Notes for Hydrogeology

Anders Damsgaard Christensen - 20062213

anders.damsgaard@geo.au.dk
Last revision: January 26, 2010
Version 0.4
About this compendium
This document is created on base of the lectures in the course Hydrogeology held by
Keld Rmer Rasmussen at the department of Geology at rhus University, that I followed
during the fall semester 2009. All gures and tables are recreated and possibly modied
without permission, and this document is strictly for personal use only. Redistribution is
not allowed. I cannot be held responsible regarding the correctness of factual claims made
in this document.
This document is created with L
A
T
E
X
Contents
1 Introduction 7
1.1 Lecture material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2 Main topics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2 Geometric elements of open channels 9
3 Fundamentals 10
3.1 Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.1.1 Rectangular channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.1.2 Trapezoidal-, Triangular- and circular channels . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.1.3 Stationary ow, steady ow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.2 Discharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4 Energy and momentum principles 12
4.1 Hydrostatic pressure distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4.2 Ideal uids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.3 Real uids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.4 Open channel ow classication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2
Hydrogeology CONTENTS
4.5 Mass transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.6 Momentum transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.7 Energy transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.8 Conservation of mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
5 Critical ow 17
5.1 Head expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
5.2 Froudes number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
5.2.1 Critical depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
5.2.2 Specic energy - E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
5.2.3 Small threshold at the stream bottom (Q constant) . . . . . . . . . 19
5.2.4 Choking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
6 Friction in uids 20
6.1 Reynolds number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
6.2 Mannings approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
6.3 Single loss (enkelttab) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
6.4 Loss in pipes with turbulent ow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
6.5 Composite channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
6.6 Compound channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
7 Hydraulic structures 25
7.1 Broad crested weir (Bredt overlb) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
7.1.1 Free and ventilated weirs - Generally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
7.2 Sharp-crested weir (Skarpkantet overloeb) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3
Hydrogeology CONTENTS
8 Open channel ow - Summary 28
8.1 Example - Aarhus stream . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
8.2 Losses in hydraulic streams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
8.2.1 Simple (turbulent?) system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
8.2.2 Laminar ow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
8.3 Drainage of groundwater aquifers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
9 Groundwater ow - basics 30
9.1 Poriosity of a soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
9.2 Hydraulic conductivity - Darcys experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
9.3 Refraction of streamlines (Brydningsloven) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
9.4 Aquifer ow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
9.5 Conned aquifers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
9.5.1 Derivation of the ow equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
9.6 Leakage aquifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
9.7 Unconned (phreatic / water table) aquifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
9.7.1 Linearizing the Boussinesque equation - Homogenous and isotropic
aquifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
9.8 Dening the ow problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
9.8.1 Interaction with the surroundings - Boundary value problems (BVP) 39
4
Hydrogeology CONTENTS
10 Analytical models 40
10.1 Steady state ow to a well in a leakage aquifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
10.2 Unsteady ow to wells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
10.2.1 Recovery test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
10.2.2 Theis eq - Well function - Estimating T and S from type curve plot 43
10.2.3 Storage in conned aquifers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
10.2.4 Barometer inuences in conned aquifers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
10.3 Unsteady ow to wells in a conned aquifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
10.3.1 Elasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
10.3.2 Transient ow in a conned aquifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
10.4 Leaky aquifers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
10.4.1 Leaky aquifer geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
10.4.2 Drawdown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
10.4.3 Type curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
10.5 Unconned aquifers/Water table aquifers, S&Z ch.11 . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
10.5.1 Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
10.5.2 Pumping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
10.5.3 Drawdown and delayed storage, Neumann type curves . . . . . . . . 51
10.5.4 Early and late eects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
10.5.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
10.6 Slug testing and stepwise testing, S&Z ch.12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
10.7 Bounded aquifers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
5
Hydrogeology CONTENTS
10.7.1 Drawdown near positive boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
10.7.2 Drawdown near negative boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
10.7.3 Pumping situations with multiple positive/negative boundaries . . . 58
10.7.4 Well between two streams in innite strip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
10.8 Well in uniform ow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
10.9 Abstraction - long term inuences, S&Z ch.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
10.9.1 Release of water - initial phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
10.9.2 Release of water - late phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
10.10Salt water intrusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
10.11Stream groundwater interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
A Hydrogeology terms 66
B Commonly used formulas 69
B.1 Basic hydraulics in streams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
B.2 Groundwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
B.2.1 W(u) - Theis equation/Well function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
B.2.2 Unconned aquifer: Steady 1D groundwater ow . . . . . . . . . . 71
B.2.3 Conned aquifer: Steady 1D groundwater ow . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
B.2.4 Boundary conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
6
Chapter 1
Introduction
Lectures Monday 9-11 (1525-229), and exercises Tuesday 8-10 (1525-229).
Homepage: http://aula.au.dk/courses/HYDROE04/
Mail: geolkrr@geo.au.dk
1.1 Lecture material
Osman Akan: Open Channel Hydraulics Chapters 1, 2, 3 and 6.
F.W. Schwartz and Hubao Zhang: Fundamentals of Ground Water Main book.
Jacob Bear: Hydraulics of Groundwater Two chapters
C.T. Jenkins: The inuence from pumping near a stream
Keld Rasmussen: Exercises in hydrogeology
1.2 Main topics
Basic hydraulics in streams
Mannings formula
Specic energy (diagrams, Froudes number)
Linear reservoirs
Groundwater
7
Hydrogeology CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
Conned aquifers
Watertable aquifers (often treated as conned aquifers)
Leakage aquifers (steady state when leakage in cone equals the pumping rate)
Finding hydraulic parameters by simple pumping tests
Cooper-Jacob plot
Theis plot
Delayed storage
Streams: Assume that there is no loss at the groundwater-stream interface.
Streams are a positive or negative boundary.
8
Chapter 2
Geometric elements of open channels
Table 2.1: Relationship between various section elements
y Flow depth Vertical distance from the channel bottom to the free
surface
d Depth of ow section Flow depth measured perpendicular to the channel bot-
tom. The relationship between d and y is d = y cos.
For most man-made and natural channels cos 1.0,
and therefore y d.
T Top width Width of the channel section at free surface.
P Wetted perimeter Length of the interface between the water-channel
boundary.
A Flow area Cross-sectional area of the ow.
D Hydraulic depth Flow area divided by top width: D = A/T
R Hydraulic radius Flow area divided by wetted perimeter, R = A/P
S
0
Bottom slope Longitudinal slope of the channel bottom, S
0
= tan
sin.
Specic gravity = g
9
Chapter 3
Fundamentals
Textbook: Akan Ch.1
Three types of aquifers: Conned, leaky and phreatic (unconned or water table aquifer).
3.1 Flow
Vector. Flow through a channel is conversion of potential energy to kinetic energy. The
restriction is friction.
3.1.1 Rectangular channel
Width: b, Depth: y
The area of the ow: A = by , [m
2
]
Wetted perimeter: P = b + 2y , [m]
Hydraulic radius: how big the area of the ow is in relation to the wetted perimeter:
R(m) =
by
b + 2y
10
Hydrogeology 3.2. DISCHARGE
3.1.2 Trapezoidal-, Triangular- and circular channels
Akan, table 1.1.
Circular channels: Ex.: partially lled tube. A partially lled tube is better for trans-
porting water than a completely lled tube.
Akan, table 1.1.
3.1.3 Stationary ow, steady ow
Flow is said to be steady if the ow conditions do not vary in time. Therefore, the partial
derivative terms with respect to time can be dropped from the continuity, momentum and
energy equations.
3.2 Discharge
dQ = v d

A
For a large cross section with area A:

V =
Q
A
In a channel there is a continuity, that requires inverse behavior of area and velocity. I.e.
in a larger channel the velocity of the stream is lower than in a narrower section.
11
Chapter 4
Energy and momentum principles
4.1 Hydrostatic pressure distribution
Piezometric head (Trykniveau):
z +
p

= h = constant
Valid in open water bodies and open (non-conned) groundwater aquifers, where ow
is parallel to the surface and bottom. That means the pressure is the same value in a
horizontal plane.
When we look at pressure, we look at a static uid. The surface is integrated over the
vertical section.
Force perpendicular to the vertical surface: F
p
=
_
ydA
Denition of centroid (tyngepunkt): Y
c
=
_
ydA
A
So that: F
p
= Y
c
A
The pressure force is always acting slightly below the centroid.
The pressure at the bottom of a stream is the overlying weight of the uid. If the
stream/tube is oriented vertical, no pressure is applied at the sides. The pressure de-
creases with an increasing inclination (hldning).
12
Hydrogeology 4.2. IDEAL FLUIDS
4.2 Ideal uids
1. Frictionless, i.e. viscosity = 0.
2. No loss of energy when owing.
3. No eddies (hvirvler) will develop because of friction.
Bernoullis equation applies: p +
1
2
v
2
+z = constant, which consists of internal energy
+ kinetic energy + potential energy = constant.
Rewrites to: z +
p

+
v
2
2g
= constant
When observing ground water elevation, the height (h) of the groundwater table is a good
expression for the energy, because the velocity is relatively very small, and the pressure at
the groundwater table equals atmospheric pressure.
Se slide "Example: Container with a short, streamlined nozzle", for using Bernoullis
equation. The potential energy at position A is converted to kinetic energy at position B.
The result is Toricellis theorem (when the friction is ignored), that gives the velocity of
the escaping water at a height: v
0
=

2gh
4.3 Real uids
When there is a loss of energy due to friction and surface tension, so a velocity coecient
is introduced: v
0
= C
v

2gh, where C
v
0.95 0.99.
Real uids have viscosity . x
1
is the horizontal axis, x
2
is the vertical axis.
For laminar ow of Newtonian uids:
=
_
v
1
x
2
+
v
2
x
1
_
For a laminar planar ow - Newtons formula:
=
v
1
x
2
The velocity of the water molecules is zero (0) at the bottom/wall/side. The velocity rises
constantly with the distance from the wall/bottom/side.
Groundwater ows with planar ow because of small pipe radius and slow water movement
speeds.
13
Hydrogeology CHAPTER 4. ENERGY AND MOMENTUM PRINCIPLES
4.4 Open channel ow classication
Laminar or turbulent ow? Determined by the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces.
Reynolds number (Re) is dimensionless.
Re =
V R

Numerical boundaries depend on the choice of variables. : kinematic viscosity, V : average

velocity, R: hydraulic radius. 580 Re 750. Laminar ow beneath 580, turbulent above
750.
A rule of thumb: Groundwater ow laminar, surface ow turbulent.
Ratio of inertial forces to gravity (Froudes number small or large):
Fr =
V

gD
Fr < 1 : Subcritical
Fr = 1 : Critical
Fr > 1 : Supercritical
Large rivers with calm surface are in a subcritical state. Mountain streams with waves on
top are supercritical.
With the same discharge (Q) the water can ow slowly through a large area (subcritical),
or fast through a small area (supercritical). This is related to the inclination to the bed.
4.5 Mass transfer
Discharge is Q. Mass (M) transfer for an incompressible uid in an open channel (pipe)
ow is called the mass ux or the mass transfer rate.
Rate of mass transfer = Mass ux = Q
4.6 Momentum transfer
Momentum is a property of a moving object: p = M V
Momentum is the numerical measure of an objects tendency to keep moving in the same
manner.
Mass ux at any point:
M
= dQ = vdA.
Momentum ux at any point:
p
= v dQ
14
Hydrogeology 4.7. ENERGY TRANSFER
4.7 Energy transfer
The total energy (internal + kinetic + potential) is converted to a size of potential energy,
E = [m]. The potential energy is a relative quantity to a reference elevation.
The potential energy of an object of mass M is Mgz
c
, where g = gravitational acceleration,
z
c
= elevation of the center of mass above the reference level.
In open channel ow: Q = discharge (rate of volume transfer), and Q = rate of mass
transfer.
Therefore, the rate of potential energy transfer through a channel section:
Rate of potential energy transfer = E
p
= Qgz
c
Rate of kinetic energy transfer (v: point velocity):
E
k
=
1
2
vdA v
2
=

2
_
A
v
3
dA
In practice, it is easier to use the average cross-sectional velocity, V. : energy coecient
or kinetic energy correction coecient:
E
k
=

2
V
3
A =

2
QV
2
= 1 (for rectangular channels)
=
_
A
v
3
dA
V
3
A
Rate of internal energy transfer:
E
p
= eV A = evdA = eQ
4.8 Conservation of mass
Consider a volume element of an open channel between upstream section U and downstream
section D, with length x, and average cross-sectional area A.
The mass of water present in the volume: Ax
Water enters at upstream section at a mass transfer rate: Q
U
, and leaves at downstream
section at a rate Q
D
.
Change in the elements volume over time increment t:
(Ax)
t
15
Hydrogeology CHAPTER 4. ENERGY AND MOMENTUM PRINCIPLES
The dierence in water volumes that enters and leaves the volume element
must equal the change in the elements volume.
Q
U
Q
D
=
(Ax)
t
For a gradually-varied ow A and Q are continuous in space and time, and as x and t
approach zero, the equation becomes....:
A
t
+
Q
x
= 0
....the continuity equation!
16
Chapter 5
Critical ow
Textbook: Akan Ch. 2 cont.
5.1 Head expression
From the energy equation:
H = z
bU
+ y
U
+

U
V
2
U
2g
= z
bD
+ y
D
+

D
V
2
D
2g
+ H
H is the head loss of energy between the two boundaries: U upstream and D downstream.
z
b
: Elevation head, [m] (or [ft])
y
U
: Pressure head, [m]
H : Total energy head

U
V
2
U
2g
: Velocity head
For groundwater where the velocity is low, the piezometric head or hydraulic head:
h = z
b
+ y
17
Hydrogeology CHAPTER 5. CRITICAL FLOW
5.2 Froudes number
Dimensionless
F =
V

gD
Subcritical ow: F < 1 : Surface waves can move up-stream
Supercritical ow: F > 1 : Surface waves cannot move up-stream
Critical ow: F = 1
5.2.1 Critical depth
The depth where the ow is critical (F = 1). For a rectangular channel (other types in
Akan):
y
c
=
3

q
2
g
q : Specic ow rate (discharge per meter across the stream), [
m
3
s
m
1
=
m
2
s
]
The critical ow happens at one section in the elevation (not over a distance along the
ow). With critical ow, the specic energy has its minimal value (E
min
).
At constant energy (E) and constant discharge (Q), the ow can exist in two forms (two
y-values), i.e. in either supercritical or subcritical form.
That is, either subcritical with large depth (y), or in supercritical state with small depth
(y).
Critical ow is where a maximum in ow can happen at a minimum in energy (E
min
).
5.2.2 Specic energy - E
E y +
Q
2
2gA
2
Velocity coecient is usually 1.
18
Hydrogeology 5.2. FROUDES NUMBER
5.2.3 Small threshold at the stream bottom (Q constant)
Energy loss at positive structure.
a) Subcritical ow:
Stream depth decreases over threshold.
b) Supercritical ow:
Stream depth increases over threshold.
E decreases with z. E decreases, so stream depth y changes corresponding to Figure
2.11, Akan.
5.2.4 Choking
If the threshold is so high, that the energy is too low in the stream to pass it with the
constant discharge Q (moving left of E
min
in g. 2.11, Akan), the water level y will rise,
until at least E
min
is reached over the threshold.
The discharge Q will reduce, until the necessary y is developed in front of the threshold.
19
Chapter 6
Friction in uids
Textbook: Akan, ch. 3
A wall: Boundary where the ow velocity equals zero (0), (No slip conditions).
This creates a velocity gradient: An area with increasing ow velocities. This zone is called
the boundary layer. The atmospheric boundary layer has about 1 km thickness from the
surface.
Near the boundary: Stress and friction.
Flows can be completely laminar, turbulent with a laminar wall layer or fully turbulent.
S
f
: Friction loss

0
: Friction force per unit area (no matter ow type)

0
= RS
0
where:
R = A/P: Hydraulic radius
S
0
: Slope of the bed
= g: Specic gravity
Insert notes about pipe resistance and Darcy-Weisbach number from Slides + Akan.
Fraction of kinetic energy, where f is the Darcy-Weisbach number:

0
= f
1
2
V
2
The Darcy-Weisbach number is a function of Reynolds number, form and roughness. The
Reynolds number is a function of speed. k
s
= k: The particle diameter of a spheric grain.
20
Hydrogeology 6.1. REYNOLDS NUMBER
Laminar ow:
f =
64
Re
Smooth ow (Re < 100.000):
f =
0.316
Re
0.25
Fully rough turbulent ow:
1

f
= 2log
k
s
12R
6.1 Reynolds number
Re =
V R

= u
s
=
_

is the viscosity.
6.2 Mannings approximation
Walls in nature are rough.
For rough cylindrical pipes:
_
2
f
=
V
u

= 6.62 + 2.45ln
_
R
k
_
For rough rectangular pipes:
_
2
f
=
V
u

= 6.15 + 2.45ln
_
R
k
_
For rough pipes:
_
2
f
=
V
u

= 6.40 + 2.45ln
_
R
k
_
21
Hydrogeology CHAPTER 6. FRICTION IN FLUIDS
In nature (Manning):
4.7 <
R
k
< 300
u

=
_
gRS
0

V
u

8.1
_
R
k
_
1/6
V 8.1
_
R
k
_
1/6

_
gRS
0
M =
25.4
6

k
m
1/3
s
1
(Manning number)
V = M R
2/3
S
1/2
0
=
k
n
n
R
2/3
S
1/2
0
Q = AV
The n-value is the Manning factor, used in the imperial system. Mannings number (M)
can be found in tables. Often: 10 < M < 40.
6.3 Single loss (enkelttab)
Expansion carnot, where ow is moving from a small pipe into a larger one. Loss of part
of the kinetic energy (
A
= 1.1):
H
E
=
A
(V
A
V
B
)
2
2g
Flow into large reservoir; loss of the entire kinetic energy:
H
E
=
V
2
2g
Generally:
H
E
=
(V
A
V
B
)
2
2g
For a sudden, sharp contraction: = 0.5
For a smoothened contraction (bottleneck type): = 0.1
For a gradual contraction: = 0
Bends:
= 1.1
_

90
_
2
22
Hydrogeology 6.4. LOSS IN PIPES WITH TURBULENT FLOW
6.4 Loss in pipes with turbulent ow
The losses in the dierent parts of the system are summed together:
Inlet loss:
H
I
= 0.5
Q
2
2gA
2
Pipe loss (friction):
H
F
=
L
M
2
R
4/3
A
2
Q
Outow loss:
H
u
=
Q
2
2gA
2
Total loss:

i
H
i
= Q
2
_

L
M
2
R
4/3
A
2
+

2gA
2
_

i
H
i
= H = k Q
2
Q =
_
H
k
k: Specic resistivity
In a pipe system, the section in the brackets in the upper formula is a constant. When
plotting Q
2
(h), the result will be a straight line.
In natural channels, the hydraulic radius (R) may vary. The result is that the Q
2
(h) plot
will curve upwards in the ends.
6.5 Composite channels
Channels that have dierent roughness in dierent parts of the cross section (Fig 3.9,
Akan). The equivalent roughness of the channel (n
e
, Manning koecient):
n
e
=
_

N
i=1
(P
i
n
2
i
)

N
i=1
P
i
_
1/2
23
Hydrogeology CHAPTER 6. FRICTION IN FLUIDS
6.6 Compound channels
Channels that overood during high discharges (Fig 3.10, 3.11, Akan).
The ow is divided into subsections. The conveyance (K) for each subsection:
K
i
=
k
n
n
A
i
R
2/3
i
If the energy head is the same for all subsections:
Q =
_

K
i
_
S
1/2
0
24
Chapter 7
Hydraulic structures
Textbook: Akan, ch. 6
Hydraulic structures are often constructed for measuring the discharge via the water level
(h) in higher resolution.
7.1 Broad crested weir (Bredt overlb)
Fig 6.7, Akan. On the broad crested weir, the ow transfers from upstream subcritical ow
into critical ow on top of the weir, and exits as a jet with surrounding air in supercritical
state (nappe).
E =
3
2
y
c
=
3
2
3

q
2
g
q =
_
4
27
H
_
2gH =
2
3

3
H
_
2gH
h H; 1 q = 0.38h
_
2gh 1.7h
3/2
C
0
=
2
3

3
The above relationship between specic discharge (q) and water level (h) can be calibrated
via measurements.
Geometric and hydraulic elements: w: Weir height, Q: Discharge, q: Specic discharge, h:
Flow height upstream over weir, H: energy upstream (h < H), y
c
: Critical depth, b: Weir
width.
25
Hydrogeology CHAPTER 7. HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES
7.1.1 Free and ventilated weirs - Generally
(As example above)
Q = C
0
bH
_
2gH
If the upstream velocity is signicant:
Q = Cbh
_
2gH C = C
0
C = C
0
_
1 +
q
2
2g(w + h)
2
h
_
3/2
7.2 Sharp-crested weir (Skarpkantet overloeb)
Usage of the energy equation to obtain a relationship between the approach ow charac-
teristics and the discharge over a weir. Rectangular sharp crested weir:
Q = k
w
L
ew
_
2gh
3/2
e0
(6.4)
Correction factors. Eective head over crest:
h
e0
= h
0
+ h
k
, h
k
= 0.001m
The eective crest length:
L
ew
= L
w
+ L
k
26
Hydrogeology 7.2. SHARP-CRESTED WEIR (SKARPKANTET OVERLOEB)
27
Chapter 8
Open channel ow - Summary
Dierent contributions for open channel water:
Precipitation
Ditches
Groundwater ow
Drains and other man-made structures
8.1 Example - Aarhus stream
Discharge highest in winter.
During summer: Generally speaking; Evapotranspiration > precipitation Stream water
supplied by groundwater contribution.
During summer rainfalls, the precipitation will temporary inltrate the aquifers as ground-
water, until reentering the atmosphere into streams.
8.2 Losses in hydraulic streams
8.2.1 Simple (turbulent?) system
Quadratic relationship between energy dierences and discharge:

h =
_
h(t = 0) Kt H Q
2
28
Hydrogeology 8.3. DRAINAGE OF GROUNDWATER AQUIFERS
8.2.2 Laminar ow
Linear relationship between energy dierences and discharge:
Q = K
L
H H Q
= A
dh
dt
h(t) = h
0
e
Kt
This means, that the reservoir never empties.
8.3 Drainage of groundwater aquifers
Unconned aquifer: Draining makes air replace water in upper lying pore-spaces, and
the groundwater-table drops.
Conned aquifer: Totally lled by water under pressure. The piezometric surface is the
corresponding water-pressure surface (groundwater-table in unconned aquifer), observed
in observation-drillings. Drainage lowers the pressure because of elastic storativity.
Lowering of the piezometric surface in a conned by drainage results in much less water
than by lowering of the groundwater table in an unconned aquifer.
29
Chapter 9
Groundwater ow - basics
Textbook: Schwartz & Zhang: Ch. 3, 4 (skip fractured rocks) and 5.1
Chapter 3 can be used as repetition for previously learned content.
9.1 Poriosity of a soil
The total porosity of a rock or soil is dened as the ratio of the void volume to the total
volume of material:
n
T
=
V
v
V
T
=
V
T
V
s
V
T
where n
T
is the total porosity, V
v
is the volume of voids, V
s
is the volume of solids and V
T
is the total volume. In some cases, porosity i expressed as percentage.
30
Hydrogeology 9.2. HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY - DARCYS EXPERIMENT
9.2 Hydraulic conductivity - Darcys experiment
q =
Q
A
= K
h
2
h
1
l
= K
h
l
Q
A
= K
h
2
h
1
l
K =
k
w
g

K: Hydraulic conductivity (L/T, length/time), used for water ow.

k: Permeability (L
2
)
: Dynamic visosity (M/LT)
h
1
h
2
l
: Hydraulic gradient
q : Darcy velocity / Specic discharge
The hydraulic gradient is denoted as i. h
1
and h
2
are the hydraulic heads at points 1 and
2, and l is the distance between the points.
i =
h
1
h
2
l
=
dh
dl
Darcys equation is rewritten as:
q = Ki or Q = KiA
The Darcy equation is valid for a fully laminar ow in homogenous material. See table 4.7
for example values of parameters.
31
Hydrogeology CHAPTER 9. GROUNDWATER FLOW - BASICS
In the eld, it is possible to install a large number of piezometers in a unit and to contour
the resulting head values. The gradient of change in head, and is maximal perpendicular
to the lines of equal hydraulic head (equipotential lines).
9.3 Refraction of streamlines (Brydningsloven)
The gure below is a scenario for K
2
> K
1
, fx clay over sand.
Darcy- and continuity equation:
dQ
1
= dQ
2
= K
1
a
dh
1
dl
2
= K
2
c
dh
2
dl
2
dh
1
= dh
2
(h + h) h
a = b cos
1
:
b
dl
1
=
1
sin
1
c = b cos
2
:
b
dl
2
=
1
sin
2
K
1
b cos
1
dh
1
b sin
1
= K
2
b cos
2
dh
2
b sin
2

K
1
K
2
=
tan
1
tan
2
That means, if K
1
>> K
2

2
>>
1
. For example, in a conned aquifer, a low permeable
(medium 1) is overlying a highly permeable (medium 2), the downward ow is bent in a
horizontal direction.
32
Hydrogeology 9.4. AQUIFER FLOW
9.4 Aquifer ow
The transmissivity describes the ease with which water can move through an aquifer.
Transmissivity has units of [L
2
/T].
T = Kb
K: Hydraulic conductivity, b (or B): Aquifer thickness
Aquifer ow can be considered horizontal. The length of a natural aquifer is much
greater than its thickness. This means there is a small height-gradient, and as good as
horizontal ow.
Vertical ow is only relevant in proximity to well pumping and near springs and streams.
9.5 Conned aquifers
9.5.1 Derivation of the ow equation
Following principles are used: Conservation of mass, Darcy equation, Elastic properties
and elastic laws.
In a compressible medium a volume change will result in a mass change within a control
medium (changes in volume of porespaces). Conservation of ow volume (input -
output = change of storage):
Q
inow
Q
outow
= Q
storage
Mass conservation
[M
i
M
o
] = m/t
M = q , q : Specic discharge [
m
/
s
]
Left side (M
i
M
o
). Same equations for x, y and z:
M
i,x
=
w
q
x
yz (Inow in x-direction)
M
o,x
=
_

w
q
x

x
(
w
q
x
)x)
_
yz (Outow in x-direction)
M =
_

x
(
w
q
x
) +

y
(
w
q
y
) +

z
(
w
q
z
)
_
zyx
M = (
w
q)V
T
= div(
w
q)V
T
33
Hydrogeology CHAPTER 9. GROUNDWATER FLOW - BASICS
Right side (m/t). Poriosity is n. Mass of water in control box:
m =
w
n xyz
m
t
=

t
(
w
n)xyz
Combining left and right side, removing xyz:

_

x
(
w
q
x
) +

y
(
w
q
y
) +

z
(
w
q
z
)
_
=
(
w
n)
t
Assume that time changes in
w
override spatial changes:

_
q
x
x
+
q
y
y
+
q
z
z
_
=
1

w
(
w
n)
t
S
s
h
t
, [S
s
] = m
1
S
s
: Specic storativity. Delivery from 1m
3
in reservoir per unit decline of head (h).
h
t
: Time-change of the hydraulic head.
S : Storativity of the aquifer, S = S
s
B, assuming presence of hydrostatic pressure
distribution.
B : Aquifer thickness
q
i
represents velocities, i.e. ow rate per cross section area. From the Darcy equation:
q
i
= K
i
h
x
i
_

x
_
K
x
h
x
_
+

y
_
K
y
h
y
_
+

z
_
K
z
h
z
__
= S
s
h
t
In isotropic aquifers or aquifer layers the hydraulic conductivity (K) is equal for ow in all
directions, while in anisotropic conditions it diers, notably in horizontal (Kh) and vertical
(Kv) sense. In an isotropic, homogeneous medium: K
x
= K
y
= K
z
= K
K
_

2
h
x
2
+

2
h
y
2
+

2
h
z
2
_
= S
s
h
t
Steady ow (constant speed (
h
t
= 0), fx regional settings):
h
t
= 0
_

2
h
x
2
+

2
h
y
2
+

2
h
z
2
_
= 0 (Laplace equation)
Conned aquifer:
_

x
_
K
x
h
x
_
+

y
_
K
y
h
y
_
+

z
_
K
z
h
z
__
= S
s
h
t
Now: T = KB and S = BS
s
, so we multiply with B on both sides and rewrite:
_

x
_
T
x
h
x
_
+

y
_
T
y
h
y
__
= S
h
t
34
Hydrogeology 9.6. LEAKAGE AQUIFER
Homogeneous and isotropic aquifer (isotropic: constant hydraulic conductivity):

2
h
x
2
+

2
h
y
2
=
S
T
h
t
1D ow:

2
h
x
2
=
S
T
h
t
9.6 Leakage aquifer
Basic equation for 2D ow. A leaky aquifer has an impermeable bed, an aquier section
on top (with parameters B,K), and a semi-permeable section over that (with parameters
B,K). This material could be a till.
There is no signicant horizontal ow in the semipermeable layer, but slow vertical down-
ward ow (N), (scale: decimeters/year).
The sum of ow in the aquifer: Horizontal ow (incl. elastic component) + vertical supply
from semipermeable top layer (N).
Assumption: Time-constant watertable on top of semi-permeable layer.
Vertical (not horizontal!) head gradient in semipermeable layer (from Darcy eq):

35
Hydrogeology CHAPTER 9. GROUNDWATER FLOW - BASICS

0
is the head of the upper watertable, and is the head at the bottom of the semipermeable
layer. B is the thickness. Instead of , h is used as the hydraulic head in the main aquifer.
Resulting downward supply to main aquifer from semipermeable layer:
N = K

0
h
B

=

0
h

, =
B

N: Downward ow into aquifer, B: thickness of semipermeable layer, K: Hydraulic con-

ductivity of semipermeable layer, : Leakage coecient.
Aquifer with 2D ow:
_

x
_
T
x
h
x
_
+

y
_
T
y
h
y
__
+ N(x, y) = S
h
t

x
_
T
x
h
x
_
+

y
_
T
y
h
y
_
+
K

(
0
h) = S
h
t
Leakage factor: =

T Homogenous, isotropic leaky aquifer (isotropic: constant hy-

draulic conductivity):

2
h
x
2
+

2
h
y
2
+
(
0
h)

2
=
S
T
h
t
1D ow:

2
h
x
2
+
(
0
h)

2
=
S
T
h
t
36
Hydrogeology 9.7. UNCONFINED (PHREATIC / WATER TABLE) AQUIFER
9.7 Unconned (phreatic / water table) aquifer
In the unconned aquifer, the water table is the upper limit of the saturated zone. This
surface is slightly sloping, and the ow is therefore not horizontal, see g (a) below.
The ow has a vertical component, and therefore ds > dx. However, if 8
o
then
cos > 0.99; so:
q = Kh
dh
ds
Kh
dh
dx
This means, that there is a non-linear (h
2
) relationship. These circumstances reect gure
(b) above, with vertical equipotential lines. This is called Dupuits approximation.
In the unconned case S
y
>> S
s
, so both sides are multiplied with h.
_

x
_
K
x
h
h
x
_
+

y
_
K
y
h
h
y
__
= [h S
s
+ S
y
]
h
t
S
y
h
t
In a homogenous and isotropic aquifer (Boussinesque equation):

x
_
h
h
x
_
+

y
_
h
h
y
_
=
S
y
K
h
t
9.7.1 Linearizing the Boussinesque equation - Homogenous and
isotropic aquifer
When H is large and variations in h are small, so that an average thickness of the aquifer
can be introduced, i.e. h B:

x
_
B
h
x
_
+

y
_
B
h
y
_
=
S
y
K
h
t


2
h
x
2
+

2
h
y
2
=
S
KB
h
t
=
S
T
h
t
37
Hydrogeology CHAPTER 9. GROUNDWATER FLOW - BASICS
Rewriting both sides using:
h
h
t
=
1
2
(h
2
)
t
and
S
K
h
t
=
S
K
1
2h
(h
2
)
t

x
_
h
h
x
_
+

y
_
h
h
y
_
=
S
y
K
h
t

(h
2
)
x
2
+
(h
2
)
y
2
=
S
y
Kh
(h
2
)
t

S
y
KB
(h
2
)
t
=
S
y
T
(h
2
)
t
1D ow:

2
(h
2
)
x
2
=
S
T
(h
2
)
t
9.8 Dening the ow problem
The governing ow equation (dierential equation)
Initial conditions
Boundary conditions
The initial- and boundary conditions need to be known, in addition to the gorverning ow
equation, to calculate the ow.
The ow is described by a partial dierential equation (PDE) and the solution requires
determining:
The geometry (x,y,z) of the ow domain must be known beforehand. The domain
has a bounding surface to a conning layer, or a curve F(x,y,z).
The hydraulic parameters (K, S
s
, B)
The initial conditions ( =
1
(x, y, z, 0))
The interaction with the surroundings (boundary conditions)
Seek = (x, y, z, t) as the dependent variable.
38
Hydrogeology 9.8. DEFINING THE FLOW PROBLEM
9.8.1 Interaction with the surroundings - Boundary value prob-
lems (BVP)
1. Known hydraulic head - Dirichlet BVP:
=
2
(x, y, z, t) , example: a large lake, the sea.
2. Known ux - Neuman BVP:
Example: Impermeable material no ow at boundary: q = 0 and
h
x
= 0. See
textbook for formulas.
3. Semipermeably boundary (Mixed BVP) - Cauchy type
See textbook for formulas
When there is a water table with recharge, the position and shape of the boundary condition
(water table) is not known, but is part of the problem. Vicious circle argument. Can lead
to application of iterative methods in order to obtain a solution.
39
Chapter 10
Analytical models
Textbook: S&Z ch. 9
Insert missing notes f07.pdf
10.1 Steady state ow to a well in a leakage aquifer
Steady ow in an innite aquifer is not possible. Flow into well:
Q(r) = q
v
+ Q(r + r)
q
v
is the vertical downward ow from the semi-permeable upper layer into the aquifer.
Q(r + r) is the horizontal ow from the surrounding aquifer. r is the distance from the
well, r
w
is well radius. Axis-symmentrical ow is assumed. Solution:

0
(r) = I
0
_
r

_
+ K
0
_
r

_
I
0
: Modied Bessel function of rst type and zero order.
K
0
: Modied Bessel function of second type and zero order.
K
1
: Modied Bessel function of second type and rst order.
40
Hydrogeology10.1. STEADY STATE FLOW TO A WELL IN A LEAKAGE AQUIFER
If x << 1 K
0
(x) ln(
1,123
x
)
If the leakage aquifer is unlimited:
x I
0
(x) , = 0

0
= K
0
(
r

s =
0
=
Q
2T
K
0
[r/]
(r
w
/)K
1
[r
w
/]
Near the pumping well:
s(r) =
Qw
2T
41
Hydrogeology CHAPTER 10. ANALYTICAL MODELS
With increasing distance to the well, the lateral input decreases (Q(r)), and the vertical
downow increases (q
v
).
Well function: : Error
Distance with inuence formula is a good approximation, no matter what u is.
10.2 Unsteady ow to wells
Notes from Bear-cont. (Hydraulics of Groundwater)
S&Z: Ch 10
Notes on Barometer curves
Investigating T and S of reservoirs by pumping tests.
10.2.1 Recovery test
Investigation methods: 1) Pumping for a limited time period, 2) Pumping (almost) con-
tinuously in a water works.
Notes on above gure: y-axis: : Drawdown. The pumping takes place until t = t
p
= 500
(Pumping rate: Q
w
). At t=500, t begins counting from zero. The recovery begins.
42
Hydrogeology 10.2. UNSTEADY FLOW TO WELLS
Mathematically this can be used. An equal size opposite discharge into aquifer is begun
(Q
w
) at pump shutdown.
t = t
p
+ t

(r, t) =
Q
4T
ln
t
t

=
Q
4T
ln
t
p
+ t

This is valid for large times; u < 0.01. The data is plotted in a Cooper-Jacob recovery plot
(log-lin plot).
Plotting (t, s)-points should be linear in the log-lin coordinate system. When u is small,
(fx drawdown in pumping well), choose two (t, s)-points. They should be one decade apart
((t
1
, s
1
) and (t
2
= t
1
10, s
2
)).
s = s
2
s
1
T =
2.3Q
4s
10.2.2 Theis eq - Well function - Estimating T and S from type
curve plot
1
u
=
4Tt
r
2
S
43
Hydrogeology CHAPTER 10. ANALYTICAL MODELS
S: Storativity, (not drawdown, s).
The Theis eq is plotted in a log-log plot (Well function), with x-axis: 1/u, y-axis: W(u)
Some drawdown (s,t) data is recorded in another well than the pumping well (observational
well). The (s,t)-dataplot is put on top of the Well-function plot (typecurve). The two
curves are the same except for a displacement. The point (1,1) is used to calculate the
displacement (gure below and the book uses another point).
44
Hydrogeology 10.2. UNSTEADY FLOW TO WELLS
T and S are found from the y- and x displacement. From y:
T =
Q
4s
1
Where s
1
is the drawdown for W(u) = 1. From x:
S = |
t
r
2
|
1
4T = 1 4T
S =
4Ttu
r
2
10.2.3 Storage in conned aquifers
Once pumping is begun from a conned aquifer, a small inux (downward and upward)
is owing from the conning layers. This distorts the Theis curve. In this situation, a
dierent type curve must be used, that accounts for the small storage in the conning
layers.
45
Hydrogeology CHAPTER 10. ANALYTICAL MODELS
10.2.4 Barometer inuences in conned aquifers
Normally: Pressure 0 (atmospheric) at watertable in an unconned aquifer.
In a conned aquifer the piezometric surface is dependent on atmospheric pressure. High
atmospheric pressure Low piezometric level
Air pressure must be monitored when observation data is measured from a conned aquifer.
As time goes on, the conned aquifer re compensates for the changed atmospheric pressure.
10.3 Unsteady ow to wells in a conned aquifer
10.3.1 Elasticity
The porous skeleton and the water is incompressible. In a conned aquifer the conning
upper layer is carried by granular stress (particle contact) and porewater pressure.
Elasticity modulus of water: =

w
/p

w
Elasticity modulus of skeleton (grains): =
dz/p
dz
The expansion/contraction takes place along the vertical direction (up/down):
[ + n]g
w
h
t
S
s
h
t
S
s
: Storativity
10.3.2 Transient ow in a conned aquifer
Transient: Midlertidlig, kortvarig
Impermeable top + bottom. When pumping starts, a cone of depression is created in
the piezometric surface. With time, the cone expands out laterally. Water is supplied by
elasticity.
u =
r
2
S
4Tt
46
Hydrogeology 10.4. LEAKY AQUIFERS
s =
0
=
Q
w
4T
W(u)
W(u): Well function; exponential integral
s: Drawdown at position r at time t.
The Well function:
W(u) = 0.5772 ln(u) +
where 0 for u 0 i.e. t .
If u < 0.01:
s =
Q
4T
ln
2.25Tt
r
2
S
=
2.303Q
4T
log
10
2.25Tt
r
2
S
The minimum distance for no inuence from well at time t:
s =
Q
4T
ln
2.25Tt
r
2
S
= 0
2.25Tt
r
2
S
= 1 r = 1.5
_
Tt
S
10.4 Leaky aquifers
10.4.1 Leaky aquifer geometry
47
Hydrogeology CHAPTER 10. ANALYTICAL MODELS
10.4.2 Drawdown
A: No leakage, Theis eq.
B: Leakage, no storage in semipermeable layer (S

s
= 0)
C: Leakage, and storage in semipermeable layer (S

s
= 0)
Conned aquifer with leakage. With existence of a constant head above semipermeable
layer:

r
2
+
1
r

r
+

0

2
=
S
T

t
Where

0

2
is the leakage component.
The drawdown:
s(r, t) =
Q
4T
W(u, r/B) , u =
r
2
S
4Tt
B =
_
b

T/K

: Leakage factor
Q: Amount of pumping
r: Distance from well
t: Time
b: Thickness of the conning layer
K: Hydraulic conductivity of the conning layer
48
Hydrogeology 10.5. UNCONFINED AQUIFERS/WATER TABLE AQUIFERS, S&Z CH.11
10.4.3 Type curves
r (Distance from well) is helt constant, and 1/u becomes another value for time (1/u
t ).
The type curve for a leaky, conned aquifer will stabilize after a certain time-period,
dependent on the thickness and hydraulic conductivity of the semipermeable layer.
Three types of curves:
1. Conned aquifer: Theis eq
2. Leaky, conned aquifer with no storage in semipermeable layer
3. Leaky, conned aquifer with storage in semipermeable layer (S

s
)
Data from observational wells (t,s)=(time,drawdown) is tted with a typecurve.
10.5 Unconned aquifers/Water table aquifers, S&Z ch.11
= Water table aquifers = Phreatic aquifers
49
Hydrogeology CHAPTER 10. ANALYTICAL MODELS
10.5.1 Geometry
Note on the geometry of a water table aquifer: The section of the well that contains of
screen does often in reality not completely cover the top to bottom of the aquifer.
If the screen section is only partially covering the aquifer thickness, there is a loss due to
convergence and compression of the ow lines in the aquifer near the well.
10.5.2 Pumping
s

: Correted drawdown
s < 0.02: Drawdoen less than 2% of aquier height Approximation similar to Theis eq.
Drawdown in a watertable aquifer is much less than in a conned aquifer with the same
amount of pumping.

2
s
r
2
+
1
r
s
r
=
S
y
KH
0
s
t
50
Hydrogeology 10.5. UNCONFINED AQUIFERS/WATER TABLE AQUIFERS, S&Z CH.11
10.5.3 Drawdown and delayed storage, Neumann type curves
Initially rapid drawdown, after a while drawdown will almost stop. After a longer period
it starts again = Delayed storage type curve (note double log).
10.5.4 Early and late eects
The vertical conductivity is often lower because of lower grain size layers (drapings), which
means anisotropic conductivity. This means that for some time, drawdown from well does
not reach the upper laying water table. The response will in the beginning lay on the
elastic properties of the aquifer.
This means two u-values (early and late). Two Theis curves:
s =
Q
4T
W(u
A
, u
B
, )
For early data (elasticity):
1
u
A
=
Tt
sr
2
Late data (specic yield):
1
u
B
=
Tt
S
y
r
2
=
K
z
r
2
K
r
b
2
K
z
: Vertical hydraulic conductivity, K
r
: Horizontal hydraulic conductivity.
To determine the long-time eects a lot of testing and modeling is needed.
51
Hydrogeology CHAPTER 10. ANALYTICAL MODELS
10.5.5 Summary
The rst part of the curve i.e. the early data is similar to the response in a conned aquifer:
s =
Q
4Kb
W(u
A
, ) ; u
A
=
r
2
S
4Kbt
The second part is somewhat similar to leakage, i.e.:
=
K
z
r
2
K
r
b
2
The third part is a typical water table response with storativity S
y
, but where the start of
the u
B
-curve is determined by :
s =
Q
4Kb
W(u
B
, ) ; u
B
=
r
2
S
y
4Kbt
For a piezometer or an observation well which have short screens, the response depends on
the vertical position of the screen as well as on the anisotropy, i.e. the ratio between K
z
and K
r
.
52
Hydrogeology 10.6. SLUG TESTING AND STEPWISE TESTING, S&Z CH.12
10.6 Slug testing and stepwise testing, S&Z ch.12
A solid bar of iron is dropped into the well, that rises the water level in the well. This
additional head makes the water ow from the well into the aquifer. After equilibrium is
reattained, the steel bar is rapidly lifted up. The lower hydraulic head in the well makes
the water ow into the well from the aquifer.
This gives local, quick and cheap information about the aquifer.
The general solution for the hydraulic conductivity for a Hvorslev slug test is:
K =
A
F
1
t
2
t
1
ln
H
1
H
2
A: Cross sectional area of the well
H
0
: Initial water level (used for normalizing)
H
1
and H
2
: Water levels just after slug is placed/removed.
F: Shape factor, see table 12.1 in textbook.
A common Hvorslev test where length L > 8R, where R is the radius of the piezometer:
F =
2L
ln(L/R)
K =
R
2
ln(L/R)
2LT
0
Where T
0
is the time for which the rise of the water table is 37% of the initial column of
water i.e. before removal of the slug.
With a conned aquifer a more advanced method is used (Cooper-Bredehoeft-Padadopulos).
10.7 Bounded aquifers
= Aquifer without innite horizontal extent and isotropy.
Negative boundary: Impermeable limit zone
Positive boundary: Boundary which can supply water. For example a stream, that is
not aected by loss of water into aquifer, because the discharge in a stream is much greater.
53
Hydrogeology CHAPTER 10. ANALYTICAL MODELS
1) Semi innite aquifer
2) Buried valley: When the drawdown reaches the valley sides, water must be supplied by
valley up- or downstream, because lateral extent is not innite.
3) Strip aquifer
4) Strip aquifer
5) Innite aquifer with positive boundary (stream). The hydraulic head can never be
changed at stream.
6) When left boundary (with lower K) is reached by drawdown, discharge drops.
10.7.1 Drawdown near positive boundary
The hydraulic head can never be changed at the positive boundary (fx stream). A ctional
recharge well is placed symmetrically on the opposite side of the stream.
The recharge well will have the same recharge (| Q
w
|) as the real well has discharge
(| + Q
w
|). This will create constant head at stream location. No matter how big the
discharge at a well is, the system will be unaected on the other side of a stream.
54
Hydrogeology 10.7. BOUNDED AQUIFERS
Pumping near stream:
s(r) =
Q
w
2T
_
ln
r

r
_
=
Q
w
4T
ln
(x + x
0
)
2
+ y
2
(x x
0
)
2
+ y
2
55
Hydrogeology CHAPTER 10. ANALYTICAL MODELS
Discharge from stream: The inuence of the pumping well on the stream, i.e. how
much water the stream loses by passing the well eld. The ecosystem can be damaged by
well pumping near upstream areas.
The inow from the stream at x=0 over a unit of length on y is integrated, and the specic
discharge is found. Q/Q
q
: Amount of water extracted from section of stream/y-axis in
relation to the total discharge from well.
Q
Q
w
=
2

tan
1
_
d
x
0
_
x
0
: (Shortest) distance between stream and well
d: Length of stream (starting at midpoint)
[tan
1
]: rad
10.7.2 Drawdown near negative boundary
There can be no velocity components from boundary, since it acts as an impermeable
boundary.
A ctional well is placed symmetrically opposite of the limit zone with respect to the
real well. The imaginary well will have the same discharge (+Q
w
) as the real well. The
symmetrical nature creates a no-ow condition at the boundary exactly between the two
wells (

x
= 0). The drawdown at the boundary will be twice the drawdown in an unlimited
aquifer.
56
Hydrogeology 10.7. BOUNDED AQUIFERS
r: Distance to observational well from real well
r: Distance to observational well from imaginary well
r
w
: Radius of the well
The drawdown at the impermeable boundary r = r

:
s(r = r

) =
Q
w
T
ln
r
r
w
In real situations the radius of the well (r
w
), the value can be uncertain because of distur-
bance of the formation while drilling (especially if the drilling happens with a wider bit
than the screen).
57
Hydrogeology CHAPTER 10. ANALYTICAL MODELS
10.7.3 Pumping situations with multiple positive/negative bound-
aries
The discharge/recharge has the same numerical value in each situation below. All situations
must balance out in relation to the symmetry lines.
10.7.4 Well between two streams in innite strip
When trying to balance this, an innite amount of imaginary wells are placed at a longer
and longer distance from the real well. There is a solution, see litterature (will not be
required at exam).
10.8 Well in uniform ow
Combination of natural ow and drawdown. The result is obtained by adding (superposi-
tion). Constant ow: Linear hydraulic head.
All water within the groundwater divide will be owing into the well.
58
Hydrogeology 10.8. WELL IN UNIFORM FLOW
Inux from regional ow q
0
, [m3/s per m
2
= m/s]. Aquifer thickness: B, regional ow has
head 0. Stagnation point is examined (singular point).
Steady ow to well:

Q
=
Q
w
4T
ln(x
2
+ y
2
)
Steady and isotropic ow. When two gradients are perpendicular:

x
=

y

x
=
q
0
B
T
+
Q
w
4T
2x
x
2
+ y
2
=

y

=
_
q
0
B
T
dy +
Q
w
2x
4T
_
1
x
2
+ y
2
dy
=
q
0
B
T
y +
Q
w
2T
tan
1
_
y
x
_
At the divide: = 0
q
0
B
T
y =
Q
w
2T
tan
1
_
y
x
_
tan
1
_
y
x
_
=
2q
0
By
Q
w
59
Hydrogeology CHAPTER 10. ANALYTICAL MODELS
y
x
= tan
2q
0
By
Q
w
with + for y > 0, - for y < 0
Stagnation for: = 0 for y = 0
(x
s
, 0) =
Q
w
2q
0
B
10.9 Abstraction - long term inuences, S&Z ch.8
See additional material: Noget om flgevirkninger af grundvandsindvinding by Henrik
Kjrgaard.
With groundwater extraction, the regional hydraulic pattern is changed. The groundwater-
catchment can be altered.
60
Hydrogeology 10.9. ABSTRACTION - LONG TERM INFLUENCES, S&Z CH.8
In the gure: The water table is higher in the till (solid line) than the hydraulic head in
the aquifer (dashed). This creates a gradient, so water will move down into the aquifer.
Near the stream the aquifer has higher hydraulic head, which creates an upward ux of
water. The specic yield of the till is about 3 5%.
The zone with upward movement is often smaller than the downow area. It is common
to nd lenses of (glacial) coarser grained material in the stream zone.
With pumping, the groundwater divide is moved away from the well. In the last gure,
the time is increased. The stream now acts as a water supplier, and not a zone of upow.
When the watertable in the till is lowered, the upper zone is now oxigenized. This changes
the solubility of a lot of metals (Sulfur, cadmium, nickel, arsen, etc), which can be a problem
61
Hydrogeology CHAPTER 10. ANALYTICAL MODELS
in dissolved state in the groundwater. The lowered hydraulic head in the aquifer increases
the intergranular stress. This may lead to consolidation and lowering of the topographic
surface.
10.9.1 Release of water - initial phase
Release from aquifer, and additional release from aquitards.
62
Hydrogeology 10.10. SALT WATER INTRUSION
10.9.2 Release of water - late phase
The watertable starts to decline. The aquifer can over the long term not deliver unlimited
amounts of water.
Drawdown uses the entire storage capacity.
10.10 Salt water intrusion
Saltwater has higher density than fresh water. Hydraulic head:
= z +
p
g
,
f
<
s
For obtaining equal pressure, a freshwater column is 4% higher than a saltwater column:

s
= 1.04,
f
= 1.00 h
f
= 1.04 h
s
63
Hydrogeology CHAPTER 10. ANALYTICAL MODELS
If an aquifer contains saline water, the apparent hydraulic head (point water pressure head)
looks lower. A salinity test will show, that the hydraulic head must be multiplied with a
factor, to nd the equivalent fresh-water head.
More: Ghyben - Herzberg equilibrium on interface; See slides. These formulas are simplied
though, as there is no seepage. Glover (1964) is a better approximation (note: x-direction
opposite).
10.11 Stream groundwater interaction
Article by C.T. Jenkins
What happens to a stream on short term basis, not long term (steady state) as calculated
before.
Example: Full hydraulic contact through watertable aquifer. Stream is linear (line-source).
The inuence is integrated over stream length.
Parameters:
u =
r
2
S
4Tt
=
sdf
4t
sdf =
l
2
S
T
sdf : Stream depletion factor, dimensionless and constant
q/Q : Dimensionless pumping rate, the amount of stream water pumped up by well.
(1=100%)
V/(Qt) : Dimensionless volume
64
Hydrogeology 10.11. STREAM GROUNDWATER INTERACTION
In the graph, 1 q/Q is added to make it possible to read more precise values.
First t/sdf is calculated, and then q/Q is found on curve A.
65
Appendix A
Hydrogeology terms
Aquifer: A geologic unit capable of supplying useable amounts of groundwater to a well
or spring. Classication of a water-bearing unit as an aquifer may depend upon local
conditions and context of local water demands.
Aquitard: A bed or unit of lower permeability, that can store water but does not readily
yield water to pumping wells.
Cappilary fringe: The lowest part of the unsaturated zone in which the water in pores is
under pressure less than atmospheric, but the pores are fully saturated. This water
rises against the pull of gravity due to surface tension at the air-water interface and
attraction between the liquid and solid phases.
Conned aquifer: An aquifer that is completely saturated and overlain by a conning
unit.
Darcy: A unit of permeability equal to 9.87 10
13
m
2
, or for water of normal density and
viscosity, a hydraulic condctivity of 10
5 m
s
Drawdown (s): The dierence between static water level (water table in unconned
aquifers or potentiometric surface in conned aquifers), and pumping water level
in a well.
Eective porosity (n
e
): The percent of total volume of rock or soil that consists of
interconnected porespaces, as used in describing groundwater ow and contaminant
transport.
Hydraulic conductivity (K): The proportionality constant in Darcys law a measure
of a porous mediums ability to transmit water. K incorporates properties of both
the medium and uid.
66
Hydrogeology
Hydraulic head (h): A measure of the potential energy of groundwater, it is the level
to which water in a well or piezometer will rise if unhindered. Total hydraulic head
is the sum of two primary components: elevation head and pressure head. The third
component, velocity head, is generally negligible in groundwater.
Hydrostratigraphic unit: A formation, part of a formation, or group of formations with
suciently similar hydrologic characteristics to allow grouping for descriptive pur-
poses.
Permeability (k): A proportionality constant that measures a porous mediums ability to
transmit a uid. It is a function of the mediums physical properties. Permeability is
dependent solely on properties of the porous medium, and is related to the hydraulic
conductivity (K), the dynamic viscosity () and the density of the uid ().
Perched groundwater: Unconned groundwater separated from an underlying zone of
groundwater by an unsaturated zone. This usually occurs atop lenses of clay or
low-permeability material above the groundwater table.
Porosity (n): The ratio of void space to total volume of a soil or rock.
Potentiometric surface: A surface constructed from measurements of head at individual
wells of piezometers that denes the level to which water will rise from a single aquifer.
Saturated zone: The zone in which 100% of the porosity is lled with water.
Specic capacity: The yield of a well per unit of drawdown (s).
Specic retention (S
r
): The volume of water that remains in a porous material after
complete drainage under the inuence of gravity. S
r
+ S
y
= n (total porosity)
Specic storage (S
s
): The amount of water per unit volume of a saturated formation
that is stored or expelled per unit change of head due to the compressibility of the
water and aquifer skeleton.
Specic yield (S
y
): The volume of water that drains under the inuence of gravity from
a porous material.
Static water level: The level to which water rises in a well or unconned aquifer when
the level is not inuenced by pumping.
Storativity (S): The volume of water that a permeable unit releases from or takes into
storage per unit surface area per unit change in head. In unconned aquifers it is
equal to specic yield (S
y
). The storativity in a conned aquifer is the product of
specic storage (S
s
) and the aquifer thickness (b).
Transmissivity (T): A measure of the amount of water that can be transmitted horizon-
tally through a unit width by the full saturated thickness of an aquifer. T is equal
to the product of hydraulic conductivity (K) and saturated aquifer thickness (b).
67
Hydrogeology APPENDIX A. HYDROGEOLOGY TERMS
Unconned aquifer: (alternate terms: phreatic- or watertable aquifer). An aquifer that
is only partially lled with water and in which the upper surface of the saturated
zone is free to rise and fall.
Unsaturated zone: The zone in which soil/sediment/rock porosity is lled partly with
air and partly with water.
Water table: The top of the zone of saturation the level at which the atmospheric
pressure is equal to the hydraulic pressure. In unconned aquifers the water table is
represented by the measured water level in observation wells.
Well eciency: The ratio of theoretical drawdawn (drawdown in the aquifer at the radius
of the well) to the observed drawdown inside a pumping well.
Well yield: The volume of water per unit of time discharged from a well by pumping or
free ow. It is commonly reported as a pumping rate (Q) in
m
3
s
.
68
Appendix B
Commonly used formulas
B.1 Basic hydraulics in streams
Rectangular channel
Area of the ow A = b y [m
2
]
Wetted perimeter P = b + 2y [m]
Hydraulic radius R =
by
b+2y
[m]
Froudes number F
r
=
V

gy
[]
F
r
< 1: Subcritical
F
r
= 1: Critical
F
r
> 1: Supercritical
Gravitational acceleration g 9.81
m
2
s
Critical depth (F
r
= 1) y
c
=
3
_
q
2
g
[m]
Specic energy E y +
Q
2
2gA
2
[J]
Velocity coecient 1 []
Manning number M =
25.4
6

k
[m
1/3
s
1
]
M =
Q
by(
by
b+2y
)
2/3

S
0
[m
1/3
s
1
]
Velocity (M) V = M R
2/3

S
0
[
m
s
]
Discharge(M) Q = A M R
2/3

S
0
[
m
3
s
]
Discharge Q = A V [
m
3
s
]
Hydrostatic pressure distribution z +
p

= h = constant [m]
Reynolds no. (< 580: Laminar, > 750: Turbulent) Re =
V R

[]
Kinematic viscosity (water, T = 20
o
C) =

= 1 10
6
[
m
2
s
]
Specic ow rate q = Q/b [
m
2
s
]
69
Hydrogeology APPENDIX B. COMMONLY USED FORMULAS
Conservation laws
Rate of change of mass
(Ax)
t
[
kg
s
]
Continuity equation*
A
t
+
Q
x
= 0
Time t [s]
Displacement in ow direction x [m]
Momentum of a moving point p = mV [kg
m
s
]
Conservation of momentum*
1
g
V
t
+
V
g
V
x
+
y
x
+ S
f
S
0
= 0
Longitudinal channel bottom slope S
0
= sin []
Friction slope S
f
=
F
f
Ax
*) If the ow is steady (the ow conditions not varying with time), the partial derivative
terms with respect to time can be dropped from the continuity, momentum and energy
equations. See page 18, Akan.
Loss in pipes
Inlet loss H
I
= 0.5
Q
2
2gA
2
[m]
Pipe loss (friction) H
F
=
L
M
2
R
4/3
A
2
Q [m]
Outow loss H
u
=
Q
2
2gA
2
[m]
Total loss See section 6.4 [m]
Hydraulic structures: See chapter 7.
B.2 Groundwater
The Darcy equation is valid for fully laminar ow in homogenous material.
Darcys equation
Hydraulic conductivity K =
k
w
g

[
m
s
]
Permeability k [m
2
]
Dynamic viscosity (water, T = 20
o
C) = 1.002 10
3
[Pa s]
Hydraulic gradient i =
h
l
=
h2h1
l
[]
Darcys equation q = Ki or Q = KiA [
m
2
s
] or [
m
3
s
]
Transmissivity T = K b [
m
2
s
]
Storativity (assuming HPD) S = S
s
B [
m
2
m
]
Specic storativity S
s
[
m
3
m
]
Porosity n
T
[]
70
Hydrogeology B.2. GROUNDWATER
B.2.1 W(u) - Theis equation/Well function
W(u) is the Well function, that is called the exponential integral, E
1
, in non-hydrogeology
literature. The value can be calculated with Matlabs expint(u). A series of W(u) values
can be looked up in table 9.2 (p. 225) in Schwarz & Zhang.
B.2.2 Unconned aquifer: Steady 1D groundwater ow
When observing ground water elevation, the height (h) of the groundwater table is a good
expression for the energy, because the velocity is relatively very small, and the pressure at
the groundwater table equals atmospheric pressure.
Condition: For expressing the ow as 1D ow (Dupuits approximation), the height varia-
tions of the saturated zone must be less or equal than 10% the mean height of the saturated
zone:
h
sat

h
0.1
The problem: The amount of increase in specic discharge (dq = q
out
q
in
) over a ow
distance (dx) is the supplied by seepage (W):
q
x
= W , q = T
h
x
The dierential equation for 1D ow in a homogeneous and isotropic aquifer:

x
(q) = T

2
h
x
2
= W

2
h
x
2
=
W
T

h
x
=
W
T
x + c
1
h =
W
2T
x
2
+ c
1
x + c
2
By determining the boundary conditions, the constants can be found, thus solving the
dierential equation.
B.2.3 Conned aquifer: Steady 1D groundwater ow
A conned aquifer is totally lled by water under pressure. The piezometric surface ()
is the corresponding water-pressure surface (groundwater-table in unconned aquifer), ob-
served in observation-drillings. Drainage lowers the pressure because of elastic storativity.
71
Hydrogeology APPENDIX B. COMMONLY USED FORMULAS
Lowering of the piezometric surface in a conned by drainage results in much less water
than by lowering of the groundwater table in an unconned aquifer.
The problem: The amount of increase in specic discharge (dq = q
out
q
in
) over a ow
distance (dx) is the supplied by seepage (W):
q
x
= W , q = T

x
The ow equation is derived by the principles of conservation of mass, the Darcy equation,
elastic properties and elastic laws. The dierential equation for 1D ow in a homogeneous
and isotropic aquifer:

x
(q) = T

2

x
2
= W

x
2
=
W
T


x
=
W
T
x + c
1
=
W
2T
x
2
+ c
1
x + c
2
By determining the boundary conditions, the constants can be found, thus solving the
dierential equation.
B.2.4 Boundary conditions
The most often used boundary conditions:
Known hydraulic head - Dirichlet BVP:
=
2
(x, y, z, t) or h = h
2
(x, y, z, t), example: a large lake, a stream, the sea.
Known ux - Neuman BVP:
Example: Impermeable material or groundwater divide: No ow at boundary: q = 0
and

x
= 0 or
h
x
= 0.
h is used for unconned/phreatic/watertable aquifers, for conned aquifers.
72