availability oI strong wind is comparatively high. So they built
mills, in order to convert the wind Iorce into energy applicable Ior machineries. The ship-mill
was one oI the methods used to increase the output oI mills, taking advantage oI the Iaster
current in midstream and avoiding the problems caused by the lowering oI the water level in
the dry season.



Question 02)
b) Water power source:
First the undershot wheel is a paddle wheel mounted on a horizontal axle over a
running stream. The eIIiciency oI the undershot wheel is not high perhaps as low as 22
per cent because so much oI the energy is dissipated by turbulence and drag. The Iact
that it retained its popularity over many centuries is due to the simplicity oI its
construction and to special measures that can be taken to increase its perIormance. Wheel
relies on huge quantities oI water, moving at considerable speed, to drive the mill. Such
mills are usually built on substantial rivers - streams just don't have enough water.
Typically, a percentage oI the water in the river is diverted along a leat to the mill.
Undershot wheels are normally quite narrow and have to Iit very accurately within their
channel to prevent the water Irom escaping round the sides.


The overshot wheel is also vertical on a horizontal axle. Its rim is divided into bucket-like
compartments into which the water discharges Irom above, usually Irom an artiIicial channel or
leat`. Its eIIiciency can be as high as 66 per cent provided all the water Irom the leat Ialls into
the buckets and there is no spillage.

Wind energy:
The ship-mill was one oI the methods used to increase the output oI mills, taking advantage oI
the Iaster current in midstream and avoiding the problems caused by the lowering oI the water
level in the dry season.
The mills were supported on substructures built Ior the purpose, or on the towers oI castles or on
the tops oI hills. They consisted oI an upper chamber in which the millstones were housed and a
lower one Ior the rotor. The axle was vertical and it carried twelve or six arms covered with sails.
The walls oI the lower chamber were pierced with Iunnel-shaped ducts, with the narrower end
towards the interior in order to increase the speed oI the wind when it Ilowed on to the sails. This
type oI windmill spread throughout Islam, and to China and India. In medieval Egypt it was used
in the sugar-cane industry, but its main application was to corn-milling.

Question02)
c)
Arabian countries have many natural resources like:
1. Solar energy
2. Wind energy
3. Tidal energy
4. Non- renewable energy(coal or oil)
Even though Arabian countries had oil and coal resources they had Iear to publish it to the
world about their availability because oI the tight competition in Iinding out a energy source.
And also they had no knowledge about extracting the coal in order to obtain energy Ior
machine. They were hiding their valuable resource to the world, since they know it is more
valuable and precious.
They preIerred the use oI renewable energy because they had plenty oI wind sources and
also, in rainy period they use to store the water so, in order to get energy they had no urgent
need to go Ior non renewable energy.
Extracting and making it a source Ior the use in machines is not an easy task. But up to the
nearby ages they were unaware oI that knowledge. So the usage oI non renewable energy
sources such as oil and coal were considerably low in Arabic world.









Question 03
a) Newton and Leibniz are considered the co-inventors oI calculus.
Newton Leibnitz
Newton began creating calculus around 1664-1666 ,
but did not publish
Leibniz Iirst studied calculus around 1672-
1676, and published in 1684 and 1686
Newton was the Iirst to establish the general method
called the "theory oI Iluxions" was the Iirst to state
the Iundamental theorem oI calculus
Leibniz was the Iirst to publish a dissertation on
calculus
Newton can claim the theory oI gravity Ior himselI
using classical geometry and the method oI
Iluxions` and Iluents`
Leibniz is oIten given the credit Ior introducing
modern standard notation, notably the integral
sign
Newton came to calculus as part oI his
investigations in physics and geometry.
Leibniz's analysis, and succeed in describing
the motion oI a vibrating string mathematically
Newton succeeded in expanding the applicability oI
the binomial theorem by applying the algebra oI
Iinite quantities in an analysis oI inIinite series.
The Iundamental theorem oI calculus was built into
his calculations
Continued to argue that the integral was in Iact
the sum oI the ordinates Ior inIinitesimal
intervals in the abscissa, in eIIect, a sum oI an
inIinite number oI rectangles. From these
deIinitions the inverse relationship became
clear and Leibniz quickly realized the potential
to Iorm a whole new system oI mathematics
Newton attempted to avoid the use oI the
inIinitesimal by Iorming calculations based
on ratios oI changes. In the Methodus Fluxionum he
deIined the rate oI generated change as a Iluxion,
which he represented by a dotted letter, and the
quantity generated he deIined as a Iluent. For
example, iI and are Iluents, then and are
their respective Iluxions.
While initially used Ior the solving oI inverse
tangent problems, the new method quickly
developed into a useIul tool Ior all types oI
higher analysis. This was in essence his
contribution to Calculus.


Question 03
b)
Indian mathematicians:
O Aryabhata wrote Aryabhatiya, Iinished in 499, which is a summary oI mathematics up to
that time, written in verse. It covers astronomy, spherical trigonometry, arithmetic, and
algebra and plane trigonometry. Aryabhata gives Iormulas Ior the areas oI a triangle and
a circle which are correct, but the Iormulas Ior the volumes oI a sphere and a pyramid are
wrong.
O
Aryabhatiya also contains continued Iractions, quadratic equations, sums oIpower series
and a table oI sines. Aryabhata gave an accurate approximation Ior pi (equivalent to
3.1416) and was one oI the Iirst known to use algebra.
Aryabhata also wrote the astronomy text Siddhanta which taught that the apparent
rotation oI the heavens was due to the axial rotation oI the Earth. The work is written in
121 stanzas. It gives a quite remarkable view oI the nature oI the solar system.


Aryabhata gives the radius oI the planetary orbits in terms oI the radius oI the Earth/Sun
orbit as essentially their periods oI rotation around the Sun. e believes that the Moon
and planets shine by reIlected sunlight, incredibly he believes that the orbits oI the
planets are ellipses. e correctly explains the causes oI eclipses oI the Sun and the
Moon.
O The Arya-siddhanta, a lost work on astronomical computations, is known through the
writings oI Aryabhata's contemporary,is value Ior the length oI the year at 365 days 6
hours 12 minutes 30 seconds is an overestimate since the true value is less than 365 days
6 hours.
Likewise, the concept oI "pi" as the ratio oI the circumIerence to the
diameter oI a circle might be older than Aryabhatta, although he calculated
that value upto the Iorth decimal.
O Aryabhatta in 499 BCE worked out the value to Pi to the 4th decimal place, as
3(177/1250) 3.1416.
O Aryabhatta's methods oI astronomical calculations expounded in his
"Aryabhatta-siddhanta" were reliable enough Ior practical purposes oI Iixing
the Panchanga. Thus, eclipses were also Iorecast and their true nature was perceived at
least by other astronomers that prepared the
Indian calendars.
O Calculating the areas oI triangles, volumes and surIace areas oI spheres as
well as square and cube root