D isfinguished A ufhor S eries

PC <1%

C-GL 10%

PLNG <1%

Recommendations and Comparisons for Selecting Artificial-Lift Methods

J.D. Clegg, SPE, consultant

S.M. Bucaram, SPE, Arco E&P Technology

N.W. Heln Jr., SPE, Conoco Inc.

ROO 85%

Flg. 1-Usage in U.S. of different types of artificial-lift methods. (C-Gl = continuous gas liftj Summary PlNG plunger liftj HP hydraulic reciprocating pumps; PC progressing cavity pumps.)

Selecting the proper artificial-lift method is critical to the long-tenn profitability of most niques. Each attributegas wells. This operproducing oil and nonnally affects paper ating costs ormain selection attributes for the compares the production rate, which then affects profitability artificial-lift 1 throughand current eight major (see Tables methods 3 for details. practical guidelines, based on provides We should emphasize that the performpractical and proven technology, on the perance or capability attributes in this paper are fonnance and operating capabilities of the based on This paper covers beam pumping, methods. practical and proven technology, not on manufacturers' claims or electric labprogressing cavity pumping, limited suboratory orpumping, hydraulicNewadvances mersible field test results. reciprocating may improve performance of an individual pumping, hydraulic jet systems, continuous method.systems, intennittent gas-lift systems, gas-lift Until the advances are proved practicalplunger lift. and and cost-effective over the long term, they should be viewed as remedies to a par-

ticular problem. Thus, these current attrib- collapse casing in the Cedar Creek with "low" utes can be used to compare and Anticline field and has worked with subsurface select the "best" !ift method for a new instal!ation. safety valves and fire-resistant wellheads. He has Furthennore, we can compare the written many computer programs and technical attributes to determine whether the liftpapers on gas-lift method Clegg design and selected for a well Bucaram been chosen sucker-rod pumping systems. may have incorrectly. a Distinguished Lecturer during 1984-85, served on the Reprint Clegg was Selection of the most appropriate artificialCommittee. A member of the Well Completions Technical Committee for the lift method has to start when the reservoir, 1986 Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, he chaired it for the 1987 drilling, andS. Mlke Bucaram,and decimeeting. completion designs senior staff production engineer at Arco E&P sions are beinginmade. This requires open Technology Plano, TX, has experience in production problems and communication between peopleHeal! these equipment failure control. in previously worked at Batelle Memorial Inst.,

Joe D. Clegg retired from Shell in Houston in 1991. He was involved in a program to protect wells

Discussion Series Committee during 1986-87, and is a member of the Editorial Review

most producing oil wells. Proper artificiallift method selection also is very important for gas wells that load up with liquid and for coalbed methane wells that must be dewatered. A poor choice can reduce production and increase operating costs substantially. Once a decision has been made on the type of lift to install on a well, it rarely is reviewed to determine that the method selected was and still is the best choice for existing conditions. In addition, changing the type of lift costs money and implies that the wrong system was selected initially. Although prudent production engineering requires continuous review of the performance of the lift method to modify operating parameters or even to evaluate changing the method, once a method is chosen, it usually stays in place. A starting point in any selection process is to review current practices. Fig. 1 shows a review of about 500,000 U .S. oil wells on artificiallift. This database consists of a wide variety of conditions and a large number of operators. Various types of sucker-rod pumps are used on about 85 % of the wells. Gas lift, mostly continuous flow, comes in a distant second with les s than 10% usage. Electric submersible pumps (ESP's) are used
Copyright 1993 Society 01 Petroleum Engineers

Sinclair Research, Arco Oil & Gas Research Center, and Arco Production Center. Bucaram, a member of the Editorial Review Committee, holds an MS Correct selection of an artificial-lift method degree in physics from Texas A&M U. Photo and biographical sketch of PUMPIN\ UNIT is important to the long-tenn profitability of N.W. Heln Jr. are unavailable.

Introductlon

on only4% ofthe wells. All other lift methods (hydraulic reciprocating pumps, progressing cavity pumps, and plunger lift) represent less than 5 % total usage. Remember that about 400,000 of these wells are classified as stripper wells that produce < 10 BOPD. When the stripper wells are excluded, the 100,000 or so remaining U.S. oil wells are relatively highrate artificially lifted wells. Most of these wells (53%) are gas lifted. About 27% are on rod pumping, 10% are on ESP's, and < 10% are on hydraulic pumps andjets. All other methods total less than 1 %. By far, the majority of offshore gas-lift wells are on continuous gas lift. Proper selection of the best lift method usually is based on strong opinions. Operating personnel nonnally select the lift method with which they are most familiar. Equipment suppliers or even in-house experts on a specific method usually recommend that their favorite method can be made to fit the requirements. This "force-fit" selection usually results in the extension of the capabilities or operating experience ofthe selected lift method.

We typically find that improvements made solve a new problem encountered as a result of a poor original choice. Thus, we must establish the normal and, more importantly, the practical operating capabilities of the major lift methods. This paper compares eight major artificiallift methods (Figs. 2 through 7). Hydraulic reciprocating and jet pumps are combined in Fig. 5 because their surface requirements are comparable; however, they have different downhole designs, applications, and capabilities. Similarly, continuous and intennittent gas lift are combined in Fig.6. This work extends the comparisons by Brown et al. 1 The basis of this paper was formulated during discussions at the July 1991 SPE Forum on New Advances in Artificial Lift. Four new lift methods were added: progressing cavity pumping, hydraulic jet systems, interrnittent gas-lift systems, and plunger lift. This paper significantly expands the number of lift method selection attributes Brown et al. listed: 31 different design and operational attributes are given for new comparisons between all eight techDecember 1993 JPf

1128

TRANSFORMERS

"Correet seleetion of an artifieial-lift method is important lo the long lerm profilability of most produeing oil wells."

SHEAVES ANO BElTS PRIME MOVER" \

TUBING SUCKER ROOS

TUBING ANCHOR SINKER BARS

GAS ANCHOR

Flg. 2- Typical sucker-rod/beam pumping system.

JPT

disciplines. Coupled to this are the production requirements and !imitations in contract deliverables that must be met. Thus, obtaining good drillstem test and production rate data is the first step of method selection. The drilling and completion scenarios then have a major impact on determining not only the best lift method but also overal! wel! capability. The attribute tables were developed to aid in comparisons of al! the different production parameters. These tables were divided into three main areas. The practical capabilities should be compared to select the best method for the life of the project. Table 1 presents the 10 different attributes for design considerations and overal! capability comparisons, Table 2 presents the nine different parameters grouped under normal operating considerations, and Table 3 presents the 12 !ift method parameters that can present special problems. When selecting the best lift method, al! 31 parameters must be considered. However, sorne items override the obvious choice. For example, 10cation is a key factor in method selection. Offshore, arctic, and remote areas may justify or require a different method than the combination of al! other attributes. The cost of energy is very important in sorne locations. In today's restricted U.S. production, overall efficiency and total operating costs are driving a re-examination of the "best" method. Fig. 8 compares the total hydraulic efficiencies of various artificiallift methods. Only the efficiencies of suckerrod and progressing cavity pumps typically exceed 50 % . Continuous-flow gas !ift has a large range of efficiency depending significantly on gas-injection quantities and depth. Service and repair of the artificial-lift equipment vary significantly. Such service may be very costly in sorne locations. For example, repair costs for continuous gas ! ifts normally are low; however, the system efficiency also nonnal!y is low. This can re112 9

December 1993

sequences of each applicable attribute need to be estimated and compared to select the CONTROL GAS most appropriate lift method. 3. Location has an overwhelrning effect on capital and operating costs and on proCHOKE duction rates. The altematives may change CONTROLLER significantly, depending on location. Remote BUMP1: locations call for simple operation, long ron R time, and ease of service and repair. Arctic SPRING PRIMARY CABLE locations also require simplicity and DRAIN VALVE (OPTIONAL) methods heating equipment even during CHECK VALVE (OPTlONAL) shutdown. Offshore locations require long MOTOR FLAT SPLlCE operating life and minimum pulling costs. MOTOR FLAT CABLE 4. Sucker-rod (beam) pumping should be the standard consideration if operations are <, CASING PRESSURE on land. If the location is offshore, then gas PUMP INTAKE TO SEPARATOR lift should be the standard. Experience has shown that such choices normally result in optimum production and mnimum costs. POTHEAD ----...llF 'l1 MOTOR -~ Thus, these choices should be the standard ----.J\ for comparison with other lift methods. The other methods should be selected only where there are definite insta1lation and operational advantages. Flg. 4- Typical ESP system. Flg. 3- Typical progressing cavity pumping 5. Once a method is selected, there still system. needs to be refinement and proper engineersult in high energy and operating costs, followed by an exponential decline is adeing to design and select aH the equipment which limit the retum on investment for this quate. An estimate of future oil and gas necessary to make this method work for the technique. These factors and those discussed prices also is essential; however, making application. Improper design and operation in Tables 1 through 3 must be considered to these predictions is very difficult. of the "best" selected method will always determine the finallift method. Thus, the The most difficult part of the analysis is "prove" that the selection was not the best in "Selection of the most selection ofany method needs a "full-cycle" obtaining good operating cost data on the the first place. economic analysis where total costs for the lift method over the life of the well. Data STANDING appropriate artificial-Uft VALVE Thus, once the method is selected, operexpected life of the installation are con- from similar wells should be used if method has to start when sidered. ations personnel should be given the necespossible. With those data, plus predictions sary information and training to' make the the reservoir, drilling, An economic analysis can be relatively on salvage value, inflation, taxes, etc., the installation economically successful. straightforward but requires various produc- present value profit of the specific artificialand completion designs 6. The limits and relative comparisons tion and cost data and several assumptions. lift method can be found. Fig. 9 is a graph and decisions are being listed in Tables 1 through 3 are based on our The capital cost of the initial artificial-lift of production rate vs. time for a typicalland experience and are considered conventional made." installation can be determined quickly and installation. The chart shows revenue wisdom. Most of these attributes are subject accurately, but it is only one of the many received vs. capital and operating expenses. Flg. 7- Typical pressure-centroned plungerlift system. to change with improved technology. In factors needed. Prediction of production rate As Fig. 9 shows, revenue and operating addition, others' experience may alter sorne over important attribute is the ability to expenses far exceed extra money to select the best equipment most the life of the well for the specific lift of the lirnits. Thus, wethe initial installation request that new data method the well at the desired capacity or capital cost. figure also shows that it from the start, especially if doing so results produce also is required. Normally, a flat life be published The may alter these attributes that in increased revenue and decreased operat- rate over the required time. The next most might be better to spend or that will improve our knowledge of important attribute is relatively low operat- Acknowledgments ing costs over the life of the installation. artificial-lift selection. ing costs over the life of the well. We thank our rnanagement for allowing this 2. The attributes of artificial-lift methods work to be done and the comparisons pubRevlew and Concluslons l. Each artificial-lift method has different are relative to each other and can be specific attributes that must be evaluated for the spe- only for a particular production insta1lation. For a specific insta1lation, the econornic (To page 1163) cific installation over the fulllifecycle. The con-

--

80 70 60

> U- '

- ~50
ffi40-

200 ,

+ WATER

TYPICAL LAND WELL

MAJOR FACTORS TO PVP

Q a.
w

~ 9

U
u
w

...
a:

eso
20 10
O

..
5 10 15 (A) CONTINUOUS GAS LlFT PERFORMANCE TIME (YEARS) 20

(8) INTERMITTENT GAS LlFT PERFORMANCE

ROO PC ESP HP JET C-GL I-GL PVP > $2 MILLlON Flg. 5- Typical hydraulic and jet pumping system configuration. Flg. 6-Comparison of continuous vs. intermittent gas-lift system. 1130 December 1993 JP f

Flg. 8-Hydraulic horsepower efficiency comparisons for the major artiflcial-Iift methods (excludlng plunger lift). JPI' December 1993

Flg. 9-Artlflclal-lIft full-Iife-cycle economlc evaluatlon (PVP = present value proflt). 113 1

Recommendations and .. , (From Page 1131)

TABLE 1-ARTIFICIAL-LlFT OESIGN CONSIOERATIONS ANO OVERALL COMPARISONS
Sucker Rod Pumping Capital cost Low to moderate: ncreases with depth and larger units. Progressing Cavity Pumping Low:increases with depth and larger rates. Hydraulic Reciprocating Pumping Varies but often competitive with rod pumps. Multiple well, central systems reduce cost per well but is more complicated. Proper pump sizing and operating practices essential. Requires powerIluid conductor. Free pump and closed powerIluid option. Gas Lift Hydraulic Jet Systems Competitive with sucker-rod pump. Cost Continuous Flow Well equipment costs low but lines and Intermittent Same as continuous Ilow gas lift. Plunger Lift Very low; only low-cost well equipment il no

ESP's Relatively low capital cost if com m ercial electric power available. Costs increase as horsepower increases, Requires proper cable in addition to motor, pumps, seals, etc. Good design plus good operating practices essential.

lncreases
with higher horsepower.

com pression
costs may be high. Central com pression system reduces cost per well. Good valve design and spacing essential. Moderate cost for well equipment (valves and mandrels). Choice 01 wirelineretrievable or conventional

com presso r
required.

Downhole equipment

Efficiency (output hydraulic horsepower divided by input hydraulic horsepower).

Reasonably good rod design and operating practices needed. Data bank 01 rod and pump lailures benelicial. Good selection, operating, and repair practices needed lor rods and pumps. Excellent total system efficiency. Fullpump lillage efficiency typically about 50 to 60%feasible if well is not overpumped.

Good design and operating practices needed. May have problems with selection of appropriate stator elastom er.

Requires computer design programs lor sizing. Tolerant 01 moderate solids in power Iluid. No moving parts in pump; long service lile; simple repair procedures.

Unload to bottom with gas lift

valvas; consider
chamber for high PI and low BHP wells.

Operating practices have to be tailored to each well for optimization. Some problem with sticking plungers.

valvas.
Fair: increases lor wells that require small injection GLR's. Low lor wells requiring high GLR's. Typical efficiencies 01 20% but range Irom 5% to 30%. Poor: normally requires a high injection gas volume/barrel Iluid. Typical lift efficiency is 5% to 10%; improved with plungers. Excellent lor Ilowing wells. No input energy required because it uses the energy 01 the well. Good even when small supplementary gas is added.

Excellent: may exceed rod pumps lor ideal cases. Reported system efficiency 50% to 70%. More operating data needed.

Good for high rate wells but decreases significantly lor 1 ,000 BFPD. Typically total system efficiency is about 50% lor high rate well, but for < 1,000 BID, elficiency

<

Fair to good: not as good as rod pumping owing to G LR, Iriction, and pump wear. Elficiencies range lrom 30% to 40% with GLR>100; may be higher with lower GLR. Good/excellent: Can vary power fluid rate and speed of downhole pump. Numerous pump sizes and pump/engine ratios adapt to production and depth needs. Power fluid solids control essential. Need 15 ppm of 15-.tm particle

Fair to poor,

Maxim um
efficiency only 30%. Heavily inlluenced by power Iluid plus production gradient. Typical operating efficiencies of 10% to 20%. Good to excellent: power Iluid rate and pressure adjusts the production rate and lift capacity. Selection of throat and

Flexibility

Excellent: can alter stroke speed and length, plunger

slze, and run

time to control production rate.

Fair: can alter speed. Hydraulic unit provides additional Ilexibility but at added cost.

typicaly is < 40%. Poor: pumps usually run at a fixed speed. Requires carelul sizing. VSD

previdas m ore
flexibility but added costs. Time cycling normallyavoided. Must size pump properly. Requires a highly reliable electric power system. Method sensitive to rate changes.

Excellent: gas injection rate varied to change rates. Tubing needs to be sized correctly.

Good: must adjust injection time and cycles Irequentiy.

Good lor lowvolume wells. Can adjust

injection time
and Irequency.

nozzle sizes extend range 01

volume and capacity. More tolerant 01 power fluid solids; 200 ppm of 25-.tm particles acceptable. Diluents may be added if required. Power water (Iresh, produced, or seawater) acceptable. Higher power cost owing to horsepower A highly reliable compressor with 95 + % run time required. Gas must be dehydrated properly to avoid gas Ireezing. Labor-intensive to keep line tuned; otherwise, poor performance. Maintaining steady gas Ilow Plunger hangup or sticking may be a major problem.

Miscellaneous problems

Stuffing box leakage may be messy and a potential hazard. (Antipollution stuffing boxes are available.)

May have limited

serviea in sorne
areas. Because this is a newer method, lield knowledge and

sze m axim um to avoid excessive

engine wear. Must add surlactant to a water power Iluid for lubricity. Triplex plunger leakage control required. Often higher than rod P)J mps even lor Iree systems. Short run lile increases total operating costs.

experience are
limited.

aften causes
injection gas

measurement
and operating problems.

Operating costs

Very low lor shallow to medium depth

(<

7500 ft) land locations with low production 400 BFPD).

Potentlally low, but short run lile on stator or rotor Irequentiy reported.

Varies: il horsepower is high, energy costs are high. High pulling costs result Irom short run lile. Often repair costs are high.

requirem ent.
Low pump

Well costs low. Com pression costs vary depending on fuel cost and

Same as continuous-flow gas lift.

Usually very low.

maintenance

cost typical with properly sized throat and nozzle. Good with a correctly designed and operated system. Problems or changing well conditions reduce downhole pump reliability. Frequent downtime results Irom operational problems. Good with proper throat and nozzle sizing lor the operating conditions. Must avoid operating

com pressor maintenance.

Key is to inject as deeply as posslble with optimum GLR. Excellent il com pression system properly designed and maintained.

Reliability

Excellent: run

time efficiency
>95% il good operating practices are followed and i1 corroslon, wax, asphaltenes, solids, deviations,

Good: normally overpumping and lack 01 experience decreases run time.

etc., are
controlled.

Varies: excellent lor ideallift cases; poor lor problem areas. Very sensitive to operating temperatures and electrical mallunctions.

in cavitation range 01 jet

pump throat; related to pump intake pressure. More problems if

Excellent il there is an adequate supply 01 injection gas and an adequate lowpressure storage volume lor injection gas. System must be designed for the unsteady gas flow rates.

Good il well production is stable.

pressures
Salvage value Excellent: easily moved and good market for used equipment. Fair/poor: easily moved and some Fair: some trade

in value. P oor
open market

current m arket
for used equipment.

values.

Fair market lor triplex pumps; good value lor wellsite system that can be moved easily.

> 4,000 psig. Good: easily moved. Some trade in value. Fair market for triplex pump.

Fair: some market lor good used compressors and

Same as continuous-Ilow gas lift.

som e trade in
value for mandrels and valves.

Fair: some trade in value. Poor open market value.

JPT December 1993

1163

TABLE 1-ARTIFICIAL-LlFT OESIGN CONSIOERATIONS ANO OVERALL COMPARISONS (continued)

Hydraulic Reciprocating Pumping Simple manual or computer design typically used. Free pump easily retrieved lar servicing. Individual well unit very flexible but extra cost. Requires attention. Central plant more complex; usually results in test and treatment problems. Gas Lilt Hydraulic Jet Systems Computer design program typically used lor designo Basic operating procedures needed lor downhole pump and wellsite unil. Free pump easily retrieved lor onsite repair or replacemenl. Down hole jet olten requires trial and error to arrive at besVoptimum [et. Continuous Flow An adequate volume, high pressure, dry, Intermittent Same as contnuous-ow gas lilt. Plunger Lilt Individual well or system. Simple to design, install, and operate. Requires adjusting and plunger maintenance.

Sucker Rod Pumping System (total) Straighlforward and basic procedures to design, install, and operate lollowing API specilications and recommended practices. Each well is an individual system.

Progressing Oavlty Pumping Simple to install and operate. Limited proven design, installation, and operating specifications and procedures. Each well is an individual system.

ESP's Fairly simple to design bU! requires data. good rate System not lorgiving. Requires excellent operating practices. Follow API recommended practices in design, testing, and operation. Typically each well is an individual producer using a common electric system.

noncorrosive and
clean gas supply source is needed throughout the entire lile. System approach needed. Low backpressure benelicia!. Good data needed lor valve design and spacing. API specilications and design/operating recommended practices should be lollowed. Olten used as a delault artilicial lilt method in lieu 01 sucker rod pumps. Also a delault lar low bottomhole pressure wells on continuous gas lilt. Used on <1% 01 U.S. wells

Usage/outlook

Excellent: used on about 85% 01 U.S. artiflelal-lift wells. The normal standard articlallft method.

Limited to relatively An excellent high shallow wells with rate artilicial lilt low rates. Used on system. Best less than 0.5% 01 suited lor < 200F and U.S. lilted wells. >1,000 BFPD Used primarily on rates. Most olten gas well used on high water dewatering. cut wells. Used on about 4% 01 U.S. lilted wells.

Olten used as Good lor hlqherGood, flexible, a delault artilicialfilt volume wells high-rate artiflcialwell system. requiring flexible litt system lor Flexible operation; operation. System wells with high wide rate range; will tolerate wide bottomhole suitable lor depth ranges, high pressures. Most relatively deep, temperatures, like a flowing well. highvolume, corrosive fluids, Used on about hightemperature, deviated oll wells. high GOR, and 10% 01 U.S. lilted Used on < 2% 01 signilicant sand wells, mostly U.S. lilted wells. production. Used oflshore. on < I D A 01 U.S. > filted wells. Sometimes used to test wells that will not flow oflshore.

Essentially a lowlquld-rate, hlqhGLR lilt method. Can be used lor extending flow file or improving efliciency. Ample gas volume and/or pressure needed lar successlul operation. Used on <1% 01 U.S. wells.

lished. We also thank the individuals who contributed to the practical cornments related to this paper.

Reference
Brown, K.E.: The Technology of Artificial Lift, Petroleum Publishing Co., Tulsa (1980). General Overview Brown, K.E.: "Overview of Artificial Lift System," lPT (Oct. 1982) 2384. Bucaram, S.M. and Yearly, B.J.: "A DataGathering System To Optimize Producing Operations: A 14-YearReview," lPT(AprilI987) 457; Trans., AIME, 287. Clegg, J.D.: "High-Rate Artificial Lift," lPT (March 1988) 277. Neely, A.B. et al.: "Selection of Artificial Lift Method," paper SPE 10337 presented at the 1982 SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, New Orleans, Sept. 26-29. Beam Rod Pumping Clegg, J.D.: "Another Look at Gas Anchors," Proc., 36th Annual Meeting of the Southwestern Petroleum Short Course, Lubbock (April 1989). Clegg, J.D.: "Rod Pumping Selection and Design," Proc., 38th Annual Meeting of the Southwestern Petroleum Short Course, Lubbock (April 1991) 274. Foley, W.L. and Savinos, J.G.: "Expert Adviser Program for Rod Pumping, " lPT (April 1989) 394. Gault, R.H.: "Designing a Sucker-Rod Pumping System for Maximum Efficiency, " lPT (Nov. , 1987) 284. Gibbs, S.G.: "A General Method for Predicting Rod Pumping System Performance," paper SPE 6850 presented at the 1977 SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Denver, Oct. 9-12. 1164 l.

Gibbs, S.G.: "Predicting the Behavior of SuckerRod Pumping Systems, " lPT(July 1963) 769; Trans., AIME, 228. Gibbs, S.G.: "A Revew ofMethods for Design & Analysis of Rod Pumping Installations, " lPT (Dec. 1982) 2931. Gipson, F.W. and Swaim, H.W.: "The Beam Pumping Design Chain," Proc., 31st Annual Meeting of Southwestern Petroleum Short Course," (April 1984) 296. Kramer, M.J.C., Martin, J.D., and Neely, A.B.: "On-Site Analysis of Sucker-Rod Pumping Systems Wells," paper SPE 11037 presented at the 1982 SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibitions, New Orleans, Sept. 26-29. Lea, J.F. and Brown, J.F.: "Dynamic Measurement of Beam Pump Parameters," SPEPE (Feb. 1992) ns. Trans., AIME, 293.

Gas Lift
Gas Lift Manual, API, DalIas. Blann, J.R. and Williams, J.D.: "Determining the Most Profitable Gas Injection Pressure for Gas Lift Installations, " lPT(Aug. 1984) 1305. DeMoss, E.E. and Tiemann, W.D.: "Gas Lift Increases High-Volume Production From Claymore Field," lPT (April 1982) 696. Kanu, E.P., Mach, J., and Brown, K.E.: "Econornic Approach to Oil Production and Gas AIlocation in Continuous Gas Lift, " lPT (Oct. 1981) 1887. Reddin, J.D., Sherman, T.A.G., and Blann, J.R.: "Optimizing Gas-Lift Systems," paper SPE 5150 presented at the 1974 SPE Annual Meeting, Houston, Oct. 6-9. Simmons, W.E.: "Optimizing Continuous Flow Gas Lift Wells," Peto Eng. (Aug. 1972) 46; (Sept. 1972) 68. WinkIer, H.W. and Srnith, S.S.: Camco Gas Lift Manual, Carneo Inc., Houston.

NACE Standard MR-OI-76, Material Requirements: MetallicMaterials for Sucker Rod Pumps for Hydrogen Sulfide Environments: Selection of Optimum Type Purnp, Appendix B, NACE,

Houston. Neely, A.B. and Tolbert, H.O.: "Experience With Pump-Off Control in the Permian Basin,' lPT (May 1988) 645. Schmidt, Z. and Doty, D.R.: "System Analysis for Sucker-Rod Pumping," SPEPE (May 1989) 125. Swaim, H.W. and Hein, N.W.: "Surface Dynamometer Card Interpretation: A Beam Pumping Problem Solving Tool," Southwestern Petroleum Short Course, Lubbock (April 2223, 1987). Progressing Cavity Pumps Gaymard, B. et al.: "The Progressing Cavity Pump in Europe: Results and New Developments, " Proc., Offshore South East Asia Conference, Singapore (Feb, 2-5, 1988) 444. Saveth, K.J. and Klein, S. T.: "The Progressing Cavity Pump: PrincipIe and Capabilities, " paper SPE 18873 presented at the 1989 SPE Production Operations Symposium, OkIahoma City, March 13-14.

Intermittent Gas Lift Neely, A.B., Montgomery, J.W., and Vogel, J.V.: "A Field Test and Analytical Study of Intermittent Gas Lift, " lPT (Oct. 1974) 502; Trans., AIME, 257. White, G. et al.: "An Analytical Concept ofthe Static and Dynamic Parameters oflntermittent Gas Lift," lPT (March 1963) 301; Trans., AIME,228. Plunger Lift Beauregard, E. and Ferguson, P.L.: "Introduction to Plunger Lift: Applications, Advantages and Limitations," Southwestern Petroleum Short Course, Lubbock (April 2325, 1981). Beauregard, E. and Morrow, S.: "New and Unusual Application for Plunger Lift System," paper SPE 18868 presented at the 1989 SPE Production Operation Symposium, OkIahoma City, March 13-14. December 1993 JPI'

TABLE 2-NORMAL OPERATING CONSIDERATIONS

Hydraulic Reciprocating Hydraulic Pumping Jet Systems Larger casing Small casing size required lor often limits parallel Iree or producing rate closed systems. owing to high Small casing (unacceptable) (4.5- and 5.5-in.) Iriction losses. may result in Larger casing excessive friction may be required losses and limits il dual strings producing rateo runo Gas Lift Continuous Flow Intermittent Small casing (4.5 The use 01 4,5and 5.5-in. and 5.5 in.) casing with 2-in. normally is not a nominal tubing problem lor this normally limits relatively lowrates to < 1 ,000 volume lift. BID. For rates >5,000 BID, use >7-in. casing and > 3.5-in. tubing needed. Controlled by Usually limited system injection by lallback; pressure and lewwells Iluid rates. > 10,000 ft. Typically, lor 1,000 BID with 2.5-in. nominal tubing, 1,440-psi lift system, and 1,000 GLR, has an injection depth 01 about 10,000 ft. Poor: restricted by Fair when used without chambers. the gradient 01 the gas-lifted PIP>250 psi lor Iluid. Typically 10,000 ft well. moderate rate is Good when used limited to about with chamber. PIP 100 psi/1,000 ft 01 <250 psi injected depth. leasible at Thus, the 10,000 ft. backpressure on 10,000 ft well may be > 1 ,000 psig. Low at well Same as but noisy continuous Ilow. compressor.

Casing size limits (restricts tubing size)

Sucker Rod Pumping Problems only in high-rate wells requiring large plunger pumps. Small casing sizes (4.5- and 5.5-in.) may limit Iree-gas separation.

Pragressing Cavity Pumping Normally no problem lor 4.5-in. casing and larger, but gas separation may be limited.

Depth limits

Good: rods or Poor: limited structure may limit to relatively rate at depth. shallow depths, Ellectively, about possibly 5,000 ft. 500 BID at 7,500 ft and 150 BID at 15,000 ft.

ESP's Casing size will limit use 01 large motors and pumps. Avoid 4.5-in. casing and smaller. Reduced performance inside 5.5-in. casing, depending on depth and rate. Usually limited to motor horsepower or temperature. Practical depth about 10,000 ft.

Plunger Lift Small casing suitable lor this low-volume lift. Annulus must have adequate gas storage volume.

Excellent: limited by power-Iluid pressure (5,000 psi) or horsepower. Low-volumel high-lift head pumps operating at depths to 17,000ft.

Excellent: Similar limits as reciprocating pump. Practical depth 01 20,000 ft.

Typically <10,000 ft.

Intake capabilities

Excellent: < 25 psig leasible provided adequate displacement and gas venting. Typically about 50 to 100 psig.

Good: < 100 psi provided adequate displacement and gas venting.

Fair: il little Iree gas (Le. > 250-psi pump intake pressure). Poor il pump must handle > 5% Iree gas.

Fair: not as goOO as pumping. rod Intake pressure < 100 psig usually results in Irequent pump repairs. Free gas reduces elliciency and serviee lile.

Poor to lair; >350 psig to 5,000 ft with low GLR. Typical design target is25% submergence.

Good: bottomhole pressures < 150 psi at 10,000 ft lor low-rate, high-GLR wells.

Noise level

Fair: moderately high lor urban areas,

Good: surface prime mover provides the only noise.

Obtrusiveness

Prim e m over Ilexibility

Size and operation are drawbacks in populated and larming areas. Special lowprolile units are available. Good: both anginas or motors can be used easily (motors more reliable and Ilexible). Excellent: can be easily analyzed based on well test, Iluid levels, etc. Analysis improved by use 01 dynamometers and computers.

Good: low-prolile surface equipment.

Excellent: low noise.Often prelerred in urban areas il production rate high. Good: low prolile but requires translormer bank. Translormer may cause problems urban areas.

Good: well noise low. Wellsite power-Iluid units can be soundprooled.

Same as hydraulic reciprocating pump.

Low.

Good: both anginas or

motors can be

used.

Surveillance

Fair: analysis based on production and Iluid levels only. Dynamometers and pump-oll cards not possible to use.

Fair: requires a good power source without spikes or interruptions. Higher voltages 2 can reduce 1 R losses. Fair: electrical checks but special equipment needed otherwise.

Fair to good: Same as wellhead hydraulic equipment has reciprocating low prolile. pump. Requires surface treating and high pressure pumping equipment. Excellent: prime Same as m over can be hydraulic electric motor, reciprocating gas, or diesel-lired pump. anginas or motors.

Good low prolile: Same as but must provide contnuous Ilow. 10r compressor. Salety precautions must be taken lor high-pressure gas lines. Good: engines, Same as turbines, or continuous Ilow. motors can be used lor compression.

Good.

None normally required.

Testing

Good: well testing is simple with lew problems using standard available equipment and procedures.

Good: well testing simple with lew problems.

Good: simple with lew problems. High-water-cut and high-rate wells may requirea Ireewater knock-out.

Goodlfair: downhole pump performance can be analyzed Irom surface powerIluid rate and pressure, speed, and producing rateo Bottomhole pressure obtained with Iree pumps. Fair: well testing with standard individual well units presents lew problems. Well testing with a central system more complex; requires accurate power Iluid measurement.

Same as hydraulic reciprocating pump.

Time cycle and pump-oll controllers application.

Excellent il well can be pumped

011.

Poor: avoid shutdown in high viscosity/sand producers.

Poor: soft start and improved seals/protectors recommended.

Same as hydraulic reciprocating pump. Threestage production test can be conducted by adjusting production step rates, pressured recorder in place to monitor intake pressure. Poor: possible but Poor: does not not normally used. appear applicable Usually controlled owing to intake only by pressure displacement requirement checks; pump-off higher than control not pump-oll. developed.

Good/excellent: can be analyzed easily. Bottomhole pressure and production lag surveys easily obtained. Optimization and computer control being attempted. Fair: well testing complicated by injection gas volume/rate. Formation GLR obtained by subtracting total produced gas Irom injected gas. Gas measurement errorscomrnon. Not applicable.

Fair: complicated by standing valve and lallback.

Good: depends on good well tests and well pressure charlo

Poor: well testing complicated by injection gas volume/rate. Measurement 01 both input and outllow gas a problem. I ntermittent Ilow can cause operating problems with separators. Poor: cycle must be periodically adjusted. Laborintensiva.

Well testing simple with lew problems.

Not applicable.

J P l ' December 1993

1165

TABLE 3-ARTlFICIAL-LlFT CONSIDERATIONS

Hydraulic Reciprocating Pumping Good/excellent: batch or continuou s treating inhibition can be circulated with power fluid for effective control. Excellent. If tubing can be run in the well, pump normally will pass through the tubing. Free purnp retrieved without pu lIi ng tubing. Feasible operation in horizontal wells. Gas Lilt Continuous Flow Intermittent Good: inhibitor in Same as the injection gas continuous flow. and/or batch inhibiting down tubing feasible. Steps must be taken to avoid corrosin in injection gas lines. Excellent: few Same as w ireline continuous flow. problems up to 70 deviation for w irelineretrievable valvas.

Corrosion/scalehandling ability

Sucker Rod Progressing Pumping Cavity Pumping Good to excellent: Good: batch batch treating treating inhibitor inhibitor down down annulus annulus used feasible. frequently for both corrosion and scale control. Fair: increased Poor to fair: load and wear increased load problems. Highand wear angle deviated problems. holes (> 70) Currently, very and horizontal few known wells are being installations. produced. Some success in pumping 151100 ft using rod guides. Fair: parallel No known 2 x 2-in. low-rate installations. duals feasible inside 7-in. casing. Duals inside 5.5-in. casing currently not in favor. Gas is a problem from lower zone. Increased mechanical problems. Good if can vent and use natural gas anchor wilh properly designed pump. Poor if musl pump >50% free gas. Poor if must pump any free gas.

ESP's Fair: batch treating inhibitor only to intake unless shroud is used.

Hydraulic 'Jet Systems Good/excellent: inhibitor with power fluid mixes with produced fluid at entry of jet pump throat. Batch treat down annulus feasible. Excellent: short jet pump can pass through doglegs up to 24/100 It. in 2-in. nominal tubing. Same conditions as hydraulic reciprocating pump.

Plunger Lilt Fair: normal prod uction cycle must be interrupted to batch treat the well.

Crooked/deviated holes

Good: few problems. Limited experience in horizontal wells. Requires longradius wellbore bends to get through.

Excellent.

Duals application

No known Fair: three-string Same as installations. nonvented hydraulic Larger casing applications have reciprocating would be been made with pump except can needed. Possible complete possibly handle run and pull isolation of higher GLR's but problems. production and at reduced power fluid from efficiency.
each zona.

Limiled lo low GLR's and moderate rates.

Gas-handling ability

Poor for free gas (i.e., >5% through pump). Rolary gas separators helpful if solids not produced.

Offshore application

Poor: musl design Poor: may have for unit size, some special weight, and application pulling unit offshore. space. Mosl However, pulling wells are unil needed. devialed and lypicaUy produce sand.

Good: musl provide electrical power and service pulling unit.

Paraffin-handling capability

Fair/good: hot waler/oil Irealing and/or use of scrapers possible, but Ihey increase operating problems and costs.

Fair: lubing may need trealment. Rod scrapers not used. Possible to unseat pump and circulale hot fluids.

Fair: hot water/oil Irealmenls, mechanical cutting, batch inhibilion possible.

Slim-hole completions (2)\-in. production casing slring) Solids/sandhandling ability

Feasible for low Feasible if low tates 100 rales,low B/D) and low GOR's, and GOR 250). shallow deplhs Typically are bul no known used wtth t.s-n. inslallations. nominal tubing. Poor/Fair: for low- Excellent: up to vscosty 1 O 50% sand with cp) produclion. high-viscosity Improved (>200 cp) performance for crude. high-viscosity Decreases to (>200 cp) < 10% sand for cases. May be water producers. able to han die up to 0.10/0 sand wilh special pumps.

No known lnstallations.

Poor: requires <200 ppm solids. Improved wear-resistant materials available al premium cost.

Good/fair: concentric fixed pump or parallel free permits gas venting with suitable downhole gas separator below pump intake. Casing free pump limited to low GLR's. Fair: feasible operation in highly devialed wells. Requires deck space for Ireating lanks and pumps. Waler power fluid can be used. Power oil a fire/safety problem. Good/excellent: circulate heal to downhole pump to minimize buildup. Mechanical cutting and inhibition possible. Soluble plugs available. "Free" pumps can be surfaced on a schedule. Possible but may have high friclion losses or gas problems. Suitable for low rates and low GLR's. Poor: requires < 10-ppm solids power fluids for good' run life. Also produced fluids musl have low solids 200 ppm of 15-~m particles) for reasonable life. Use fresh water injection for salt buildup problems.

Similar to hydraulic reciprocaling pump. Free gas reduces efficiency but helps lilt. Venl free gas if possible. Use a gas anchor. Good: produced w ater or seawater may be used as power fluid with well sile type syslem or power fluid separation before produclion Irealing syslem. Same as hydraulic reciprocaling pump.

Fair: dual gas lift common but good operating of duallift complicated and inefficient resulting in reduced rates. Parallel 2 x 2-in. nominal lubing inside 7-in. casing and 3 x 3-in. tubing inside 9*-in. casing feasible. Excellent: produced gas reduces need for injeclion gas.

Same as continuous flow.

No known installations.

Same as continuous flow.

Excellent.

Excellent: most common melhod if adequate injeclion gas available.

Poor in wells needing sand control. Use of slanding valve risky. Heading causes operaling problems.

Excellent for correet application.

Good: mechanical cutting somelimes required. Injeclion gas may aggravate an existing problem.

Same as continuous flow.

Excellent: cuts paraffin and removes small deposils.

Same as hydraulic reciprocating pump.

Feasible but can be Iroublesome and inefficient.

Same as continuous flow.

Good: similar lo casing lift but rnust have

adequats

formation gas. Fair/good: jel pumps are operaling with 3% sand in produced fluid. Power fluid to jel pump can lolerate 200 ppm of 25~m particle size. Fresh water trealmenl for sall buildup possible. Excellent: limit is inflowand surface problems. Typical limit is 0.1% sand for inflowand outflow problems. Fair: slanding valve may cause problems. Sand can stick plunger; however, plunger wipes lubing clean.

1166

December 1993 JPf

TABLE 3-ARTIFICIAL-LlFT CONSIDERATIONS (continued)

Hydraulic Sucker Rod Pumping Temperature limitation Excellent: currently used in thermal operations (550F). Progressing Cavity Pumping Fair: limited to stator elastomer. At present normally below 250F. ESP's Limited to <250F lor standard and <325F with special motors and cable. Fair: limited to about 200 cp. Increases horsepower and reduces head. Potential solution is to use "core flow" with 20% water. Excellent: limited by needed horsepower and can be restricted by casing size. In s.s-tn. casing, Reciprocating Pumping Excellent: standard materials to o 300+ F and to 500 + F leasible with special materials. Good: > 8API production with <500 cp possible. Power Iluids can be used to dilute low-qravity production. Good: limited by tubular and horsepower. Typically 3,000 BFPD Irom 4,000 ft and 1,000 BFPD Irom 10,000 ft with 3,500psi system. Hydraulic Jet Systems Excellent: possible to operate to o 500+ F with special materials. Good/excellent: production with up to 800 cp possible. Power oil 01 >24API and <50 cp or water power fluid reduces Iriction losses, Excellent: up to 15,000 BFPD with adequate flowing bottomhole pressure, tubular size, and horsepower. Continuous Flow Excellent: typical Gas Lift Intermittent Same as continuous flow. Plunger Lift Excellen!.

maximum01
about 350F. Need to know temperatures to design bellows charged valves. Fair: lew problems lor > 16API or below 20 cp viscosity. Excellent lor high water cut lift even with high viscosity oil. Excellent: restricted by tubing size and injection gas rate and depth. Depending on

Highviscosity Iluidhandling capability

Good lor < 200 cp Iluids and low rates (400 BID). Rod lall problem lor high rates. Higher rates may require diluent to lower viscosity. Fair: restricted to shallow depths using large plungers. Maximum rate about 4,000 BFPD Irom 1,000 ft and 1,000 BFPD Irom 5,000 ft.

Excellent lor high viscosity Iluids with no stator/rotator problems.

Same as continuous Ilow.

Normally not applicable.

Hqh-volume lift capabilities

Poor: restricted to relatively small rates. Possibly 2,000 BFPD Irom 2,000 ft and 200 BFPD lrom 5,000 ft.

can produce
4,000 BFPD lrom 4,000 ft with 240 horsepower. T andem motors can be used but will increase costs.

reservoir
pressure and PI, with 4 in. nominal tubing, rates 01 5,000 BID Irom 10,000 ft leasible with 1,440 psi injection gas and GLR 01 1,000. Fair: limited by heading and slippage. Avoid unstable Ilow range. Typically lower limit is 200 BFPD lor 2in. tubing without heading; 400 BID lor 2.5in. and 700 BID lor s-ln. tubing.

Poor: limited by cycle volume and number 01 possible injection cycles. Typically about 200 BFPD Irom 10,000 ft with < 250psi pump intake

Poor: limited by number 01 cycles. Possibly 200 BFPD Irom 10,000 ft.

pressure.

Low-volume lift capabilities

Excellent: most commonly used method lor wells producing < 100 BFPD.

Excellent lor <100BFPD shallow wells that do not pump off.

Generally poor: and high operating costs lor <400 BFPD.

Fair: not as good Typically 100 to 300 BFPD Irom 4,000 to 10,000 ft; >75 BFPD Irom 12,000 ft possible.

lower efficiencies as rod pumping.

Fair: > 200 BFPD lrom 4,000 ft.

Good: limited by efficiency and economic limi!. Typically V, to 4 bbllcycle with up . to 48 cycles/D.

Excellent: lor low Ilow rates 01 1 to 2 BFPD with high GLR's.

Foss, D.L. and Gaul, R,B,: "Plunger Lift Performance Criteria With Operating ExperienceVentura Ave. Field," Drill. & Prod. Prac., API (1965) 124, Lee, l.E: "Dynamic Analysis ofPlunger Lift Operations," paper SPE 10253 presented at the 1981 SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, San Antonio, Oct. 4-7. McCoy, C,D, and Ross, K.: "Plunger Lift, and Economic Altemative to Sucker Rod Pumps, " Southwestem Petroleum Short Course, Lubbock (April 22-23, 1992) 337. Mower, L. N. et al.: "Defining the Characteristics and Performance of Gas-Lift Plungers, " paper SPE 14344 presented at the 1985 SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Las Vegas, Sept. 22-25.

Lea, J.F. and Wilson, B.L.: "The Role ofPower Cost in Selection of an Artificial Lift System, " Proc., SPE Electrical Submersible Pumping Workshop, Houston (April 1990). Stewart, R.E.: "The Effects of Power Supply Integrity on Electrical Submergible Pumping Systems," paper SPE 9038 presented at the 1980 SPE Rocky Mountain Regional Meeting, Casper, May 14-16.

Hydraulic Pumping
Coberly, CiL: Theory and Application of Hydraulic Pumping Installations, Kobe Inc., Huntington Park, CA (1961). Hollis, R.G.: "Deep Hydraulic Pumping-Reno Field," lPT (Nov. 1966) 1395. Nolen, K.B, and Gibbs, S.G.: "Subsurface Hydraulic Pumping Diagnostic Techniques," paper SPE 4540 presented at the 1973 SPE Annual Meeting, Las Vegas, Sept. 30-0ct. 3. Wilson, P,M.: Introduction to Hydraulic Pumping, Kobe Inc., Huntington Park, CA (1976).

Grupping, A.W. et al.: "Fundamentals of Oilwell Jet Pumpng," SPEPE (Feb. 1988) 9. Jiao, B., Schmidt, Z., and Blais, R,N.: "Efficiency and Pressure Recovery in Hydraulic Jet Pumping of Two-Phase, Gas/Liquid Mixtures," SPEPE (Nov. 1990) 361. Petre, H.L. et al.: "Jet Pumping Oil WellsPart 1," World (Nov. 1983) 51; (Dec. 1983) 109; (Jan. 1984) 101. Tjondrodiputro, B. et al.: "Hydraulic Jet Pumping in a Remote Locaton," World Oil (Dec, 1986) 35.

ou

SI Metric Conversion Factors

bbI

A
ft

cp 0p in.
psi

ESP's
Allis, D.H, and Capps, W.M.: "Submersible Pumping-Long Beach Unit of East Wilmington Field: A 17-Year Review," lPT (Aug, 1984) 1321. Divine, D,L.: "A Variable Speed Submersible Pumping System," paper SPE 822.61 presented at the 1979 SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Las Vegas. Sept 23-26. Lea, J ,F. and Bearden, J.L.: "Effects of Gaseous Fluids on Submersible Pump Performance," lPT (Dec. 1982) 2922. Lea, J.F. and Bearden, J ,L.: "Gas Separator Performance for Submersible Pump Operations, " lPT (June 1982) 1327,

x 1.589873 x 1.0* x 3.048*

2.54* x 6.894757
X

141.5/(131.5+ API) E-Ol E+OO E-Ol E+OO E+OO

g/cm' m' ml'as m

oC

(OP _ 32)11.8

cm
kPa

'Conversion lactor is exac!.

Hydraulic Jet Pumping

Christ, F.e and Petrie, H.L.: "Obtaining Low Bottornhole Pressures in Deep Wells With Hydraulic Jet Pumps," SPEPE (Aug. 1989) 290. Corteville, J.C. et al.: "Research on Jet Pumps for Single and Multiphase Pumping of Crudes, " paper SPE 16923 presented at the 1987 SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Dalias, Sept. 27-30,

This paper is SPE 24834. Distingulshed Author Series aro ticles are general, descriptive representations that surnrnarize the state 01 the art in an area 01 technology by describing recent developments lor readers who are not specialists in the topics discussed. Written by individuals recognized as experts in the area, these articles provide key relerences to more delinitive work and present specilic details only to iIIustrate the technology. Purpose: To inform the general readership 01 recent advances in various areas 01 petrolsum engineering. A softbound anthology, SPE Distinguished Author Series: Dec. 1981-Dec.1983, is available from SPE's Book Order Dep!.

JPT December 1993

1167

Authors' Reply to Discussion of Discussion of Recommendations and Recommendations Selecting Artificial-for Comparisons for and Comparisons Selecting Lift Methods Artificial ... Lift Methods
OenisJ. O'Oonoghue, Norman W. Hein Jr., SPE, Consulting SRL Joe Dunn Clegg, SPE, consultant; Denver Petroleum SPE, Conoco Inc.; and S. Mike Bucaram, SPE, Arco E&P Technology
We read with extreme interest the valuable contribution made by J.D. Clegg et al. ("Recornmendations and Comparisons for Selecting Artificial-Lift Methods," Dec. any constructive1128). Thethat willisimWe welcome and appreciate 1993 JPT, Page criticism subject of great value in this period of we want new data to be published that prove our papero As we stated, depressed oil values and increasing energy andthe attributes given in our tables or that will improve our may alter other operating costs. We fully concur with the authors that "correct selection sorne inknowledge of artificial-lift selection. O'Donoghue makes of an artificial-lift observations directed mostly at rod pumping and plunger lift. teresting method is important to the long-term profitability of most producing oilthat we may be biasedis most important lift methods (i.e., We admit wells." Therefore, it toward the older that the methods used to select the artificial-liftdata have been gathered to define the those methods where ample method are beyond reproach. I suggest that the method limitations of the various 31 attributes the older lift advantages and of presentation used is biased toward listed). Each methods and thatconsensus of what we be made to the method attribute was a sorne revisions should define as "conventional proposed by the methods, recent design changes, or improvements in wisdom." New authors. The authors present a pie chart (Fig. 1) that gives very rnisleading operating techniques must stand the test of time. Aagood selection is impression as an aidin today's production atmosphere because we it is critically important for selecting an artificial-lift system because are heavily weighted meeting rod pumps (85%). I believe that the only often faced with toward operating-cost benchmarks and established valuable goals. We tried to be on a timeand found that manufacturers' earnings graph would be one objective basis with the percentage of new installationsto beeach type plotted vs. years, possibly with the claims often had of modified. addition statistical data on artificial-lift use are difficult to obtain. over Good of information on the number of installations changed from, say, beam Fig. 1 is representative of the total artificial-lift use in We believe that pumps in each year. It is interesting to review the references to see the date for BOPD) the U.S. The paper states that, if the U.S. stripper wells (<10 the first paper in each the percent ofthe number of papers listed for each cateare removed, category and rod pumping for the higher-rate U.S. oil gory. This dateto 27%. A largerof how long the 500,000 installation wells declines is an indication number of that type of to 600,000 has been wells on artificiallift of weighting factor rnight be used in U.S. oil in use and what type certainly have been installed for more than 10 or 20 years. Sorne operators (Shell, Conoco, Arco, Amoco, and Exxon) indicate that the current total use shown in Fig. 1 has not significantly changed. However, rod pumping seems to have declined during the past 10 years from 85%, and use of electrical submersible pumping, progressing cavity pumping, and even plunger lift have increased slightly. We carefully selected only what we considered worthwhile reference papers. Naturally, many more papers on rod pumping are available than papers on progressing cavity pumping (a new lift method). The publication dates had nothing to do with selection of references. A series of graphs for the various lift methods showing rate vs. depth is certainly feasible. To develop such graphs usually requires a large number of assumptions; otherwise, a series of graphs must be developed for each influencing variable. This results in a thick evaluating the growth rate of the market share. Of even greater value would be a series of graphs of this type plotted book depthis of little help inrate range. This would havebetter design vs. a that range/production artificial-lift selection. A been a monumental task a series of PC programs that would quick1y genapproach might be a few years ago, but it could be achieved without an overwhelming effort in this age of computers and large databases. erate data for given conditions. In the Conclusions, the authors state categorically that "suckerrod As we stated, sucker-rod (beam) pumping should be the "standard" (beam) pumpingoperations are on land. That does not mean that rod consideration if should be the standard consideration if operations are on land." This conclusion would be that other lift rnethodspoint is pumping is automatically installed but better omitted as this should amply covered by Conclusions 1significant improvements in rates or be compared to rod pumping. If and 2 and by Fig. 8, which shows the relativein operating costs occur that affect It is unfortunate that reductions hydraulic horsepower efficiencies. present-value profit, Fig. 2 does not show the hydraulic horsepower efficiency foronly one then the other lift methods should be selected. Energy cost is plunger lift, which requires nothat must energy. The conclusion would seem to of the many variables external be considered. be It betterdebated at the 1992 SPE Forum Series on New Developwas phrased as "sucker-rod (beam) pumping should be considered only if no other, moreplunger efficient system is viable." or ments in Artificial Lift whether energy lift is actually artificiallift anIn Table 2, flow method. If supplemental gas is supplied (which is improved Clegg et al. state that it is "not applicable." Apparently, they are unaware ofthe major become artificiallift just as continuoussometimes necessary), it does developments in this field by W &H Development's plunger lift is not a new lift method. The computerized flow gas lift is. Plunger lift controller, the OP/uS 1. Shell successfully controlling of lift plungerVentura field in California in the 1950's; used plunger the in the operation has resulted in incredible (up to 300%) increases in production. others undoubtedly used plunger lift even before then. The best applications for plunger lift are for relatively low liquid rates and high GLR's for both oil and gas wells. The limits for a specific field can be found with a little effort. By their JPT (SPE 28645) very nature, plunger-lift installations are "time cycled." Control of the number of cycles is the key to good, efficient operation. This control has been obtained with various types of pressure and time control systems. Use of a computer chip or new developments in control systems should allow more flexibility and promote better control. We suggest changing "not applicable" to "necessary for efficient operation" in Table 2 (for the attribute time cycle) for plunger lift. U se of pump-off controllers remains "not applicable." O'Donoghue should consider writing a paper about the merits of plunger lift and present his data there.

SI Metric Conversion Factor

bbl X 1.589 873

(SPE 29092)

E-DI =m3 JPT

.JPl' July 1994 622

621 July 1994 JPT