W.J. Loudon - An Elementary Treatise On Rigid Dynamics

THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA
Bath. Stat.
GIFT OF
Charles L. Johnson
Oi
CX
AN ELEMENTARY TREATISE
ON
RIGID DYNAMICS
mm
AN ELEMENTARY TREATISE
ON
RIGID
DYNAMICS
BY
W.
J.
LOUDON,
B.A.
DEMONSTRATOR IN PHYSICS IN THE UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO
" ixrjSh/
dyav
"
Ncto ffork
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

LONDON: MACMILLAN &
1896
All rights reserved
CO., Ltd.
Copyright, 1895,
Bv
MACMILLAN AND
CO.
Set
1896.
up and electrotypcd January,
1896.
Reprinted July,
Math. Stat*
GIFT
NortooolJ Prrss
J. S.
Cuahing \ Co.
Bern
ick
.v
Smith
ini ""l Uasfl. CJ.S.A
MATH..
STAT.
PREFACE.
This elementary
treatise
on Rigid Dynamics has arisen
out of a course of lectures delivered by me, during the past
few years,
It is
to
advanced classes
in the
University.
intended as a text-book for those who, having already

the
mastered the elements of

familiarity with
Calculus
Particle
and acquired some

Dynamics, wish
to
the methods of
become acquainted with the

of
principles underlying the equations
motion of a
solid
body.
to the exhaustive
Although indebted
Price for
works of Routh and

I
many
suggestions and problems,
believe that the
arrangement of the work, method of treatment, and more particularly the illustrations, are entirely
new and
original
and
that they will not only aid beginners in appreciating

tal truths,
fundamen-
but will also point out to them the road along which
in
they must travel
order to become intimate with those higher
complex motions of a material system which have their culminating point in the region of Physical Astronomy.
My
thanks are due Mr.
J.
C.
Glashan of Ottawa, who has
kindly read the
proofsheets
and supplied
me
W.
with a large
collection of miscellaneous problems.

J.
LOUDON.
University of Toronto, Aug.
19, 1895.
870
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
Moments
of Inertia
I.
PAGE
I
Illustrative
Examples
II
CHAPTER
II.
Vlll
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
Motion about a Fixed Axis.
Centre of Percussion
Illustrative
Initial
V.
PAGE
Impulsive Forces
70
72
Examples
74 78
78
S5
Motions.
Changes of Constraint
Illustrative
Examples
The
Ballistic
Pendulum
CHAPTER
Motion about a Fixed Point.
Angular Velocity
General Equations of Motion
VI.
88 88
Finite Forces
Equations of Motion referred to Axes fixed

Euler's Equations of
Motion
Angular Coordinates of the Body

Pressure on the Fixed Point
Illustrative
.... ....
in
.
98
100
101
105
Space
Examples
......
CHAPTER
VII.
109
1
11
Top spinning on a Rough Horizontal Plane Top spinning with Great Velocity on a Rough Horizontal Plane The Gyroscope moving in a Horizontal Plane about a Fixed Point
12
120 128

Illustrative
Impulsive Forces
134
137
Examples
CHAPTER
VIII.
No
Forces acting
140
CHAPTER
Motion of a Free Body
Illustrative
.
IX.
145
Examples
148
Impulsive Actions
Illustrative
156
158
Examples
CONTENTS.
ix
CHAPTER
The Gyroscope
X.
PAGE
162
its
To
prove the Rotation of the Earth upon
Axis
166
168 169
171
Hopkins' Electrical Gyroscope

FesseFs Gyroscope
. .
Gyroscope of Gustav Magnus
Note on the Pendulum and the Top

Miscellaneous Examples
172
177
RIGID DYNAMICS.
-o-O^JOO-
CHAPTER
MOMENTS OF
i.
I.
INERTIA.
In attempting to solve the equations of motion of a Rigid

in a
Body
it
manner
similar to that
employed for a single
particle,
will
be found that
certain
new
quantities
appear,
which
depend on the extent and shape

and on the way
in
of the body, on its density,

in respect of
which
it
may be moving
some
particular line or system of coordinate axes.

2.
These
quantities
are
called
Moments of
Inertia
and
Products of Inertia.
line is
denned
to be the
moment of inertia of a body about any sum of the products of all the material
disIt
elements of the body by the squares of their perpendicular

tances from this
letter
/,
line.
is
may be denoted
in general
by the
and when /
expressed in the form

is
MK
2
,
where
is
the mass of the body,
called the radius of gyration.
When
the body
is
referred to three coordinate rectangular axes, the
moments
of inertia about the three axes will evidently be

2 2
),
A=Sm(y + s
B = tm(a2 +x
2
),
C=Sm(x2 +y2
(x,
),
being the mass of any element at the point
y, z),
and the
summation being taken throughout the body.
product of inertia
is
defined with reference to two planes

is
at right angles to
one another and
found by multiplying the
elements by the products of their distances from these coordi-
RIGID DYNAMICS.
nate planes, and
summing them throughout

sets of three,
the body.
Products
of inertia exist in
and
for three rectangular axes
D=%myz, E=%mzx,
3.
F=*!)uxy.
of
It is
evident that
is
when the law
m
;
is
shape of the body
given, the finding of a
known and the moment or of a
product of inertia involves an integration
and the following

of integration
examples
will serve to
show how the process
may
will
be used for this purpose.
Further on, several propositions
be given by which the method

4.
(a)
may be
usually
much
simplified.
Illustrations of finding
Moments of
Inertia by Integration,
uniform rod of small cross-section about a line perpenit
dicular to
at
one end.
a,
Here,
if
the length of the rod be 2
and the density

A,,
p,
X2a px2dx=M
(b)
a ~3~
circular arc of uniform density about an axis

its
through
its
midpoint perpendicular to
plane.
In Fig.
1,
let
OA = r, OCA=0, OCB=u;
then the
moment
perpenis
of inertia of the arc
BOD
A.
about an axis through

is
dicular to the plane of the paper
2pds
/~
where ds
an
element of the arc
at
MOMENTS OF
*
INERTIA.
/=Spa 3 fsm 2 ~dd = 4pa f

:i
a (i
-cos 6)d0 = 2llf(i
-^V-
(c)
An
elliptic plate, of small
thickness and uniform density.
Fie. 2.
In Fig.
2,
divide the plate into strips, and then
we have
I about
OY=4y
/about
fa
fa fi ^2 px2ydx=4p\ -x2 va 2 x2dx=M.

2
Similarly,
b OX=M
And / about
evidently be 3
a line through
2
perpendicular to the plate will
Ma + 4
For a
(d)
circular plate a
= b.
a, 2 b.
rectangular plate, sides 2
By
dividing the plate into strips of mass
it
will
be seen that
/about
and
Also,
plate
is
side
2a = zl m
./
4b 2\
\
M4
b2
,
/about
side 2 b
= ^(wf) = M^.
/ about
2
a line through a corner perpendicular to the

).
M^(a + b 2
For a square plate a = b.
4
{c)
RIGID DYNAMICS.
triangular plate.
Let the triangle be

nates, let
ABC, and
choosing
as origin of coordi-
CA,
CB
be the axes.
Then, dividing the triangle into
AC, an elemental mass at (x, y) is equal to pdxdy sin C, p being the density. The distances of this element from AC, BC, and the point C are x sin C, y sin C, and
strips parallel to
a/x2 +y2 + 2xycosC
px2
sin 3
Cdxdy,
n
and / about a
line
-(a-x)
a
2 3 py sin Cdxdy,
through
-(oas)
C perpendicular
to the triangle
= 11
These integrals can
inertia expressed in
2 2 p sin C(.r -f7 +2;try cos C)dxdy.
easily
be evaluated, and the moments of
terms of the two sides and included angle.
(/)
sphere about a diameter.
Dividing the sphere up into small circular plates of thickness
Fig. 3.
MOMENTS OF
dx, as in Fig.
3,
INERTIA.
we have
=2^.p- irfdx
I about a diameter
= pir
1/2
(a 2
x2 2 dx=M~l a 2
)
(g)
A right
circular cone, about its axis.
Fig. 4.
Dividing the cone up into circular

axis, as in Fig. 4,
strips,
perpendicular to
its
we
have,
if
a be
its
height,
I=îpiry2
dx
a
and
bx
it-
.-.
I=7TP
2 a* J
i = 3f^ f X dx _^3i? 10
5.
Products of inertia can be evaluated in a similar way
but
as they are generally eliminated
from the equations of motion by
a proper choice of axes, their absolute values in terms of

quantities are seldom required.
known
6.
Although integration gives

inertia, yet the
directly the values of
moments
and products of
process becomes
will
tedious for
many
bodies
and the following propositions
be found use-
ful for their
determination,
when one knows the
position of the
centre of inertia.
RIGID DYNAMICS.
Proposition
I.
To connect moments and products of inertia
of a rigid body about any axes with moments and products of inertia about parallel axes through the centre of inertia.
Fig. 5.
Let the plane
of Fig. 5 represent
parallel
any plane of the body

which one cuts
perthis
pendicular to the two
axes, of
plane in the point O, and the other passing through the centre
of inertia cuts
it
in G.
Then
7-' 2
for
any point
in this plane,
we
have
r2 =p 2 +
+ 2p-GM.
Hence
for the
whole body we must have

GJlf)
2mt2 = Sm(p 2 + r' 2 -r2p-
=tm/P+tmr' 2 +2p
tmGM
tmGM-O.
= Mp 2 + Smr'
Or, as
it
2
,
since
may be
written
I=Iu + Mp\
where /
is
the
moment
of inertia about
any
axis,
and TQ and
is is
that
about a parallel axis through the centre of

perpendicular distance between the axes.
If
inertia,
the
three parallel axes be taken in a body, of which the third
passes through the centre of inertia, and a plane be taken cut-
MOMENTS OF
INERTIA.
ting these axes perpendicularly at the points O, O', G, then
we
can prove for the whole body, as before, that
/ about axis through
O =I G +3fa2
f
and
about axis through 0'

.-.
= lG + I\Ib
)
y
2
,
I=I'+M(a 1 -b 2
where
If
OG = a,
happens
Also,
if
0'G = b.
00'
,
to be in the line
this relation
is
much
sim-
plified.
O'G
is
at right angles to
00', then
i=r+M(oo')
which relation
bodies.
It is
is
2
.
sometimes useful
in
the case of symmetrical
evident, moreover, from these relations that, of

in a body, the least
all
straight
of
lines
having a given direction

is
moment
inertia
inertia.
about that one which passes through the centre of
Fig. 6.
In the case of products of inertia,

obtained.
similar
results
may
be
Thus,
if
we
require the product of inertia with regard
8
to
RIGID DYNAMICS.
any two coordinate planes
of a body, let parallel planes
inertia.
be
taken passing through the centre of
Let the plane of
the paper in Fig. 6 be any plane of the body perpendicular to

these four planes.
referred to the
Then,
if
P
(x,
be any point whose coordinates

y) and
(x' f y'),
two
sets are
we must have
for
the whole body

2
vixy = -
m (x' +p) (y' + q)

i
= 1/ux'y' -\-p%mx? + q%my + mpq.

.
'.
S mxy = Imx'y' +
II.
pq.
Proposition
inertia about
In the case of a lamina, the

to its
moment of
equal
to
any axis perpendicular

tivo
plane
is
the
sum of the moments about any

the plane through the point
perpendicular lines drawn in
where the axis meets the lamina.

)
.
For
Proposition
about any
line,
/= 1m(x2 +y2 = -7nx2 + -my2

III.
about any three

this line.
moment of inertia of a body knowing the moment and products of inertia rectangular axes drawn through some point on
the
To find
In Fig. 7
let
let
the three rectangular axes be

(x, y, z) }
OX, OY, OZ, and
be any point of the body

at angles ,
j3,
and
ON any line
drawn
from O, inclined
7 to the axes.
perpendicular to
j<
Then /about
and
2 2
ON=1mPN PN being
2
,
OX,
PX = OP - 0X =
2
(.v
+/+;-) - (.r cos +
cos
{3
+ c cos y) a
o.
(.r
+ y2 + s2
(cos 2
+ cos 2 /3 + cos 2 7) (x cos

+y
cos
j3
+ z cos y) 2
= 0' 2 + - 2 )cos 2 a+
.".
2/5 cos /3 cos 7 +
f=-m\(y 2 ->rs 2
cos 2 H
2 %m\yz cos ft cos 7 + ! +
MOMENTS OF
INERTIA.
Fig. 7.
cos 2 + ^cos 2 /3+Ccos 2 7 2
D cos /3cos7
/3,
2E cos 7 cos 2 Fzo% a cos

^4,
B,
being moments of inertia about the three axes, and

products of inertia with
regard to the coordinate
D, E,
planes.
In this expression,
it
will
be seen that
if
the axes of coordi-
nates be so chosen that D, E,
F vanish,
then
/= A
Axes
for
cos 2 a +
B cos 2 ft + C cos 2 7.
and A, B,
which
this holds are called Principal Axes,
Principal
inspection.
Moments
Thus,
if
In
a
many
cases such axes can be found by

axis at
body be a lamina, one principal

Also,
if
any point
is
the perpendicular at that point.
a body be
one of revolution, the axis of revolution must be a principal

axis at every point of its length.
And
it
may be
stated as a
general rule that axes of symmetry are principal axes.
IO
7.
RIGID DYNAMICS.
In
most of the problems dealing with the motion
of
extended bodies the axis about which the

to be found usually passes through the
moment
;
of inertia is
body
but
it is
apparent
that the preceding propositions apply equally to
all
cases where
the axes about which

cut the body.
moments
the
first
of inertia are required do not
Thus
in
proposition the axes parallel to
that passing through the centre of inertia need not cut the
body
in
the case of a lamina, the
moment
of inertia about
it
any
will
line perpendicular to the

still
lamina and yet not intersecting
be the sum of the moments about any two perpendicular
lines
drawn
at the point
;
where the axes meet the plane

will
of the
lamina produced
and similarly the moment
of inertia about
any
line outside of a
line,
body
be known when
we know,
at
any
point on this
the
moments and products
of inertia with
respect to any three rectangular axes drawn through this point.
8.
Townsend's Theorem.
closed central curve, of any magnitude and form, beingin
its
supposed to revolve round an arbitrary axis

intersecting
its
plane not
circumference;
the
moment
of
inertia
with
its
respect to the axis of revolution of the solid generated by
area
is
given by the formula
/=J/(^ + 3 /,2 ))
where
and
M
the
is
the mass of the solid generated, a the distance of
the centre of the generating area from the axis of revolution,

//
arm length
of the
moment
its
of inertia of the area with
respect to a parallel axis through

For,
if
centre.
dA be
an element of generating area,
I=2irp-^L[(a + xfdA],
p being the density, and
.
x
[
a variable coordinate.
1=2 irpi
(<7*
+ 3 a\x + 3 <7.Y-+.YS )dA\.

MOMENTS OF
But, by the
centre,
INERTIA.
H
its
symmetry
of the
generating area with respect to
%(xdA)=o and l(x z dA)=o.

.-.
I=2ir P ![(a* + 3ax2 )dA],
Illustrative
i.
Examples on Moments of
Inertia.
Find the moment

b.
of a rectangular plate about a diagonal,
the sides being 2 a, 2

In
this,
applying Proposition
III.,
we have
2
I=A
moments.
.-.
cos 2 6 +
Bsm
6,
the centre of the plate being the origin, and A,
principal
I=M 2
a 2 b2
Sa 2 + b 2
Apply
2.
sphere or a circular plate, about a tangent.

I.
Proposition
3.
Find the moments
of inertia of a rectangular
;
parallelo-
piped and of a cube, about their axes of symmetry

diagonal.
4.
also about a
The moment
is
of inertia of a right circular

,
cone about a
b
slant side
20
a 2 + b2
a being the height and
the radius
of the base.
5.
If
is
the length and b the radius of a right circular
cylinder, the
r
moment
,.
of inertia about an axis

-,
tre of inertia perpendicular to its axis
...
through the cen,\
M(a
is
Ytr\.
6.
The moment
of inertia of a
pendulum bob, density
p, in
the form of an equi-convex lens of thickness 2/ and radius
a,
about
its
axis
is
irp
(2
ax x2
2
)
Ix.
12
RIGID DYNAMICS.
7.
Find the moment
of inertia of
an anchor ring about
its
axis.
8.
The moments
of inertia of
-,
an ellipsoid about
its
three axes
are
M5
M'
5
M5
To
find these, either divide the solid ellipsoid
up into
elliptic
plates, or
deduce from the case of a sphere.
9.
triangular plate of uniform density.

find the
(1)
To
moment
of inertia about the side
BC.
}Zt%Mzm%M^^^@mm>r j
jc
JR
a.
Fig. 8.
In Fig.
8,
divide the triangle into strips of
mass pydx, where
y = B'C.
Then / about
(2)
BC= Zpydx
.r
=/)
f^
LrV.r = J/^-.
About
a line through the centre of inertia parallel to BC.
T-j)= M ts
p*
f-
f
BC.
(3)
About
a line through
parallel to
I=M r
MOMENTS OF
(4)
INERTIA.
13
About
median
line.
In Fig.
9,
divide the triangle into strips parallel to
BC, as
sin
before, and let
y = B'C
Then
the mass of a strip
is
pydx
1
D,
and
its
moment
of inertia about
AD
is
pydx
sin
D
s
V sin 2 D.
12
Hence /
of triangle about
AD = ^2
r
dx,
and y =
ax
AD'
.:
Z=M-a
sin 2
24
(5)
About
a line through A, perpendicular to the plane of the
triangle.
Use
Fig. 9, and the

),
moment
of inertia will
be found to be
b2
+ c2
About
a, b, c
being the three sides.
4 V
(6)
3/
a line through the centre of inertia, perpendicular
to the plane of the triangle.
/=^(, 2 4-^2 + ^2
?
).
36
10.
(1)
Find the moment of inertia of a hemisphere about

Its axis.
(2)
(3)
(4)
A A A
tangent at
its
vertex.
its
tangent to the circumference of
base.
diameter of
its
base.
14
ii.
RIGID DYNAMICS.
The moment
of inertia of
is
an ellipsoidal shell of mass
about the major axis

diameter,
+c
For
a spherical shell
about a
I=Mâ
2
.
Deduce, by differentiation, from the

12.
ellipsoid
and the sphere.
For an oblate spheroid (such

e,
as
of
the earth), of excen-
tricity
composed
of inertia
is
of
similar strata
its
varying density, the

is
moment
where a
about
polar axis
7rVi
2
J
A p\ dx,
the equatorial radius and p the density at a distance
x from
is
the centre.
This can be integrated when the law of p
known.
13.
The moment
its
of
inertia
is
of
,
a paraboloid
of
revolution
about
base.
14.
axis of figure
where
is
the radius of the
The moment
of inertia of the parabolic area cut off

is
by
any ordinate distant x from the vertex

gent
at the vertex,
J/f x2 about
the tan-
and
M about
v
the axis, where
is
the ordi-
nate corresponding to
15.
x.
The
radius of gyration of a lamina bounded by the lem(1)
niscate r 2 = a 2 cos 2$,
about
its
axis
is
-Vtt f
4
(2)
about
a line in the plane of the lamina through the
node and perpenat
dicular to the axis

.
is
-Vtt + |;
4
(3)
about a tangent
the node
15
a 1 -V7T. 4
16.
To
find the radius of gyration of a
lamina bounded by a
it
parallelogram about an axis perpendicular to

tre of inertia.
If 2a, 2 b,
through
its
cen-
(Euler.)
be the lengths of two adjacent sides of the parallel-
ogram, then, whatever be their inclination,
= '^^-
MOMENTS OF
17.
INERTIA.
15
To
find the radius of gyration of a hollow
sphere about
a diameter.
(Euler.)
-o
2
5
a h b'
rt
-#
radii.
a and b being the external and internal

iS.
To
find the radius of gyration of a truncated
cone about
its axis.
(Euler.)
10
a, b,
az b3
being the
radii of its ends.
19.
The moment
of
;/
of inertia of a lamina
bounded by a regular
its
polygon
sides,
each of length 2 a, about an axis through

its
centre perpendicular to
plane
is
_î + 3 cot-And
any
from this
it
can be seen that the
moment
of inertia about
line in the plane of the
lamina through the centre
1+3
12 V
20.
cot 2
//
quantity of matter
a,
is
distributed over the surface of a
sphere of radius
so that the density at any point varies in-
versely as the cube of the distance from a point inside distant b
from the centre.

ter
Find the moment of inertia about that diameinside,

is
which passes through the point

of the principal
if
and prove that the
sum
moments there
?
equal to 2
(a
).
What
the point be outside
CHAPTER
ELLIPSOIDS OF INERTIA
9.
II.
AND PRINCIPAL AXES.
Ellipsoids of Inertia.
At any
point
in
a rigid body let there be taken three

as in Fig. 10.
rectangular axes
OX, OY, OZ,
Describe with
as centre the ellipsoid,
A + By 2 + Cz -2Dyz-2 Ezx - 2 Fxy =

1 1
c,
Fig.
10.
16
where A, B,
C,
AND PRINCIPAL
AXES.
\y
D, E, E, have the meanings already attached to
them, and are positive.
Then,
in
is
if
OJ be any
y
line
drawn from
O, and cutting the ellipsoid

inertia of the
the point P, the
moment
of
body about
OP
A
where
But
a, /3,
cos 2 + i5cos 2
/3
+ 6'cos 2 7
=/,
coordi-
7 are the angles which
OP
makes with the
nate axes.
if
r,
x, y, z,
are the coordinates of

have, since the point
is
the point P, and
if
OP =
And
we must
on the ellipsoid,
=c.
It*=Ax*+Bf+C
since this relation
is
true for any position of
OP, we see
that the
moment
of inertia about
any
line
drawn from
will
be
inversely proportional to the square of the corresponding radius
vector cut off by the ellipsoid.
Any
such ellipsoid
is
called a
Momental
10.
If
Ellipsoid.
we
refer the ellipsoid to
its
axes OA, OB, OC, then
D, E,
disappear, and the axes of the ellipsoid are therefore
what we have defined as Principal Axes.

11.
It is
evident that any set of principal axes at a point

in the foregoing
might be found
manner, namely, by constructin
ing a momental ellipsoid at the point
question and trans-
forming to the axes of
figure,
which would therefore give the
directions of the principal axes.
And
it
may be
stated also that
three principal axes necessarily exist at each point in space for
a rigid body, since the above process can always be performed.

12.
From
the properties of the momental ellipsoid

is,
it
follows
that at any point there
in general, a line of greatest

;
moment
and
also
one of
least
a spheroid, the
moment if the ellipsoid degenerates into moments of inertia about all diameters perpensame
;
dicular to the axis of the spheroid are the
if
it
becomes
a sphere, as in the case of
all
regular solids at their centres,

all
the
moments
of inertia about
lines
through the centre are
^
equal, a proposition
RIGID DYNAMICS.
which can be applied with advantage
to
the cube, proving that the
moments
of inertia
about
all
lines
through the centre are the same.

13.
For a lamina,
at
any point, the section made by the

is
cor-
responding momental ellipsoid

the point.
called the
Momental
Ellipse of
Illustrative Examples.
1.
To
construct a momental ellipsoid at one of the corners of
a cube.
Taking the edges as axes, A=B=C, DE=F, and the equation for the momental ellipsoid becomes
A (x
+j>2 + z2 )
- 2 D{xy +yz + zx) = e,

of the
which on transformation would give a spheroid
form
A'x2 + B'(y 2 + c 2 )=c',

and
it
can be seen that one principal axis
is
the diagonal through
the corner in question, and any two lines at right angles to one
another and to the diagonal

2.
will
be the other two principal axes.
To
find the
momental
ellipsoid at a point
on the edge of
evident by
axis.
a right circular cone.
Choosing axes OX, OY, OZ, as

inspection that
in
Fig. 11,
it
is
D=F=o,
and the axis
OY
is
one principal
Then,
if
AB=a, OB = b;
2
1
,
BG = \a,
4
and
A=J/( 5--+\
\20
IO
of
B=A+Mb C=M -^, E = M,

10
and the equation
the
4
is
momental
ellipsoid at
(3 b*
+ 2 a 2 )x2 + (23 b + 2 a 2 )f + 26
2
lr.z
O abxs = c. any point along
The momental
the axis
.//>, is
ellipsoid at the point A, or at
a spheroid.
AND PRINCIPAL
AXES.
19
Fig.
11.
3.
The momental
is
ellipsoid at a point
on the rim of a hemi-
sphere
4.
The momental
ellipsoid at the centre of
an
elliptic plate is
5.
The momental
(b
2
ellipsoid at the centre of a solid ellipsoid is

2
)
+ c2 )x2 + (c2 + a
f+
(a 2
+b
)s 2
c'.
14.
If at
The Ellipsoid of Gyration.

a point in a body an ellipsoid be constructed such that
of
the
moment
of the
inertia
about any perpendicular drawn from

is
the origin on a tangent plane
equal to
Mp 2
where
is
the
it
mass
called
body and p the length of the perpendicular, an ellipsoid of gyration. And, since, referred to its
definition
is
axis,
we have by
must be
A=Ma
C=Mc
A B
about the axis of

about the axis of
.,
x,
B = Mb 2
equation
about the axis of y, and
z, its
M
of
its
This ellipsoid
may
;
also
be used to indicate the directions of

equation,
it
the principal axes
and, from the form
is
20
apparent that
it
RIGID DYNAMICS.
is
co-axial,
but not similarly situated, with a
momental
15.
it
ellipsoid.
When
ellipsoids are constructed at the centres of inertia,

of
is
customary to speak
them
as central ellipsoids.
16.
Equimomental Systems.
systems are equimomental when their moments of inertia
lines in space are equal each to each.
Two
about
all
And
from this
definition,
taken along with the two fundamental propositions
already proved,
1= A
it
cos 2 a +
B cos
/3
+ C cos 2 7,
when they have
follows that systems will be equimomental

1.
2.
3.
In
The same mass and centre of inertia. The same principal axes at the centre of inertia. The same principal moments at the centre of inertia. some particular cases we may, instead of considering
its
a
in
system or single body, use a simple equimomental system

determining
motion
but generally the labour of proving that
systems are equimomental, or of finding a simple system which will be equimomental with a complicated one, is greater than
that of solving the problem directly.
The
following examples,
is
however,
will serve to
show how the process
carried out.
1.
Show
that three masses, each equal to
M placed
.
at
the
middle points of the sides of a triangular plate of mass
Af, are
equimomental with the

If this
triangle.
all
equimomental system be assumed,
the problems in
connection with a triangular plate, such, for example, as finding
moments
lines,
of inertia about the sides, perpendiculars,
and median
are very
much
simplified;
but the difficulty of proving
this
AND PRINCIPAL AXES.
21
assumption
is
greater than that of solving the problems, as
has already been done by a direct process.

2.
In an elliptic plate, find three points on the boundary at

if
which,
three masses each equal to
M be
o
placed, they will form

is
a system equimomental with the plate, whose mass

3.
M.
Show
that three points can always be found in a plane area

to
of
mass M, so that three masses, each equal
M
3
placed at
these points will form a system equimomental with the area.
The
situation of the points
is
shown
in Fig. 12,
which repre-
sents the
momental ellipse at the centre of inertia of the area. may be anywhere on the boundary of the ellipse B and C
;
are so situated that
BD = DC and OD = DE.
Fig.
12.
4.
Find the momental
ellipse at the centre of gravity of a
triangular area.
22
5.
RIGID DYNAMICS.
The momental
ellipse at
an angular point of a triangular

its
area touches the opposite side at
middle point, and bisects
the adjacent sides.

17.
Principal Axes.
find the principal axes at
To
any point
of a rigid body, three
rectangular axes might be chosen, and the conditions
%mxy=o,
"%myz=0, -in.:x=o, would be

cither
sufficient to solve the problem,
by direct analysis or by the construction and subsequent

But
transformation of the equation of the momental ellipsoid.

this process
would often be tedious, and
is
generally unneces-
sary.
Usually, by inspection, one at least of the principal axes
can be found, as has been already mentioned, and then the other
two may be obtained by the following propositions.

Given one principal axis at a point, Let
to
find the other two.

let
be any point
in
the body, and
OZ, drawn perpenone another as
dicular to the plane of
the paper be one perpendicular axis.

at right angles to
Take any two
lines,
OX, O Y,
Fig.
13.
axes
in this plane,
AND PRINCIPAL AXES.
23
and
let
OX'
(x,
OV
be the other two principal
axes at O.
Then
if
be any point
y) or (x '/), and the
body extends
above and below the plane of the paper, we must have as a

condition
that
OX',
OV
shall
be principal axes, Imx'y' =
throughout the body.
But x'=x cos
d+y sin
6,
and y'
= x sin
+y cos
6.
Therefore the condition becomes
1w\ ,r2 sin
$ cos
6+y2 sin 6 cos 6+xy cos 2 6 sin 2 B\ = 0,
which becomes, on reduction,

2 Ijnxy a tan 2 a = f
.
2 mx-'
= B FA
2
] vi) '
according to our previous notation.

If,
then, A, B,
F
is
be found
in respect of
any two rectangular

of
axes
OX, OY,
known, and therefore the position
OX',
OV.
18.
The
condition that a line

of its length
is,
shall
be a principal axis at
some point
satisfied.
that taking the line as axis of z and
the point as origin, the relations

It is
1,mxz=o 'myz=o
i
shall
be
not true, however, that

its
if
a line be a principal
at
1 1,
axis at
one point of
length,
it
will
be a principal axis
in Fig.
any
the
other, or at all points of its length.

line
For example,
OX
is
a principal axis at the point

it is
B on
account of the sym-
metry
of the cone, but
not a principal axis at the point O.
Similarly, in a hemisphere,
any diameter
in
of the
base
is
a prin-
cipal axis at the centre of the base, but not at a point
on the
rim.
There
is
one case, however,

its
which a
line is a principal
axis
throughout
length,
and as
this is of
some importance,
the following statement and simple proof are given.
19.
If a line be a principal axis at the centre of
inertia,
it
will be a principal axis at every point of its length.
24
RIGID DYNAMICS.
Let a portion of the body be represented
in
Fig. 14,
being
the centre of
inertia,
inertia,
00' the
principal axis at the centre of

at
OX,
any rectangular axes
O, perpendicular to
00', and OX',
OY parallel axes through
0'.
Fig.
14.
Then we
have, by a previous proposition
tmx'z* at
0'=tmxz
0'=tmyz
at
0+M(kx),
0+M(hy).
t
and But
.-.
tmy'z' at
at
x-=y = o-=^.mxz = ^.myz by

^)/ixy = o = lmyc',
a principal axis at
hypothesis.
at O'
and therefore 00'

at
if
is
(9',
it
and therefore also
any point
in
its
length.
Conversely,
all
may be shown
its
that
a line be a principal axis at
points in
length,
it
must
pass through the centre of inertia.
20.
AND PRINCIPAL AXES.
25
To determine
if
the locus of points at which the momental
ellipsoid for a given
body degenerates
which
it
to a spheroid,
and the
points,
such
exist, at
becomes a sphere.
principal axes at the centre
its
Let the body be referred to

of inertia,
its
and
:
let
A, B, and
its
mass
three
at
be
principal
moments, and
C,
(1)
If all
moments be
unequal, say
A >B>
ellipse
there
will
be no point at which the momental ellipsoid for that

will
body
be a sphere, but
any point
I'
on the
x2
A=C
or on the hyperbola,
2 .r x*
+ B^C = M' C = '

1
z* c2
A-B B-C
it
J_r> Jlf
J = 9,
will
be a spheroid with axes of revolution touching the conic
at
P.
The momental
If
ellipsoid
at
all
other points will have
three unequal axes.

(2)
two of the moments be equal, and each
less
than the
third, say
A >B=C,
there will be two points at which the mowill
mental ellipsoid for that body
be a sphere,
)
viz.,
the points
inertia.
on the axis of
x, distant -v/(
from the centre of
At every other
will
all
point on the axis of x, the
momental
ellipsoid
be a spheroid with the axis of
as axis of revolution.
At
points not on the axis of
the momental ellipsoid will have
three unequal axes.

(3)
If
two
the third,
will
moments be equal, and each greater than say A = B>C, the momental ellipsoid for that body
of the
2,
be a spheroid at every point on the axis of

-A
or on the
circle,
* 9 +J
1
9,
C-
--an
"
At
all
other points
it
will
have three unequal axes.
26
(4)
RIGID DYNAMICS.
If
A=B=C,
the above
is
the momental ellipsoid will be a sphere
at
the centre of inertia and a spheroid at every other point.
From
it
it
is
seen at once that in the majority of

all
bodies there
no point for which
axes
drawn through
are principal axes.
Illustrath u
1.
Examples.
an
To
find the principal axes of a triangular lamina, at
angular point.
One
principal axis
is
point perpendicular to
in the following way.
drawn through the angular the lamina, and the other two are found In Fig. 15, let OA, OB be two rectanthe line
of
will
gular axes,
lamina.
OX, OY the principal axes in the plane Then the angle which OX makes with OA
jfi>
2
the
be
given by the formula tan 2 6 =
where
Fig.
15.
A = moment
of inertia
about
OA
AND PRINCIPAL AXES.
27
B = moment
I
of inertia about
OB
co)'
p sin
Co
(x
+y cos
dxdy,
and
p sin <o{x-\-y cos co)y sin codxdy,
p being the density of the lamina, and the axes of
x and y
lying
along the sides of the triangle.

It will
be found, on evaluating these integrals, that

tan 2 n =
.
b sin
cr
eo
to
(a
i
+ ab cos &) + b
;
2 b cos
2
00)
'
to
cos 2
As
a simple case,
2 #
let
=-
then the triangle
is
right angled,
and tan
= -^
^, as can easily be found independently of the
above formula.
2.
To
find
the
principal
axes at any point of an elliptic
lamina.
In Fig.
16, let
O' be the point
(a, /3)
at
which we require the
Fig.
16.
28
RIGID DYNAMICS.
principal axes.
Then
is
the angle 6 which O'X' makes with the
principal axis at O'
given by
tan 2 6 =
n
2
B-A
OX+ M&
where
A=I about
0'X'= I about
=m(^+&\
\4
B = I about 0'Y'=I about

.4
<9F+J/,r
=^g+4
and
.F= ^ w/.r>' = tmx v + J/k,3 = Mu3.
tan 2 # =
(
Ma/3
m(^ + A-J/(-+{3"
=
The
third principal axis
is,
8/3 (^_//2) +4 (2_ /3 2 )
of course, at right angles to the
lamina, through the point

3.
O'.
To
find at
what point
a side of a triangle
is
a principal
axis.
Fig. 17
shows the construction and

is is
proof.
is
BC
is
the side
in
question, and
bisected at E.
bisected at O.
BC, and
system
DE at
drawn perpendicular to Then, taking the equimomental
AD
the middle points of the sides, in order that the
inertia-product
lar to
the side
F may BC must
vanish, the principal
axis
perpendicu-
bisect the join of the mid-points of the
sides
AB
and AC, hence BC,
OY
are the principal axes in the
plane of the lamina at the point 0.
AND PRINCIPAL AXES.
29
30
9.
RIGID DYNAMICS.
Determine the condition that the edge
of
any tetrahe-
dron
may be
a principal axis at
some point
of its length,
and
find the point.

10.
Two
points
P
Q
and
are so situated that a principal
axis at
intersects a principal axis at Q.

at
Then
if
two planes
be drawn
and
perpendicular to these principal axes,
their intersection will be a principal axis at the point
where
Q.
it is
cut by the plane containing the principal axes at
P and
(Townsend.)
21.
In determining the directions of the principal axes by aid
of the relation tan 2
-2 F B
.
-,
1
if
F=o
and
at the
same time
B = A,
axes
if
;
then the value of 6
is
indeterminate, and any two axes
perpendicular to the given one and to one another are principal

if
B=A
B
and Fia
is
finite,
then tan 2 6 = infinite and
2 6
=2
2
F=o, and
not equal to A, then tan 2 d = o and 6 =
or.
CHAPTER
III.
D'ALEMBERT'S PRINCIPLE.
22.
;//,
In determining the motion of a single particle of

if
mass
three rectangular axes are chosen, and
X,
Y,
be the
accelerations in the directions of these three axes, the equation

of the path
is
found from the relations
d\v
1)1
-=
dfi
32
RIGID DYNAMICS.
of
all
sum
the forces acting on the individual particles which
compose the body.
Thus, for
all
the particles,
we must have
X(m^)=t(mX) +%{/,),
= SU^V- ^( w F) + S(/
dt 1 )
( f-
2 ),
111
Jf~
S(mZ)+2(fs),
and D'Alembert's principle states that
2(/J=2(/2)=2(/3)=o.
23.
The
equations of motion of a rigid body, then, are
*(-s)
m\ y
33
z
dt'
1
dt*
m\ z
dhdf-
X-
dh
di-
= M,
(B)
ns
d 2y
dfl
~
y df>
d^x
where L, M, TV are the couples produced by the external

25.
It
forces.
may be
stated here that D'Alembert's principle holds
also in the case of a
system of bodies moving under their mutual

It
actions and reactions, and applies to the motion of liquids.

is
a direct consequence of Newton's Third

26.
Law
of Motion.
Deductions from D'Alemberfs Principle.

of the equations (A),
Taking any one
we have
1m = 1m X.
dr
But, by definition of the centre of inertia,
1mx=Mx.
and
2 v d x= Z7)l -
n^-d^x M
dfi dfi
r-
Therefore the above relation becomes
MrdKx
dl-
ImX,
and similarly for the other two.

(1)
Hence, the motion of the centre of gravity of a system under
the action of
any forces
is
the
same as if
all the
mass were
col-
lected at the centre of inertia
and all
the forces were applied there
parallel to their former direction.
And
so the problem of finding the motion of the centre of
inertia of a system,
of a single particle.
however complex,
is
reduced to finding that
34
RIGID DYNAMICS.
Moreover, taking one of the equations
(B),
since
it
we may choose
is
the origin of coordinates at any point, let
be so chosen that at the time of forming these equations the

coincident with
it,
centre of inertia
velocity
but moving with a certain
and acceleration.
Then, evidently, we must obtain a

as the foregoing, just as
if
relation of the
same form
we had
considered the centre of inertia as a fixed point.
In other
words, such a relation as the above will hold at each instant of

the body's motion, independently of the origin and of the position of the body.
(2)
Hence, the motion of a body, under the action of any finite
forces, about its centre of inertia, is the inertia
same as
if the centre of
were fixed and the same forces
ivere acting on the body.
27.
The two
previous deductions are
known
as the principles
of the Conservation of the motions of Translation
and
flotation,
and show us that we may consider the two motions independently of one another.
28.
Impulsive Equations of Motion.
Since an impulse can be measured only by the change of
momentum
it
induces in a body,
in
applying D'Alembert's Prinalter the expressions for the
ciple to impulsive forces
we must
effective forces,
of
which
will
be represented not by the products
masses and accelerations, but by the products of masses

All the preceding relations will hold
if
and changes of velocity.
equally for impulsive forces

for accelerations.
we then
write changes of velocity
Thus, such a relation as
D'ALEMBERTS PRINCIPLE.
for finite forces will
35
become
2/#
ISHI) !-
of each particle of
J
for impulsive forces

7//
where the velocity

to
[
mass
of an
is
changed from - abruptly

dt
\dt
by the action
impulse X.
And
it
may be
said, generally, that
equations of
motion for impulsive forces can be obtained from the corre-
sponding equations for
finite forces
by substituting
in
the latter
changes of velocities for accelerations.

29.
in
In forming any relations for impulses,

all finite
it
must be borne
be
mind that
;
actions, such as that of gravity, are to
neglected
will,
after the impulse has acted, the
subsequent motion
of course,
be found by applying the equations for the
finite forces
which usually are called into play after the impulse
has operated.
1.
rough uniform board, of length 2 a and mass m, rests on
smooth horizontal plane.

other.
man
of
mass HI walks from one
end to the
of
Determine the motion.
This example furnishes an excellent illustration of the truth
D'Alembert's principle, which asserts that the motion of the

if
centre of inertia of the system will be the same as

there
all
we
applied
its
the forces external to the system, each acting in
proper direction.
All the forces at the centre of inertia are
then downwards, and as the centre of inertia cannot move
downwards,
it
must therefore be
at rest
and as the man walks
along the whole board, he will therefore advance relatively to

the fixed horizontal plane through a distance 1 &
Jll+m
and the
board will recede through a distance
M+m
36
Analytically,
RIGID DYNAMICS.
we have
for the
motion
in a horizontal direction,
since there are no horizontal forces external to the system, the
equation
v d x = 0. n -m
2
r
dfi
*%->
and
.".
-=0
dt
or constant.
If
the
man and board
start
from
rest, as
we have supposed,
then
dx
dt
.:
5r= constant,
which means that the position
of the centre of inertia
remains
unaltered throughout the motion of the two parts of the system.

2.
Two
persons,
A
B
and B, are situated on a smooth horizonafter a time
tal
plane at a distance a from each other.
to B,
slide
which reaches
t,
show
,
A throws a ball that A will begin to

If
along the plane with a velocity

in
where
is
his
own
mass and
3.
that of the ball.
person
get off
?
is
placed on a perfectly smooth surface.
How
may he
4.
Explain
how
a person sitting on a chair
is
able to
move
the chair along the ground by a series of jerks without touching the ground with his feet.
5.
How
is
a person able to increase his amplitude in swing?
ing without touching the ground with his feet
6.
37
Explain
dynamically the method of high jumping with
a pole;
and show that a man should be able to jump as far
on a horizontal plane without a pole as with one.

7.
Two
coins, a large
and a small one, are spun together

vertical.
on an ordinary table about an axis nearly
Which
will
come
8.
to rest
first,
and why
is
circular board
placed on a smooth horizontal plane,
and a
clog
runs with uniform speed around on the board close
to its edge.
Find the motion
of the centre of the board.
30.
The Principle of Energy.

of
Before entering upon the discussion

rigid body,
the motion
of
what
it
is
known
as the principle of energy will be
explained, as
is
exceedingly useful, and often gives a partial
solution of a problem without any reference to the equations

of motion,
and
in
many
cases
furnishes
solutions which
are
both simple and elegant
when compared with

mass
those obtained
by the use of Cartesian coordinates.

If a
single particle of
be moving along the axis of
x,
under the action of a force

as the equation of motion,
in the
same
direction,
we
have,
d 2x
rr
And
multiplying both sides by
dx
and
*/0
integrating,
we
get
m
where
,2_j/2 )= C'pdx,
V is
the
initial
value of v or
civ
dt
The expression on
change
the force from o to x.
the left-hand side of the equation
is
the
in kinetic energy,
which
is
equal to the tvork done by
38
RIGID DYNAMICS.
What
and
of
is
true of a single force acting in a definite direction

particle of
of a single
mass
is
also true of a
forces acting
on a rigid body or on a system.
number Then the

of forces
analytical expression for the
work done by a system
becomes
tmC{Xdx+Ydy+Zdz),
which must be equal to
j
2mv*-%tmV2
In the general case, where bodies
move with both
translation
and rotation, the
total kinetic
energy can easily be shown to

at the
be that due to translation of the whole mass collected

centre of inertia considered as a fixed point.
centre of inertia, together with that due to rotation about the
For
if
x, y,
z be the coordinates of any particle of mass

at
and velocity v
time
,
?;,
/,
and
x, y, z be the coordinates of the
centre of inertia,
the coordinates of the particle referred
to the centre of inertia, then the total kinetic
energy
is
equal to
-?//:-
-h^hshsh
of
since by definition of the centre

disappear.
inertia
the other terms
This proves the proposition.
31.
According to the kind
of
motion and the choice

for
of coor-
dinates
and
origin,
this
expression
energy
will
assume
various forms which will be given under the discussions of the

special cases throughout the treatise.
Twice the energy
is
termed the
vis viva.
32.
39
;
To
find
the work done by an impulse
let
be the
;;/
measure
of
an impulse which, acting on a particle of mass

V,
is
moving with velocity

then the kinetic energy
changes
its
velocity suddenly to v
changed from \
mV
to
mv
2
.
Work done by
the impulse
= % mv2 | m V 2 =
-|
(m v m V) (v + V)
since the impulse
is
measured by the change
of
momentum and
body where
is
therefore equal to
mv m V.
similar relation will evidently apply to a rigid
v and
are the velocities of the point of application of the
impulse resolved in the direction of the action of the impulse.
Illustrative
1.
Examples on Energy.
from a horizon-
rod
OA,
of length 2 a, fixed at O, drops

:
tal
position under the action of gravity

it is
find its angular velocity
when
in
the vertical position OB.
(See Fig.
18.)
a,
Fig.
18.
28
RIGID DYNAMICS.
principal axes.
Then
is
the angle 6 which O'X' makes with the
principal axis at O'
given by
tan 2
n
B-A
OX+M&
where
A=I about
0'X'=I about
=jn(^+^y
B=I about
0'
about
O Y+ Ma?
-*(M
.4
and
F=tmxy=tmxy + J fa/3 = Ma/3.

tan 2
J/a@
=
The
third principal axis
is,
8/3
(tf2_2 )+4(a2_ /32)
-
of course, at right angles to the
lamina, through the point

3.
O'.
To
find at
what point a
side of a triangle
is
a principal
axis.
Fig. 17
shows the construction and
proof.
is
BC
is
the side
in
question,
and
is is
bisected at E.
bisected at O.
AD
drawn perpendicular
to
BC, and
system
DE at
3
Then, taking the equimomental
the middle points of the sides, in order that the
inertia-product
lar to
the side
F may BC must
vanish, the principal
axis
perpendicu-
bisect the join of the mid-points of the
sides
AB
and AC, hence BC,
OY
are the principal axes in the
plane of the lamina at the point O.
AND PRINCIPAL AXES.
29
M/
JS
42
RIGID DYNAMICS.
at the
inertia.
motion of translation upwards represented by aw, and same time the stick keeps on rotating about the centre of
Owing
to the action of gravity, the
motion of translation ceases,

drops to the ground in
alters in direction,
and
finally the stick

it
an upright position.
The time
is
takes the centre of inertia to

its
move from
its
second position to
final
position
when the
stick pitches upright
found from the well-known formula for
space described under the action of gravity, which, in this case,
becomes
a=-aa>'-t+%gP.
The
condition for pitching upright
is
(b)
evidently to be found
(2)
from the condition that the rod after leaving position

rotate through (211+
fore
must
there-
1) before touching the ground, and

2
to'-t=(2n+i)-.
2
(a), (b),
(c)
and
(c)
give the result

9
where
3.
p=(2n+i)
2
uniform heavy board hangs
in
a horizontal
position
suspended by two equal

If
parallel strings fastened to the ends.

it
given a twist about a vertical axis, prove that
will
rise
through a distance
to
6 C3
where
2 a
is
the length of the board, and
the vertical twist.

4.
cannon rests on a rough horizontal plane, and

at the
is
fired
with such a charge that the relative velocity of the ball and
cannon
If
moment when
show
the ball leaves the cannon
is
\x
V.
M be the mass
(
of the cannon,
that of the ball, and
the
coefficient of friction,
that the cannon will recoil a dis-
tance
\M+m)
on the plane
2 u< r
5.
43
fine string
is
wound around
in
a heavy grooved circular
plate,
freely.
and the free end being
fixed, the plate is
allowed to
fall
Find the space described

coin
is
any time.
ordi-
6.
spun about an axis nearly vertical upon an

position of rest.
is
;
nary table.
Form
its
the equation of energy at any time as the
coin descends to
7.
narrow, smooth, semicircular tube
fixed in a vertical
plane, the vertex being at the highest point
and a heavy
If
flexi-
ble string, passing through
it,
hangs
at rest.
the string be
cut at one of the ends of the tube, to find the velocity which
the longer portion will have attained

tube.
If
when
it is
just leaving the
a be the radius of the tube,
the length of the longer por-
tion, then,
is
it
on equating the kinetic energy at the time the string

given by the relation
leaving the tube to the work done by gravity up to that time,

will
be found that the required velocity
is
frgal2 ir- -(V-4)

8.
Explain
why
the grooving in a
rifle
barrel diminishes the
force of recoil.
9.
rough wooden top

axis,
in the
form of a cone can rotate
about
its
which
is
fixed
and horizontal.
it
fine string is
fastened at the apex, and

pletely covered.
wound around
until the top is
comis
small weight attached to the free end
allowed to
fall
freely
under the action of gravity, unwinding

its
the string from the top which rotates about

the angular velocity of the top
axis.
is
Find
when the
string
completely
unwound
weight. *"
10.
also,
the equation of the path of the descending
Two
equal perfectly rough spheres are placed in unstable

;
equilibrium, one on top of the other
the lower sphere resting

If
on a perfectly smooth
horizontal
surface.
the
slightest
24
RIGID DYNAMICS.
Let a portion of the body be represented
in
Fig. 14,
being
the centre of
inertia,
inertia,
00' the
principal axis at the centre of

at
OX, O
any rectangular axes

parallel axes
O, perpendicular to
00', and OX',
OY'
through 0\
Then we
have, by a previous proposition
Imx's' at O^tfnxz at
+ M(/ix),
0+M(Ay).
by hypothesis.
and
tmy'z' at
0'=tmyz
at
But
.'.
x=y = o = -wx.z = 'E;//yz,

Smx'y'=o=Smy'z',
is
at O'
and therefore 00'

at
if
a principal axis at O', and therefore also
any point
in
its
length.
Conversely,
all
it
may be shown
its
that
a line be a principal axis at
points in
length,
it
must
pass through the centre of inertia.
20.
AND PRINCIPAL AXES.
25
To determine
if
the locus of points at which the momental
ellipsoid for a given
body degenerates
which
it
to a spheroid,
and the
points,
such
exist, at
becomes a sphere.
principal axes at the centre
its
Let the body be referred to

of inertia,
its
and
:
let
A, B, and
be
principal
moments, and
C,
its
mass
three
(1)
If all
moments be
at
unequal, say
A >B>
ellipsoid
there
that
will
be no point
will
which the momental
for
body
be a sphere, but at any point
P on
_
'
the ellipse
x%
or on the hyperbola,
.r
A-C^B-C~M'
2
r2
A-B B-C
it
M'
y = o,
will
be a spheroid with axes of revolution touching the conic
at
P.
The momental
If
ellipsoid
at
all
other points will have
three unequal axes.

(2)
two
of the
moments be
equal,
and each
less
than the
third, say
A>B = C,
there will be two points at which the mowill

-
mental ellipsoid for that body
be a sphere,
)
viz.,
the points
of inertia.
ellipsoid
on the axis of
x, distant -v/(
from the centre
At every other
will
all
point on the axis of x, the
momental
be a spheroid with the axis of
as axis of revolution.
At
points not on the axis of
the momental ellipsoid will have
three unequal axes.

(3)
If
two
the third,
will
moments be equal, and each greater than say A=B>C, the momental ellipsoid for that body
of the
z,
be a spheroid at every point on the axis of
or on the
circle,
Ivl
At
all
other points
it
will
have three unequal axes.
46
RIGID DYNAMICS.
Then by D'Alembert's
:vi
principle,
we have
%mX+P
cos a 1
+ P 2 cos
<c
2,
tm^Z = $m Y+ P
2;
-ji
cos
(3 X
+ P 2 cos /32
= - m Z+ P\ cos 7 + ^2 cos 72
2
X,
V,
Z, being the accelerations on the unit mass m.
*'
Fig. 21.
We
must have,
also,
2
the relations
^
2..V/
/ tflz
i/
#d y
- .rr
-
/^l COS ySj P 2 z2 COS /?2
-w( -^-^
^2
';/
iJ
= J/ Pl*l C0S K A-2 cos

l
where Z,
J/, iV, are the couples
produced by the external
forces.
MOTION ABOUT A FIXED

It will
AXIS.
FINITE FORCES.
47
be seen that there
is
one relation independent of the
pressures
d 2y
dfl
d2x\
' df-
and
this gives at once,
by transformation to polar coordinates,
^mr2
and
d2 9
df-
=N,
^_ moment
~dfi~~
of external forces about the fixed axis of inertia about the fixed axis
moment
which, evidently, on integration gives the angular velocity at
any time, and consequently the angle described

time.
in
any given
35.
Angular
Velocity of
Any Heavy Body about a Fixed Horiacted
zontal Axis.
If
the body moving about a fixed horizontal axis be

only, the angular velocity at
upon by gravity
any time can be
rj_
Fig. 22.
36
Analytically,
RIGID DYNAMICS.
we have
for the
motion
in a horizontal direction,
since there are no horizontal forces external to the system, the
equation
Zm
= 0.
dt 1
^f=and
.".
=0
dt
or constant.
If
the
man and board
start
from
rest, as
we have supposed,
then
dx =
dt
o.
.".
x= constant,
which means that the position of the centre of inertia remains

unaltered throughout the motion of the two parts of the system.
2.
Two
persons,
and B, are situated on a smooth horizonafter a time
tal
plane at a distance a from each other.
to B,
slide
which reaches B
/,
show
A throws a ball that A will begin to

If
along the plane with a velocity

j>i
where
is
his
own
mass and
3.
that of the ball.
person
get off b
?
is
placed on a perfectly smooth surface.
How
move
may he
4.
Explain
how
a person sitting on a chair
is
able to
the chair along the ground by a series of jerks without touching
the ground with his
feet.
5.
How
is
a person able to increase his amplitude in swing?
ing without touching the ground with his feet
6.
37
Explain dynamically the
method
of
high jumping with

far
a pole;
and show that a man should be able to jump as
on a horizontal plane without a pole as with one.
and a small one, are spun together on an ordinary table about an axis nearly vertical. Which will
7.
Two
coins, a large
come
8.
to rest
first,
and why
is
circular board
placed on a smooth horizontal plane,
and a dog runs with uniform speed around on the board close
to its edge.
Find the motion
of the centre of the board.
30.
The Principle of Energy.

of
Before entering upon the discussion

rigid body,
the motion
of
what
it
is
known
as the principle of energy will be
explained, as
is
exceedingly useful, and often gives a partial
solution of a problem without any reference to the equations

of motion,
and
in
many
cases
furnishes
solutions which
are
both simple and elegant
when compared with

mass
those obtained
by the use of Cartesian coordinates.

If a single particle of
be moving along the axis of
x,
under the action of a force

as the equation of motion,
in the
same
direction,
we
have,
And
multiplying both sides by
and at
dx
dt
integrating,
we
get
where
V is
the
initial
value of v or
is
The expression on
change
the force from o to x.
the left-hand side of the equation
the
in kinetic energy,
which
is
equal to the work done by
50
If,
RIGID DYNAMICS.
then,
we wish
to find the length of a simple
pendulum
which
take
will oscillate in
the same time as an extended body,
we
1=
which
is
h2 +
h
called the length of the equivalent simple pendulum.
Experimentally,
near the body a
may be found approximately by suspending simple pendulum made of a small heavy body
/
and a
fine string
of oscillation of
whose length can be adjusted the two are the same.
until the
times
37.
Centres of Suspension
and of
Oscillation.
of gravity
Let a body be oscillating under the action

axis through
about an
perpendicular to the plane of the paper, Fig. 2},
Fig. 23.
and
let
be the centre of
inertia,
and
SO = l=
5
is
+
IP-
k'
1
,
the
length of the equivalent simple pendulum.

centre of suspension,
called the
and
the centre of oscillation.
Now,
if

the body be inverted so that
it
AXIS.
FINITE FORCES.
51
can oscillate about a new axis

/'
through O, then the new length
of the simple equivalent pen-
dulum
will
be equal to
7,2x2
P
h
Hence, the centres of suspension and of

changeable.
oscillation are inter-
38.
If
the position of the axis of oscillation in a body

it
is
changed, the time of oscillation also changes, and
will
be
maximum when the axis passes through the centre of inertia, and a minimum when h = k, and k itself is a minimum. This may be seen either by differfound that this time
is
entiating the expression for / or by throwing
it
into the
form
1.
cube, edge horizontal and fixed,
makes small
oscilla-
tions about this edge.
If
2a be the
edge,
l^
-a.
2.
Find the time of a small
oscillation of a
hemisphere about
a horizontal diameter as fixed axis, under gravity.
3.
wire, bent into
a circle, oscillates under gravity

(2)
(1)
about a horizontal tangent,

this
about a line perpendicular to
tangent at the point of contact.
Compare the times
of
oscillation.
32
RIGID DYNAMICS.
of all the forces acting
sum
on the individual
all
particles
which
compose the body.
Thus, for
the particles,
we must have
S^)=%F)+S(/
a),
t(m^) = t(mZ) + X{/^

and D'Alembert's principle states that
a.
23.
The
equations of motion of a rigid body, then, are
(A)
Each
force of the type
m -
is
termed an
effective force
and
the above relations are equivalent to saying that the effective

forces,
if
reversed, would be in equilibrium with the external or

;
impressed forces
of
they
may be
looked upon either as equations
motion or as conditions for equilibrium.

24.
It is
evident, also, from this
same
principle, that
if
we take
if
the
sum
of all the
versed, will
forces.
moments balance the sum
of the effective forces, these,
re-
of all the
moments
of the external
Consequently, for any set of rectangular axes, we must
also have
D'ALEM BERT'S PRINCIPLE.

d*z
}
33
dh
dt~
dP
dh-
vi
df
m\ x
df1
(B)
dy
df-
y-d\x J
df
1
.
=A
r
,
where L, M, TV are the couples produced by the external

25.
It
forces.
may
be stated here that D'Alembert's principle holds
also in the case of a
system
of bodies
moving under
their mutual
It
actions and reactions, and applies to the motion of liquids.

is
a direct consequence of Newton's Third

26.
Law
of Motion.
Deductions from D" Alembcrfs Principle.

of the equations (A),
2 mrd x = ^mX.
Taking any one
we have
df-
^mx Mx,
and
it
Jt
71
/r
it
Ji-
dt 2
dt 1
Therefore the above relation becomes
M d x = ^mX, df
2 1
and similarly for the other two.

(1)
Hence, the motion of the centre of gravity of a system under
the action of
any forces
is the
lected at the centre of inertia
same as if all the mass were coland all the forces were applied there
parallel to their former direction.
And
so the problem of finding the motion of the centre of
inertia of a system,
however complex,
is
reduced to finding that
of a single particle.
54
plete oscillation given
RIGID DYNAMICS.
by the relation t=2ir\-, where
rr
/ is
the
XL
length of the equivalent simple pendulum and equal to

If,
,;>._l Ip-
now,
be observed by means of a clock, and h and

the value of
/-
be
found,
we have
g
on
given.
This method
is
one of
the most accurate
known
for finding the intensity of the earth's

its
attraction at different points
surface.
Various forms have

in
been given to these pendulums, from time to time,

ensure accuracy of measurement
;
order to
of
and the most important
those which have been used for the scientific determination of

gravity are described below.
(a)
Borders Pendulum.
his
Borda (1792) constructed

nearly as
possible
pendulum
so as to realize as
It
the simple pendulum.
was made
it
of a
it
sphere of
known
radius, equal to a.
To
render
very heavy
was composed
of platinum
and was suspended by a very
fine
wire about twelve feet in length.
The
knife edge which carried
the wire and sphere was so arranged by
means
of a
movable
screw as to oscillate
in
the same time as the complete pendulum.
The time was determined by
the method of coincidences, and
g was
found from the relation
AXIS.
FINITE FORCES.
55
inch and a half wide and an eighth of an inch in thickness.
This bar was pierced in two places, and triangular knife edges
of hard steel
were inserted so that the distance between them
was nearly 39 inches. A large mass in the form of a cylinder was placed near one of the knife edges, being slid on by means of a rectangular opening cut in it. A smaller mass was also attached to the pendulum in such a way as to admit of small motions either way. The pendulum was then swung about the two axes and adjustment of the masses made until the times of
small oscillations were the same.
This time being noted, and

small difference being gen-
the distance between the knife edges being accurately measured,

erally
was readily calculated.

in
A
it
found
the two times,
can be shown that the length
of the seconds
pendulum
will
be found from the expression

2 )(// 1
(7^
//
-// 2 )
where h v h 2 are the distances of the centre of inertia from the two knife edges, and tv 2 the corresponding times of oscillation.
t.
(c)
Repsold's Pendulum.
It
was noticed
air
in
experimenting with pendulums made like

is
Kater's that the vibration
differently affected
is
by the
sur-
rounding
according as the large mass

in
above or below.
This led to the form known as Repsold's,

hollow at one end.
is
which the two ends

is
are exactly similar externally, but the pendulum (which

drical) is
cylin-
The
centre of inertia of the figure
equidistant from the

is
knife edges, but the true centre of inertia of the whole mass
at a different point.
40.
Many
observers have, during the present century, con-
ducted observations at different points on the earth's surface

in order to
determine not only the length of the seconds penduthe

earth considered
as a
lum, but also the excentricity of

spheroid.
56
RIGID DYNAMICS.
Helmert
in his
work on Geodesy has collated the results of nearly all the more important expeditions, and the following table gives some of the principal stations with the corresponding lengths of the seconds pendulums there, and the name of the
observer.
To
find
from
this table for
any
place, the relation
\ogg=2\og-rr + \ogl
Place.
Latitude.
Observer.
Freycinet
Rawak
St.
i' S.
99.0966
Thomas
Galapagos
Para
.
24 N. 32 N.
27 S.
55
S.
99-"34
99.1019
Sabine
Hall
Foster
99.0948
99.1217
Ascension
Sierra
Leone
.
8 10
12
29 N.
99.1104
99.1091
Sabine
Basevi and Heaviside
Trinidad
Aden
Madras St. Helena

Jamaica
Calcutta
.
13
15
38 N. 46 N. 4 N. 56
S.
99.1227 99.1 168

99.1581
17
56 N.
99.1497 99.1712
99.1712
Sabine
22 22
^
55
N.
S.
Rio Janeiro
Valparaiso
33 34 38
2 S.
99.2500
99.2641
Liitke
Montevideo
Lipari
.
54 28 N. 44 X. 41 X.
7 N. 5 N. 2 4 N.
S.
Foster
Biot
99-3097
99.3191
Hoboken, N.
Tiflis
.
.
40
41
99.3190 99.3402 99-347 99.3623
Toulon Bordeaux
43 44
45
Duperrey
Biot
Padua
Paris
Biot
48
5
5'
5
1
50 N.
37 N.
99.3858
99.4042
99.4169
99-4 43
Shanklin Farm (Isle of
Wight)
Kater
Kew
London
Berlin
28 N.
28 N.
31 X. 30 X.
Greenwich
5'
.
99.4140
52
994235
99.4501
99-45 6 5
Staten Island
54
55
55
46
51
s.
s.
Foster
Foster
Cape Horn
Leith
Sitka
. .
57
55 X. 3 N.
99-455
99.4621
99-4 s ?4
Liitke
Pulkowa
Petersburg
59
59 60
46 X. 56 N.
45 N.
Sawitsch
99.4876
99-4959
Unst

may be
in
AXIS.
FINITE FORCES.
57
used,
where
/ is
the length of the seconds pendulum
centimetres.
See also Geodesy, by Colonel A. R. Clarke,
Chap. XIV.
The
tudes,
places are arranged geographically in order of their
lati-
and show thereby the gradual increase
in
the length of
the seconds pendulum as
we go from
the equator to the pole.
Those
places, in the preceding table, for
which the lengths
of the seconds
pendulum have been calculated from a number
of observations
made by
different observers, are indicated
by a
dash.
During the past few years several observers have made observations on the value of g at different points in North
41.
America.
during the
Professor Mendenhall, of the U. S. Coast Survey,
summer
of 1891, visited a
number
of places
on the
Pacific coast
between San Francisco and the coast
of Alaska,
and
in his report of
the expedition gives a table of the values
determined, with the places and corresponding latitudes.
He
spec-
pendulum enclosed in an chamber which could be exhausted with an air pump. ial method was used for noting the coincidences (see U.
made use
of a half-seconds
air-tight
S. Coast
and
of
Geodetic Survey.
Report for 1891, Part

crossed from
of
2).
Defforges, one of the greatest living authorities
on methods
gravity
determination,
Francisco during the
summer
Washington to San 1893 and made a number of
observations which are given in the following table.

of
The
value
alone
is
given.
980.169
980.747
980.375
Washington
Montreal
Chicago
Denver
Salt
980.983
Lake City
980.050
Mt. Hamilton
979.916
980.037
level.
San Francisco
These are
all
reduced to sea
58
42.
RIGID DYNAMICS.
Experimental Determination of a Moment of
Inertia.
it
In
many
cases of small oscillations under gravity, where
is difficult
to calculate the
moment
is
of inertia of a
body from
its
elements, the time of oscillation

of inertia being increased
figure, the
observed
and, the
moment
by the addition of a mass of definite

is
time of oscillation
again noted.
The
required
moment
is
of inertia
may then be
calculated.
This method
particularly useful in the case of
magnetic
oscillations about a vertical axis.
43.
rical.
If
Pressure on the Fixed Axis.
Forces
and Body Symmet-
a body be
moving about an
axis,
and
it is
symmetrical with
respect to a plane passing through the centre of inertia and
perpendicular to the axis, and at the same time the forces acting
on the body are also symmetrical with respect to this plane,

then we
may suppose
that the pressures on the axis are reduciwill lie in
ble to a single one

will
which
the plane of symmetry and
cut the axis of rotation.
To
determine, in such case, the
direction
in
and magnitude
of the resultant pressure,
we proceed
let
it
the following way.
Let the body, Fig.
25,
surround the point
and
be
symmetrical with respect to the plane of the paper which contains C, the centre of inertia
:
the axis of rotation being perpen-
dicular to the plane of the paper, and passing through O.
Let
the forces acting on the body also be symmetrical with reference

to this plane.
And
let
the body, moving about the axis through

/
O, be situated at any time
as represented, B being the angle
which the
line
OC
be
fixed in the
body and moving with
it
makes
with the line
OA
fixed in space.
in
Then the
resultant pressure
its
on the axis
will
will
the plane of the paper, and
direction
pass through
Let
its
components measured along two
rectangular axes
OX, O Y
in
the body, be
P and
Q.
Let
CO=h.
Then,
A',
Y,
being the accelerations on unit mass in the

directions
relations
if-x
.i)i
AXIS.
FINITE FORCES.
59
OX, OY, we
have, by D'Alembert's
principle, the
= tmX+P,
dt-
%m^=tmY+Q.
Fig. 25.
Fig. 26.
Now,
will
if
to
be the angular velocity, any particle such as

is
m
in
be acted on by the forces ma>2r, nmr, as
indicated in the
as
figure; and these forces resolved along

Fig. 26,
OX, OY,
shown
would give
m d\x 2
dt
2
i>iw
x vmy,
m d y_
dfi
mary+mcox.
also be obtained
The
values of
r y
( f2
( f2
dt
dt 2
may J
j'
by J
direct differ-
entiation from ,r=/'cos#,
= rsin#.
Thus,
dx
= r sin
.
Q 6
d0
dt
= yw, dt
dy
---
=r
cos 6
dt
=xco. dt
d0
60
RIGID DYNAMICS.
d 2x
d 2y
Hence, our relations
for
determining the pressures become

(co
P + 1m X + 1m
(2
x + coy) = o,
j'
+ 1m F+ 2 w (w dur) = o.
2
P = S; A' 2t
(2
(<u
r -f- wy),
= w Y 1
;// (<u
2 j'
cox).
Imarx = co 2 1/;/x'= Mlico 2

'
Imcoy = col my = o,
1mco 2y = co 2 1my = o, 1mcox= w1mx=Mhco.

.-.
P=-1wX-M/iafi,
which equations determine the pressures P, Q, and therefore the direction and magnitude of the resultant pressure when
we know
co.
which
is
found from the relation already given,

.
C0
=d e=
2
-
x
Imr2
'
dfl
where
axis.
is
tion axis,
moment of the external forces about and -w; 2 is the moment of inertia about
the
integration,
the rota-
the same
its
This, on
gives
co,
and on substituting
are found.
value in the preceding expression,
P and Q
44.
//(di'v
Symmetrical Body.
Pressure on the Axis.

is
In the particular case of a heavy bod)- which
symmetrical
about a plane through

rotation axis, which
is
its
centre of inertia perpendicular to the
horizontal, the external forces are only
MOTION ABOUT A FIXED AXIS. FINITE FORCES.

those of gravity, and the relations
6l
we
have, Fig. 27, the pressures given by
P=- Mg cos 0-MkaP,

Q =Mg sin d+M/ia,
and
if
we suppose
estimated
in
is
the opposite direction, the
complete solution of the motion
obtained from
Fi?. 27.
da>
6_
gJi sin
~dt~~df-~~ '/P + JP'
P =Mg cos 0+M/ud2

Q=Mgs>\n6+Mkw,
being measured always upwards from the vertical and k being the radius of gyration about the centre of inertia.
62
RIGID DYNAMICS.
Illustrative
I.
Examples.
falls
A
in
rod,
movable about one end,
in a vertical
plane,
starting from a horizontal position.
Find the pressure on the

the rod makes an angle
end
any position.
;
Figure 28 shows the motion

6 with the vertical line OA,
d(o
when
we have
Fa
sin 6
"
d2 9
dt
2
"**.*
4a
dt
4a
dco
</7
.'.
2co-=
,d0 xg sin 0
.
2 a
dt
a
( f 2G>d(o=- J\ Ju
sm0d0.
2 a
Fig. 28.
W 2 = ljl
2
cos
2
and
P = Mg cos ^ + JvW = Jfc cos 6, Q = Mg sin 0+^rt<a = Mg sin 0.

I
I
AXIS.
FINITE FORCES.
63
When
the rod
is
in the lowest position, 6
= 0,
and
P=^Mg,
of
Q = o.
2.
Rod, movable about one end, falling from the position

in the
unstable equilibrium.
As
preceding problem, we have (Fig. 29)
dw
at
2 codo)
3
4.
sr
a
-
=
J
Jn 2 a
sin 9dQ,
a>
9 2
=J|(i+cos0),
cos
0),
^>
and
P = Mg cos + Mac* 2 = l Mg(s + 5 Q = Mg sin 6 + Maa = \ Mg sin 0.
Fig. 29.
In the lowest position, 6
= 0, Q = 0, P=^Mg,
which shows
that
if
the rod can just
make complete
revolutions, the pressure
64
on the axis
RIGID DYNAMICS.
in the lowest position is in the direction of the rod,
and equal
to four times its weight.
Maximum and Minim /tm
Values of
and
Q.
P is a maximum 4 Mg and Mg\

maximum when
6
when 6 = o or ir, and it is a minimum when

and and
its its
its
values then are

=--.
cos
\
is
,
2
ir,
value then
is
Mg;
it is
a mini-
mum
when 6 = o
or
value then
is o.
Resultant Pressure at
Any
and
Time.
This
may be found by
taking
R =P
2
-\-Q 2
and substituting
the general values of
in
terms of
6.
The maximum
obtained by
and minimum values of the

ant pressure
,
.
total pressure
may be
differentiating in the usual way.
The
will
angle which the result-
makes with the rod

,
be determined from the
relation
Q tany = =
sin 6
P 6+ io
cos 6
3.
Cube, edge horizontal, performing complete revolutions
under gravity.
a.
Fig. 30.
Figs. 30 and 31
show the motion.

on the
Since the body and forces
are symmetrical about the central plane perpendicular to the

axis of rotation, the pressures
axis, as
the cube swings
AXIS.
FINITE FORCES.
65
around, are reducible to a single pressure lying in this central

plane and cutting the
axis.
Taking, then, the auxiliary figure,
we need only
consider the motion of OC, which in any position
makes an angle
with the vertical line OA.

velocity at any instant
dco
is
The angular
given by
= dt
(f-6 =
3 ^ ^=
Q sin 0,
dt-
4.^20,
a.
the edge of the cube being of length 2
Supposing the cube
to
start
initially
with
OC
vertically
upwards, and to swing completely around,
Jo
Jk
V2a
.'.
a>
= -^-(i+cos<9),
2 V2<7
l
and
P = Mg cos 6 + Ma^2(
f-
i+cosfl),
Q=Mg sin d+Mtn/2[

\
4V2rt
^f
sin
Mg
=
<2
Mg
sin0.
The maximum and minimum
values of
P and Q
can easily be
found, as in the previous case of the rod.
To
find the total pressure,
we have
.ff2 = p2 + 02 = (_jl)
(Me\2
(3
0)2 _+_(__* 5 cos
fMe\2
J
sin 2^
and the maximum and minimum values

F
of
can be found by
0.
the process of differentiation with respect to
It
will
be
66
found that
are
RIGID DYNAMICS.
is
maximum when
6 = o or mr, and
its
values then
<\Mg and
is
Mg.
cos
R
4.
minimum when
6= Mi aa
and
its
value
is -
Mg \ [y
411
hemisphere revolves about an axis which coincides with

its
diameter of
base, and which

it
is
inclined at an angle to
total pressure
the vertical.
If
swings completely around, the
on
its axis,
when
in the lowest position, is
64
5.
(109 sin
4-(64 cos
2
$
5
.
right circular cone
whose height
is
equal to the radius

its
of
If
its
base swings about a horizontal axis through
vertex.
the axis of the cone starts from a horizontal position, find the
in
angular velocity and the pressure on the rotation axis when

lowest position.
the
6.
uniform heavy rod oscillates about one end
in
a vertical
plane, under gravity,

If
y}r
coming
to rest in a
horizontal position.
be the angle between the rod and the line of the resultant
pressure, and 6 the angle of inclination of the rod to the horizon

at the
same
time, then tan
yfr
tan 0=yfr.
7.
homogeneous
is
solid
spheroid,
the equation of whose
bounding surface *&
r2
i>
+~2
bl
a2
is
suspended from an axis passing through one of the

lies
foci.
Prove that the centre of oscillation

\
on the surface
?>-)
ah 2 +
//-'(.r
4-j' 2
+S2
2
) \
= 25 a
(* +r + - 2 ) 2
8.
uniform wire
is
bent into the form of an isosceles
tri-
angle, and revolves about an axis through its vertex perpendicu-

lar to its plane.
AXIS.
FINITE FORCES.
will
67
be at
Prove that the centre of oscillation
the least possible distance

9.
when the
triangle
is
right angled.
in
uniform heavy rod revolves uniformly about one end
such a manner as to describe a cone of revolution.

pressure on the fixed point, and show that
if 6, yjr
Find the
press-
be the angles
which the
ure,
vertical
-v^
makes with the rod and the resultant

0.
4 tan
=3
tan
10.
rough uniform board

of
its
is
placed on a horizontal table
with two-thirds
length
projecting
over the table, the
board being
initially in
contact with the table, and perpendicuthat

it
lar to the ed;e.
Show
will besrin to slide off

1
when
it
has turned through an angle tan
\x
being the coefficient of
45.
If
General Case.
the forces and body are not symmetrical, then
;
we
take the
general equations already found

to be equivalent to
and supposing the pressures

axis
two
at
two points on the

',
whose com-
ponents are P, Q,
R;
P',
R'
we
get, for the
determination
of these pressures, the relations
2m ^=SwX+P + P', 1
(
dt'
ifl
Z m 4=?,mZ+R+R', 2
dt
dh>
df-
d2 v
J
dfl
Nz,m'r
dt
68 This
tion, of
RIGID DYNAMICS.
last relation gives at
co.
once the value of
co
and, by integra-
L,
M, Ar
,
are the couples produced by the external

C.2 ',
forces
sures,
and
Cv C2
C{,
the couples produced by the presin
which can be expressed
terms
of these pressures,
and
the distances from the origin at which they are supposed to act.
The
(i) (2)
process of solving any particular problem will be to
Find
co
and
co.
Express the quantities ?,
72 r
etc.,
in
terms of
co,
co,
and
known expressions. (3) Thence find the pressures. The effective forces can be expressed
entiation,
in
terms of the
radial
differ-
and transversal forces either by resolution or by direct and

it
will
be found that
d 2x = co-vr coy J
df-
dy
df1
coy +
will
co.i\
Thus, the previous relations
become
v m x + P + P' = Sw( - afix-wy) sm
=-
co
J/.r- cbJ/F,
Y+Q + Q' = !///(- coy + iox) = - t&My + aMx,

are the coordinates of the centre of inertia.
/2,~
2mZ + R + R'=o,
where
x,
Also, since
-tt=o,
dt-
we have
L + C, + Ca = 2m [y-^z 1 = co-^vi yz - almxz, 1

1
df
dt )
dt-
d/-J
d-.x-\
AT
d-v
dfl
J
.,
d-e
dt 1
dfiJ

46.
fied
if
AXIS.
FINITE FORCES.
69
It will
be seen that the
last
expressions are
much
simpli-
we make
is
a proper choice of axes.
The
first thing- to
be
done, then,
it is
to choose the origin
on the rotation axis so that
a principal axis at that point.

if
Then "2mxz = o, 1myc = o.

a triangle to be rotating
is
Thus, for example,
we suppose
under gravity about one side which

tions of motion will be
horizontal, the equaif
much
simplified
it
we choose
;
as origin
that point in the side at which

p. 28.
is
a principal axis
see Ex.
3,
Then, supposing the pressures
to be equivalent to
is
two
acting at the ends of the side, the solution the angular velocity at any time
is
very simple, as
P
3
= ~g ~dt
where/
site
dco
sin 6
g sin
~p
a
'
is
;
the perpendicular on the rotation axis from the oppo-
angle
in
and the pressures can then be immediately written

go,
down
terms of
o,
a>
and the coordinate x of the centre

is
of
inertia,
y being
since the body
a lamina.
CHAPTER
47.
V.
AXIS.
IMPULSIVE FORCES.
General Case.
impulse being denned, as already explained, to be a force
of velocity,
An
which produces a sudden change

acts for an indefinitely short time,
and which only
we can
obtain the general
impulsive equations of motion of any body capable of motion
about a fixed axis by considering the relations found in Art. 45. In those relations, by the substitution of changes of velocity
for accelerations,
we
get
ZZ + R + R' = o,
where X,
Y,
are the impulsive actions on individual parti;
cles clue to external impulsive forces
P, Q, R, P',
Q',
A" are
impulsive pressures on the fixed axis

of
J
and where the velocity

place,
is
any particle before the impulsive action takes

to
(
changed suddenly
70

And, since
changed
to
&)',
AXIS.
IMPULSIVE FORCES.
71
=o, dt
and the angular velocity w

for the impulsive couples,
is
suddenly
we have
^' +c-H(fHf)l'
Now we
have
dt
at
any time equal
to
coy, and
-2-
= wx\
we
dt
and, substituting these values in the preceding equations,
have the complete solution of the problem given by
ZX+P + P' = -^m(a>' -<o)y= ~(co' -co)Mj,

2 V+ Q +Q'=1m(Q)' -<o).y= (co'-(o)J/x,
2Z+R+R'=o,
L + C + C = --w:(a' o>)x= (<o' a>)1,mxs,
1 2
M+ C
48.
If
'
+ C2 = ^mz{co' a))j'=
'
(ft)'
ft))Swj'^,
the body starts from rest, then
co
= o,
and the sudden
angular velocity generated by an impulse which tends to turn a
body about
a fixed rotation axis
is
obtained from the relation
,'-
where TV
S;//;2
is
is
the
moment of the impulse about the axis, and moment of inertia. As before, the problem is simthe
at a point
plified
is
by choosing the origin
where the rotation
axis
a principal axis.
72
49.
RIGID DYNAMICS.
Centre of Percussion.
In the general equations just found, let us suppose that the
impulsive actions are those caused by a blow
represented by
components X,
Y,
Z; and that the blow
is
struck at some point

axis,
on the surface of a body, capable of motion about a fixed
which either passes through

nected.
it
or to which
it
is
rigidly con-
What
body
is
the condition that there shall be no impulsive

?
pressure on the axis

strike the
Or, in other words,
is
it
possible to
at a certain point in
such a way as to produce
Fig. 32.
no strain upon the axis about which

the body (Fig. 32) surround 0\
tion,
let
it
is
free to rotate
Let
ZZ' be
is
the axis of rota-
and
let
the plane of zx which

t
the plane of the paper,
contain G, the centre of inertia of the body.
Suppose that the

,
77,
blow
is
applied at the point whose coordinates are

ij
(the
coordinate
not being shown, being drawn

If
upwards perpen-
dicular to the plane of the paper).
there be no resulting

pressure
AXIS.
struck,
IMPULSIVE FORCES. 73
the
when
the
body
is
general
relations
become
X=o,
Y=(co'-co)JlLT;
Z=o,
L = r)Z Y= (<w'
ft>)
^mxz,
f
M= X- Z= where k
is
(*>'
- a>)^myz
N=%Y-r,X= (co'-cd)1w> 2 =(co'-co)M62

the radius of gyration about the axis.
it
From these also ^myz o.
will
be seen that, since

also,
X=o, Z=o, we
have
And
Y= (w' wfLmxz,
Y={co'-<o)Mx.
c,_ 2 mxz
_ 2 mxz
'Zmx
Mx
And
I
is
given by the last relation,

e
*
(ft)'
-a>)Jl/P
= (a>'-G>)MJP = t*
((o'-co)Mx
The above
any point
conditions holding, and there being no pressure on

is
the axis, the line of the blow

in this line is
called a
Line of Percussion, and
termed a Centre of Percussion.
50.
1.
By an
inspection of the foregoing relations,
we
have,
X=o, Z=o; and
therefore one condition, that there
may
be no strain upon the

centre of inertia.
axis, is that
the line of the blow must be
perpendicular to the plane containing the rotation axis and the
74
2.
RIGID DYNAMICS.
1ntj c
r
= o,
and '2mxz = %- -mx.

be chosen anywhere on the
axis, let
it
Now,
since
O may
"=0.
be
so chosen that
Then
for
that origin
so chosen -///r.~
would be
zero,
and TLmxz
also zero.
first
Therefore, an essential condition, to be

line of percussion, cipal axis at
is
satisfied for a
that the axis of rotation

of its length.
must be a
prin-
some point
3.
=
x
>
which shows that when a centre of percussion does

from the axis
is
exist, its distance
the
same
as that of the centre
of oscillation.
If
=0 and ^ = 0,
then the line of percussion passes through
the centre of oscillation, which
may be
stated in the following
way
If the fixed axis be parallel
inertia, the line
to
a principal axis at the centre of
of action of the bloiv will pass through the centre
of oscillation.
Ill n strath 'e

'
Examples.
in
1.
uniform rod, fixed at one end and capable of motion

is
a vertical plane,
hanging freely under the action

to
its
of gravity,
and being struck perpendicular

position of unstable equilibrium,
length, rises
into the
Find the magnitude of the

at
blow that there may be no strain

In order that there
the fixed point.

it
may be no
strain on the axis,
must be
be
at
struck at the centre of percussion, which point will
a
a.
distance
- from
3
the fixed end,
if
the length of the rod be 2
Then,
if co
be the angular velocity produced by the impulse, we
have from the equation of moments,
n Aa
3
B=Ma
a>,

Also,
AXIS.
IMPULSIVE FORCES.
75
^=_3jr sin
at
4a
it
is
the equation of motion of the rod as
rises
upwards, being
(o.
acted upon by gravity, and starting with an angular velocity
t/cu
( 2
mda>=
-M a
2
''gin Qffl
*/o
r (0
,2_3<r a
From
this
it
may be
seen that generally when a body
is
struck at the centre of percussion, the value of the impulse
is
measured by the product

centre of inertia.
2.
of the
mass and the velocity
of the
circular plate free to

its
move about
a horizontal tangent
is
stuck at
centre of percussion and rises into a horizontal
position.
Find the blow.
As
and
,
before,
B JLroo,
4 = -^ dt a
dco
5
<r
a being the radius,

a
sin 6
gives S>'
<y.
B = M^5
3.
sector of a circle,
whose radius
its
is
a and
angle
is
, is
capable of turning about an axis in

dicular to one of
its
plane which
perpenof
bounding
radii.
Find the coordinates
the centre of percussion.

Fig.
33 shows the position of the centre of percussion C,
whose coordinates are

z^.mxz
nix
2.mx*
2.111
76
RIGID DYNAMICS.
On
transforming to polar coordinates
it
will
be found that
=f a sin a,
f = t
</.
sm
+ COS
Fig. 33.
the centre of percussion of a triangular plate capable of rotation about a side.

4-
To
find
JJOF d
Fi. 34.

Fig. 34
is
AXIS.
IMPULSIVE FORCES.
77
shows the position
of the centre of percussion.
AB
the rotation axis,
PD
perpendicular to
point of
AB,
the middle point of
DE.
AB, E the middle Then AB is a prin-
cipal axis at the point F,
and
being the centre of inertia of
the plate, and
PD=p, C
is
the centre of oscillation, the centre of percussion,
C
and
is
r
h
p
3
When
5.
the triangle
is
isosceles,
C and
C coincide.
AB being parallel to point P is a centre of per-
ABCD
Show
is
a quadrilateral (Fig. 35),

if
CD.
that,
AB2 =$CD
2
,
the
cussion for the rotation axis
AB.
(Wolstenholme.)
Fig. 35.
6.
uniform beam capable of motion about one end
is
in
equilibrium.
Find
at
what point a blow must be applied

in
per-
pendicular to the
fixed
beam
order that the impulsive action on the
end may be one-third of the blow.
78
51.
If a
RIGID DYNAMICS.
Initial Motions.
Changes of Constraint.
body, moving about a fixed axis with
velocity, is
suddenly freed from

or
if
its
is
constraint
known angular and a new axis

is
fixed in
it,
a body at rest
of
disturbed so that there
sudden impulsive change
pressure,
we can determine
the
new
angular velocities and changes of pressure by reference to
the impulsive equations of motion already found.
Sometimes,
obtained
however, solutions which are more instructive
may be
by considering elementary principles

ples
and the following examto be
are
given
to
illustrate the
methods
employed
in
various cases.
1.
uniform board
is
placed on two props

in
if
one be sud-
denly removed, find the sudden change

Fig. 36 illustrates the problem.
pressure at the other.

is
The board
of length
2 a,
and
rests
on the props
and B, which are
fixed in position in
n
A
cv
H
A
m
A
cc
Jl
M$
ff
Fig. 36.
the
first
figure, so that
R \Mg.
If
be
now removed, the
board begins to turn about the upper end of

of gravity,
is
under the action

to each element
and
to each
;
element of the board an acceleration wr

if
given suddenly
so that
in
we communicated
an acceleration ar
the opposite direction (upwards),
we

AXIS.
of
IMPULSIVE FORCES.
79
would have, by the application

1(;;/co;-),
D'Alembert's principle, R',
and
Mg
in equilibrium
with one another, as indicated
in
the second figure.

.-.
R' + \M(ma>r)Mg=o.
O, just
Also, taking
moments about
when the prop
is
removed,
we have
1(//icor)
r=Mg- a.
CO
4a
.-.
R' = Mg-Maa> = \Mg.
2.
The
extremities of a heavy rod are attached by cords of
equal length to a horizontal beam, the cords making an angle of
30 with the beam.

initial
If
one of the cords be

is
cut,
show that the
tension of the other
two-sevenths of the weight of the
rod.
3.
uniform rod
is
suspended
in a horizontal
position by
means
If
of
two strings which are attached

other
string;. *>
to the ends of the rod.
one of these strings be suddenly
cut, find the
sudden change
in tension of the
4.
Two
in
strings of equal length have each an extremity tied
to a weight C,
and their other extremities tied to two points

line.
A,
the same horizontal

is
If
one be
cut, the tension of

1
:
the other
instantaneously altered in the ratio
2 cos 2
ACB
.
5.
particle
is
suspended by three equal strings of length a

in a
from three points forming an equilateral triangle of side 2 b

horizontal plane.
If
one string be
cut, the tension of

_
each of
a
the others
is
instantaneously changed in the ratio
7j2
So
6.
RIGID DYNAMICS.
rod of length 2 a
falls
from a vertical position, being
capable of motion about one end in a vertical plane, and

in a horizontal position, strikes a fixed obstacle at
when
and
a given dis-
tance from the end.
Find the magnitude
of the impulse,
the pressure on the fixed end.
Fig. 37.
Let the rod (Fig. 37) drop from the vertical position and strike an obstacle when in the position OB with a blow Q.
Let
be the impulse on the fixed end O, and then
we
have,
taking
moments about
O,
Qd=2.(mrro)
-r=JR 2 -co.
4 a*
<2=-
and since the rod

velocity
falls
from the vertical position,

is
its
angular
when
in
the horizontal position
found
in the usual
way
to be given
by
AXIS.
IMPULSIVE FORCES.
R = Ma^\^-il * 2 a d
[
These two values

will
of
and
will
change as
.A?
rt
changes
be a
maximum when
a=,
and
will
be positive, zero,
or negative, according as
4 >=<
or as
3 d*
a
the obstacle
is
<=>
of percussion, the
Hence,
if
is
beyond the centre

If at
impulsive strain at
cussion there
is
downwards.
the centre of peraxis,
no impulsive action on the
and when
<
3
the impulse at
is
upwards.
These
results can easily be verified
by experiment.
it
An
iron
if
bar movable about an axis in which
is
very loosely held,
dropped so that
will
it
strikes an obstacle in a horizontal position,
throw
is
its
fixed
end downwards or upwards according as the

of percussion
;
obstacle
if
beyond or nearer than the centre

falls so
and
the bar
that
it
strikes the obstacle just at the centre

is
of percussion, then there
no
jar
on the fixed end, no matter
how loosely it may be held. The experiment may be modified in many ways, and a familiar illustration of there being a centre
of percussion
ball club
is
afforded by the use of the cricket bat or baseis
with which a ball
struck.
If
the ball be struck by a
portion of the bat out near the end, the fingers tingle from the
impulsive reaction outwards
if
it
be struck nearer than the

is
centre of percussion, the impulsive reaction
inwards against
is
the palm of the hand
when the
ball is
struck properly, there

is
no impulsive reaction on the hand, and the energy
all
com-
municated
to the ball.
82
7.
RIGID DYNAMICS.
A rod
fixed
;
is
moving with uniform angular

is
velocity about one
end
suddenly this end
freed and the other end fixed.
Find the new angular
velocity.
O'
or
('
O'
Fig.
38
Fig.
38 indicates
the
solution.
In the
first
figure
each
particle has a linear velocity tor in the direction indicated,
on
account of the angular velocity
to.
In the second figure both

In the third
ends are
figure O'
free,
is
and the velocities remain as before.
instantaneously fixed, which does not affect the
velocities of the other elements of the rod,
by the definition
velocity about
of
an impulse.
will
will
0\ be as shown in the figure in direction, and its magnitude be found by using the formula for moment of momentum.
to',
And
hence
the
new angular
Thus
2 (vitor)x = 1 {mto'x)x.
And
if
x-\-r=a, and p
is
the density,
p(a x)xdx =
11
to',
'.
to'
= \ro.
8.
rod of length a
form angular velocity,

point distant
/
moving about one end fixed with uniwhen suddenly this end is freed, and a
is
from
it
is
fixed.
What
in general will
be the
direction and magnitude of the
new angular
preceding
velocity
This
is
an extension of
the
problem, and the
method
of solution will
be similar.
Let
O
to,
(Fig. 39) be the first
point fixed, and the angular velocity be

this point
as indicated.
Then
being freed,
let
the second point O' be fixed.
AXIS.
IMPULSIVE FORCES
83
The new angular velocity will be obtained by equating the moments of momentum before and after the fixing of the point Thus O'.
P
C (ox(l-x)
is fixed,
dx-p J
Q>x{l+x)
dx =
MP (about O') x
P
is
to'.
For, the linear velocity of an element at
(/ x)<a before
will there-
O'
and
its
moment
of
momentum
about O'
/
I
JC
q
fore be
o'
i>
\
Fig. 39.
m(l x)a> x
while the
moment
in
If
of
momentum
of
an
element
at
will
be m(l+x)<o
an opposite direction to the

.
former with reference to the point O'

determines the sign and value of
It will
p be the density and
a the length of the rod, we then get the above relation which
03'.
be found on integrating the above expressions that w'

co,
will
have the same sign as
the opposite sign, or will be zero,
according as
which shows that

axis be freed
sion,
it
if
a rod be
moving about an
axis,
and
this
and a new axis fixed through the centre

rest.
of percus-
will
be reduced to
9.
An
elliptic
lamina
is
rotating
with
uniform
angular
is
velocity about
one latus rectum, when suddenly the axis

;
freed and the other latus rectum fixed

velocity.
1
find the
new angular
2 L = - 4 -e^<w2
I
-
i+4e
84
10.
RIGID DYNAMICS.
circular plate rotates about an axis through

its
its
centre
If
perpendicular to
this axis
plane with uniform angular velocity.

in
be freed, and a point
the circumference of the plate
be
fixed, find the
new angular
velocity.
40 gives the solution. For an element at P the linear velocity is w x OP, and its moment of momentum about O' is iiiwxOPxO'P. If OPr and the radius of the plate be a,
Fig.
then
will
\moar{ra cos 0)=J//c 2 co'.

pco
,-.
C f'
r2 (r- a cos 6)drde
= M^(o' =
i<i).
0)'
Fig
40.
11.
A
A
circular plate
is
turning
in
its
own
plane about a
is
point
on
its
circumference.
Suddenly
freed,
and a
AXIS.
IMPULSIVE FORCES.
is
point B, also on the circumference,

plate
will
fixed.
Show
that the
cir-
be reduced to rest
if
AB
be one-third of the
cumference.
12.
triangular plate
If
ABC,
right-angled at C,
is
rotating
about AC.
AC
be loosed suddenly, and
BC
fixed, find
the
new angular
velocity.
,
go
= BC
2AC
CO.
13.
square lamina
is
rotating with angular velocity
co
about
a diagonal,
when suddenly
the diagonal
is
freed and one of the

;
angular points not in the diagonal becomes fixed
prove that
co.
the angular velocity about this angular point will be A

14.
cube
is
rotating with
angular velocity
is
co
about
diagonal,
when suddenly the diagonal
freed and one of the

;
edges which does not meet that diagonal becomes fixed

that the angular velocity about this edge will be
15.
prove
co
V3.
If
A
is
uniform string hangs
at rest over a
off,
smooth peg.
half the string
on one side be cut
show
that the pressure on
the peg
instantaneously reduced by one-third.
52.
T/te Ballistic
is
Pendulum.
This
a
rifle
a device for measuring the velocity of discharge of
and was invented by Robins about 1743, and afterwards used by Dr, Hutton and although of recent years
bullet,
;
superseded by the more accurate electric chronograph,

to be noticed here as
it
is
illustrating the
is
;
nature of an impulse.
In
its
simplest form
it
a heavy pendulum capable of

a bullet discharged into
it
moving
about a horizontal axis
produces a
certain angular velocity, and the
angle which can be easily

to
it,
pendulum rises through an measured or else a rifle is attached

;
and the discharge

latter
of the bullet produces a recoil.
The
method
is
shown by
Fig. 41, in which

rifle,
OA
repre-
sents the pendulum, holding the
and
in
its
position of
86
equilibrium
RIGID DYNAMICS.
under the action of gravity.
found as follows
of bullet,
The
bullet
,
being
driven out produces a recoil

velocity of discharge
is
through the angle

:
and the
Let
7;/
= mass
z/=its initial velocity,
= distance of gun from O, il/ = mass of pendulum and gun, k = radius of gyration about O,
/
h = distance of centre of inertia from O.

.-.
mvt = M(k2 +/?)<*,
where
co is
the angular velocity generated.
The pendulum then moves back through

is
the angle
a,
which
observed, and
its
equation of motion on the way up
is
gh
~dt'
'// 2
sinfl
+ /-'
.MOTION
ABOUT A FIXED
2<oda>=
J"
^ ,B=
AXIS.
2
..,
IMPULSIVE FORCES.
fa
I
87
<r/l
...
sin 6d6.
stJl
''
/7^
<I
~ C0S "
)'
and
this,
combined with the previous
relation,
determines
;
v.
In the other method a similar relation will be found

difference being that at each shot the
the only
pendulum
is
increased in
mass by the addition of the bullet fired into it. A rough pendulum made of a wooden box
on a horizontal smooth
equations.
filled
with sand,
and attached to an iron bar which carries knife edges resting

plate, will readily illustrate the
above
The preceding solution assumes that the recoil of the pendulum, when the gun is fired without a ball, is so small that it may be neglected. Experiments have shown that this assumption may safely be made for small charges of powder but
not for large charges.
In the case of the latter, Hutton as-
sumed
is is
that the effect of
the charge of powder on the recoil

is
the same
fired
when
the gun
ball.
fired
with a ball as
if
it is
when
it
without a
ft
Consequently
is
it
the recoil
is
through
ball,
ball,
an angle
when the gun through an angle when

velocity of the ball will be
discharged without a
is
and
the
discharged with a
2M^/\gh{k*+k*)\(
-
ml
It
sin
\
a
2
sin
has
been found that the actual velocity of the

velocities given
ball
lies
between the
by the two solutions.
CHAPTER
VI.
MOTION ABOUT A FIXED POINT.

Finite Forces.
53.
of
If a
body, fixed at one point only, moves under the action
any
finite forces,
then at every instant there
is
a line of
is
particles
at
rest,
so that the
body
is
moving about what
called
an instantaneous axis passing through the fixed point.

particle will
Each
axis,
have a certain angular velocity about this
and the equations of motion with reference to any three

accordance with the principles already explained.
In
rectangular axes passing through the fixed point can be written
down
in
these equations the expressions for the effective forces will
have to be evaluated
in
terms of the angular velocity about
the instantaneous axis, and in order to explain
how
this
may
be done, the following propositions on the composition and resolution of angular velocities will be found useful.
54.
Angular
:
velocity
is
measured
in
the same manner as

in
linear velocity
by the angle described
a unit
of
time
if
the motion be uniform, or by y

It
dt
if
the motion be not uniform.

in
may be
represented by a straight line drawn
the proper
direction,
will
and perpendicular
to the plane of rotation.
And
it
be seen that angular velocities can be compounded or
resolved in the
same way as
i.
forces acting at a point.

velocities about the
Proposition
For angular
same
rota-
Hon
axis, the resultant is the algebraic
sum.

This
is
89
evident, since the successive displacements in a small
time are superimposed.
Proposition
velocities about
2.
If a body have at any instant two angular
two axes drawn from a point, and if lengths OA, OB be taken upon the axes to represent in direction and in magnitude the angular velocities, then the resultant angular velocity
will be the diagonal
are adjacent sides.
OC
of the parallelogram of which OA,
OB
Let a body, fixed at O, have two angular velocities represented in direction and in magnitude by OA,
positive direction of rotation be with
OB
and
let
the
the hands of a watch.
Take any point

struct Fig. 42.
in the
let
plane containing
,
OA, OB, and con-
And
OA=eo a OB = co
Fig. 42.
Then, owing to
wards
or
co a
co a ,
the point
P
a) b
would be displaced downdt,

its
in
an infinitely small time
a distance wa
PM
'
dt
sin
AOB
dt.
Due
to
displacement would be
upwards (above the plane

or
oo b
of the paper)
and equal
to
w PNdt
sin
AOB
dt.
Therefore the
total
displacement of
sin
is
AOB(ya) a x(o
)dt,
RIGID DYNAMICS.
this is zero
and
when
x v = ^CO a CO
or
OA
x = ^ v
OB
which
all
is
is
the equation of the straight line OC.
And
that
is,
thus for
the body
points along
OC
OC
there
is
no displacement
turning about OC, due to rotations about
OA
and OB.
That the
line
represents the magnitude of the resultant
angular velocity
may be shown by
Let
co c
considering the displace-
ment
of the point A.
be the resultant angular velocity
about OC.
The displacement The displacement The displacement

and therefore
of A,
of A, of A,
due to due to
co a , is
co b , co c ,
zero.
is
due to
is
OA sin AOB OA sin AOC

A OB
,
co h df. co c dt,
OA sin A OC
..
co c
co c
dt=
OA
sin
co b dt
nR sin AOB nr =OB-- =OC. sin AOC

to
it
Proposition
velocities
o) x
,
3.
If a body fixed at a point have angular

about three rectangular
&jy,
w z communicated
axes passing through the fixed point, the resultant angular velocity is
given by
(o
2
&>x'
4- o) v
CO
2
.
Also,
if
a body have an angular velocity

it
to
about an instantag>
&>,
neous axis
co z
may
be said to have three angular velocities

;
about three rectangular axes
and
if a,
/3,
7 be the angles
which the instantaneous axis makes with the coordinate axes,

then
(O x
and
give the equations of the instantaneous axis
when
toxi
a^
to,
are
known

55.
91
That a point may have at the same instant three angular velocities can be seen by means of the apparatus shown in
Fig. 43-
Fig. 4:
To an
of
upright stand
is
attached by means of pivots a system
two rings and a sphere.
The
outer ring can rotate about
an axis passing through the points A,
the second ring
may
be made to rotate about
CD
and the inner sphere about EF.

a horizontal position, and
Now, the
sphere
axis
AB
is
initially in
coincident with the axis of

;
and
if
CD
x drawn from O, the centre of the be made coincident with the axis of y by
plane of xy, then
placing the plane of the outer ring in the

it
is
evident that by turning the inner ring the axis

initially
EF
may
be made
coincident with the axis of
z.
This having been done, rotations

sphere, then to the inner ring, and
may be
given
first
to the
lastly to the outer ring;
and thus any point on the sphere
will
have simultaneously the
02
RIGID DYNAMICS.
the
three angular velocities given to the system, and

will
sphere
rotate about a resultant
axis
in
space, which would
be
fixed
were there no
friction at the
pivots
and no resistance
of the air.
The arrangement
also
shows how a heavy body may be

at the
fixed
at its centre of gravity
and
same time be given rotations
about axes fixed in space.
56.
Linear Velocity and Angular
Velocity.
In the case of a body moving with one point fixed

replace
we may
axis
the angular velocity

(o
v
,
w about the instantaneous
by w x
fixed
w 2 about three rectangular axes drawn through point. The next thing to be done is to connect
for
the the
expressions
the
effective
forces
with
these
component
angular velocities and the coordinates of any element of the

body, and
in
order to do this
,
,
we must
of
obtain an expression
at the point
for the linear velocities

(x,
dt
dt dt
z,
any element
,
y, z) in terms of x, y,
and w z w y
,
co z
on differentiating
these expressions,
we
shall
then obtain the linear accelerations.
We may
1.
proceed either geometrically or by direct analysis.
By
Geometrical Displaccmoit.
Fig. 44 shows
how
the linear displacements arise from the
rotations about the coordinate axes.
In the
first
is
figure the
body
is
supposed to be fixed
at
0,
is
and
Of
the
instantaneous axis about which the body

velocity
co.
moving with angular

axes instead of
The body may be supposed

axis.
to have three rotations w,,
w y w, about the three coordinate

,
w about the instantaneous

as
Then, conof
sidering positive rotations
those
in
the
direction
the
motion
second
of the
hands
of a watch,
and taking the displacements
of the point
figure,
P{x, y, z) due to a rotation a\,
we
in
have, in the
moving along a small
arc
PQ
time
dt,
due

to
co,.
93
This small displacement
PQ
is
equivalent to two
have,
PR,
RQ
in the directions indicated.
Hence we
PQ =
,-.
co z
O'P
dt,
J PR=-PQ--Dy = -yto dt rp
2
>
and
QR = PQ--^=xco dt.
z
And, by considering the other planes, we should get the

placements of
dis-
P due
to
co x
and to
co yt
thus
Along Ox
Oy
xco z dt
zco x dt
Oz
Displacements due to Displacements due to
co z
y(a z dt
<o x
yx wdt
xcoy dt
Displacements due to
to
zw y dt
;
These are written down symmetrically
and from them we
see that the linear displacement along Ox, which
we
call
dx,
is
94
equal to
velocity
{za>
y
RIGID DYNAMICS.
y(o z )dt, and, therefore, in the limit the linear
dx
dy
-dr
and
X(
*- zw
x
y
.
dz =y<o -x(D
2.
By
Direct Analysis.
at the point O,
Let the body (Fig. 45) be fixed
and
let
01
z ,
a> , v
co,,
as
shown.
Then an element
at
is
tending to move at any instant
in a circle
about 01, and
its

absolute velocity
is cof>
95
ds = where/
,
is
the perpendicular from
at
on the instantaneous
axis.
And,
if
a,
ft,
7 be the angles which
01 makes
with the
coordinate axes, then

2 p =(z cos (3y
cos y) 2 H
also
ds
-f-,
are the direction cosines of the tangent at P,
ds ds
'-,-,- are the direction cosines of r r r
OP,
cos
a,
cos
(3,
cos 7 are the direction cosines of 01.
And, since
OP
is
perpendicular to the tangent at P, and
01
also perpendicular to this tangent,
we have
y
r
.
dx x
ds
.
dy
ds
.
dz
ds
z r
dx dy cos cos a ds ds
a-\
f-
dz
ds
p-\
cos 7 = 0.
dx
ds z cos 13y cos 7
dy
ds
dz
ds
cos
1
x cos y z
cos
x cos /3 p
multiplying
And,
therefore,
since
=
ds
dt
a>f>,
we
have,
each
quantity by
>
-={z cos /3y

dt
cos y)a)=ZQ)y y(o2>
dy _
dt~
96
57.
RIGID DYNAMICS.
The former of the two investigations in the preceding article may be presented in purely analytical form thus (1) From the point P (Fig. 45) let fall perpendiculars on the coordinate axes OX, OY, OZ, and let 6, ty be the angles which these perpendiculars make with the coordinate planes XY, YZ, ZX. The angular velocity of P about the axis OX
:
<>,
will
be
dt
and the resolved parts of
this parallel to the coor-
dinate axes will be
(|)|, (|)<f
y = V(
'
and
(|)|
6,
respectively.
Now
-v2 ) cos
z = ^j(r 2 -x2 )sm6,

j and
Bx - =o.
e
'
j^= - V( -'r2
;<2
sin e
= ~z
>
and
And by
definition,
'
97
(seh
fdv\d
=ya
* "
\jk)dt
= '
Um
fd.o\dJ
fdx\d
\d^J dt
\dd) dt
dt
dx
dt
deb
d\lr
dt
d^lr
y dt
d6
dt
x*- =j dt
dd>
^^
'
Similarly, y
c-
-i
dy -^dt
=x- z
dt
=xco.
f
.zw x ,
and
da
=y dd
dt dt
a> x
xa>y
(2)
The second
investigation
in
Art.
:
56
may
also be pre-
sented in a purely analytical form thus
x cos+j
2 p =(s
cos/3 + ^rcos 7 = r cose,

/3
(e
= angle
IOP),
.
cos
y cos 7) 2 +(a'COS 7 z cos ) 2 +(j cos ,rcos7) 2

&),
Co.,
Also
<,
&>.
cos
cos
/3
cos 7
and
+^' +
.
=0)
=W
e,
'.
A'&) x +jj'ft)j,
z<*> z
= no cos
(2)
and
2
(fT (f)
H
2=
** ~ yW ^ +
^~
x? + ,(Wl " 'r
)2
'
(3 }
98
RIGID DYNAMICS.
rigid
<o,
The body being

constants
;
and
co
y,
a fixed point in
co z
it,
r and
e
z,
are
also
co x ,
are independent of x, y,
the
coordinates of
differentiation,
P, therefore
from
(i)
and
(2)
we
obtain,
by
dx dy x+y-r+z=o,
,
.
dz
dt
dt
dt

And,
also,
99
2;|
dfi
~%m\
IOO
it is
RIGID DYNAMICS.
evident that these equations can be expressed in terms of
, ,
known quantities, and a> x <o y Hence the equations (4),

cumstances,
will serve to
a> z
(5),
(6),
taken with the

oo x , co
y,
initial
circo
determine
co z ,
and therefore
and the position of the instantaneous axis; equations (3) will then give, on substitution, the value of P.
(1), (2),
59.
Eq nations
of Motion referred
to
Axes fixed
in Space.
it
Taking the equation (6), we shall proceed terms of co x co y a> z by taking the values
,
to evaluate
in
dx
dt
=zco-ya>
dv
t)
-j-=x(D 2 -z(o x at
=y(o -xa> at
dz
x
y,
and differentiating.
^, Thus we should get
,
,
d\\'
-^ = z
doo,.
dy da ^^--y -^-, and on

dco z
,
substituting in this the values of
-,'-,
,
,
we get
^=s^-y^-x(a>
dt
1
+ co 2 + a>
z
,
2
z
tit
dt
)+co x (xco x +ycoy + Za> z).
d 2x
dw - d(a dt^ît y ~dt

v
o / L -^-x+coLuo^j^+û
1
and, similarly,
we should
do) z
get,
da) x
by symmetry,
/
,
d 2y
Therefore relation
,,
(6)
2
becomes
v ( N=* m \x d M
y -dfi)
)
d 2x\
= ^m (* +y 2 J
^ - ^mxz ^ - 2myz ^
dt dt
dt
+ 2m {xco
+yco u + aw,) (xo) y yo) x),

and by analogy
IO i
M and L can be written down.

But
this calculation,
it
Since L, HI, IV
co x , o)
y,
are given, these results would give the values of

integration, after calculation of the
inertia required.
co 2
on
of
moments and products

as can be seen,
would
be tedious, and we can avoid most of

although
still
by choosing axes which

of motion.
fixed in space are in coincidence with the princi-
pal axes of the
body when we form the equations

in the
This device enables us at once to disregard the products of

inertia,
and makes a great simplification
problem.
It is
due to Enter, and the equations thus obtained are known as Eider 's equations of motion.
6^.
Eider s Equations of Motion.
Instead of choosing any three rectangular axes fixed in space

at the instant
under consideration,
let
axes be so chosen that
they coincide with the principal axes of the moving body; and
let
eo
co
2,
&>
be the angular velocities about these principal

then be the same as
shall
o) x , u>
y,
axes,
which
will
co z
in the
preceding
equations.
We
then have
and
it
can be shown (see Art. 61), that
-^ = ^3.
dt dt
dt
Thus the equations
for determining
co
a>
2,
&>
become
A-^-(B-C)(0 2 a) 3 = L,
B^-iC-A^v^M,
C^-(A-B)(o
l( 2
= JV.

RIGID DYNAMICS.
integration,
102
These equations, on
being
three
in
number,
should serve theoretically to

(o
,
,
determine the angular velocities
The v <w 2 (o 3 and the position of the instantaneous axis. actual situation of the body with reference to known directions in space can also
be found from these, combined with
certain other relations which will be given further on.
61.
It
might seem that &
=
5
follows at once from the
dt
dt
relation
o) z
= &) 3
but
it
does not necessarily so follow; that the
Fig. 47.
former relation holds as well as the latter
may however be
in
shown
in the
following manner:
Let OX,
O Y, OZ
be the three axes fixed
space (Fig. 47)

then a body moving with the point
103
fixed will
produce about
OP
an angular velocity
co x
cos + o) y cos
B + co z cos 7,
makes with the
axes.
/,
if a,
B,
7 are the angles which
OP
Differentiating this expression with respect to
we
get for
the angular acceleration about

x cos a -* w x sin dt dt
.
OP
u Y
da>
du
r>dco + cos B w
,
dt
sin
n B
dB
dt
+
,
cos 7 '
da>.
dt
-,sm7-f.
Suppose now that (9P approaches
cides with
it,
dy
OX
dy
dt
and ultimately
coin-
then the angular acceleration becomes
da.
dt
dB
dt
because = o,
is
B=y =
2
when
OP
coincides with
in
co 9 .
OX:
is
and
it
also evident
o),
from the figure that
such case
dt
dB
the same
as
or
two, 3
and that
d =&> v
dt
or
.'.
=
!
at the
same time that
o 1
dt
dt
=o>,.
The
erations
relations
between
^
1,
?,
?.
the
angular
accel-
<#
<#
around axes fixed
in
the body, and
dt dt dt
-, ?,
?,
the angular accelerations around axes fixed in space,
may be
body,
determined
as follows
:
for
any
/2
given
position
of
the
moving
Let
lx
mv
nx
2,
n2
/3
z,
n3
be the direction cosines
104
of axes fixed in the
RIGID DYNAMICS.
body referred
to coordinate axes fixed in
space.
Then
will
(o
=
=
ll a I -\-m l w, J
/ (0 x
2
co
1l
(0.
a>
+ i 2 +
!/
n. (o
2
(I)
w.
;=
/3 a> x
+ / 3 a>,+
3 6>,
<w
;;/
1
&)
1
4-w 2 (W 2 + w 3 &) 3
;/. &).
(2)
w z = uû)^
w 3 &) 3
/2
/
;//
2 2
;/
2 2 2 3
= I, =
1
,
/2 /3
+w
7 3
j
;/
;/
= 0,
.
(3)
+ w 32 +
//
1<J\
+ w w + 3j = O.
3
Differentiating the
dco,
,
first
equation in group
doo,
l
(1),
do)x
1
dco,.
1
dL
x
dm-,
y
dn,
'
dt
dt
dt
dt
dt
dt
dt
But the sum
of the last three
terms on the right hand side of
this equation is zero, for
dL
dm,
dn,
= {l
dL W l + /2 C0 2 + '3<3)-jj
,
+ W
.
+ W 2W2 + W 3W
^dm,
3)
ft
.dn,
,dL
dm*
dn,\
(,d?\
dm
dn
.dL
dm,
d/l,\
=c

as appears at once on differentiating the equations in
dco,
105
group
(3).
dco x
-3*='>7*
+ '"^+"^
dco u
dco z
<4)
From
like
the second and third equations in group
(1)
we may
in
manner obtain
dco
.
dcox
dco,.
dco,
and
dcor.
x _^/_^? + w 3 3
dco
dco v
r+3
dco,
*
dt
dt
dt
dt
Hence the
acceleration around any axis
may be
all
projected on
coordinate axes just as angular velocities and as segments of

the rotation axis
may be
projected, and
theorems on the
projection of segments of a line
may be
interpreted as theorems
line.
co x ,
on the projection of angular accelerations about the

If
the axis of
will
co
1
x
coincide at any
moment
x,
with the axis of

(4)
then
^=1,
m = o,
n 1 = o,
dco x
co
and by
above
dco x
~dt~~di'
62.
Angular Coordinates of'the Body.

of
The equations
co
,
,
motion known as Euler's enable us to find
v co 2 a> 3 the angular velocities of the body with reference to the principal axis drawn through the fixed point about which
the body
in
is
moving.
As
these principal axes, however, are

it,
the body, and
move with
we must have some means

of
tell
of
determining the position of the body with reference to axes

fixed in space, because the values
the angular velocities
us nothing whatever
to
found by solving Euler's equations

as yet of the situation of the
body with regard

fix
any known
situation
6,
<f),
directions in space.
In order, then, to
the position of the

idea of
its
body
at
any time and give us a

initial
definite
with reference to some
position,
three angles
yjr
io6
RIGID DYNAMICS.
co2 8in,f
$fsin0
CC/COSp
CC2
'ccz
cos
X'
Fig. 48.

are chosen,
107
known
as the angular coordinates
they define the
situation of the principal axes,
and therefore
of the
body
itself,
being measured from some

at the
initial fixed
axes of reference which,
beginning of the motion, coincide with the principal axes

Relations can be easily found between
3,
of the body.
0,
i/r,
<f>,
and
we can yjr, and the motion of the body is fully known. The find 0, subjoined figures (Fig. 48 and Fig. 49) show how the position of the principal axes at any instant may be determined by displacements 0, ^ they also indicate how the relations
co
a>
&>
so that
knowing the angular
velocities
</>,
cf>,
existing
between these displacements and the angular
velocities
about the principal axes are to be found.
Let a spherical surface of radius unity be constructed

fixed point
at
the
(Fig. 48),
about which
moving.
Initially, let
the body,
we suppose a body to be which we may represent by its
OA, OB, OC, be in such a position that OA, OB, OC coincide with OX, OY, OZ respectively. Then, by supposing the body to turn through the angles i/r, 0, in order, so
principal axes
cf>
that
the point
it is
travels in
the directions indicated
by the
arrows,
evident that any position of the body will be fully
known
in respect of the fixed axes

0,
cf>,
OX, OY, OZ, when we know

velocities
co
three such angles as
ijr.
At any
instant the
;
cated by arrows
v a> 2 to 3 indiand in order to connect these with the angular

,
body has angular
coordinates, consider the motion of a particular point such as C.
The
velocity of the point
at the instant in question,

co
may be
v
&j 2,
co
considered as the resultant of the angular velocities

or as due to changes in
0, <, ty, i.e.,
3,
to velocities
dt dt
,
^;
dt
of
and by expressing
in the
two systems
of
change the velocity
resolved in three determinate directions, and equating the
results,
we
shall arrive at the relations
between
eo
&>
2,
co
3,
and
dd d$
dt'
d
dt'
dt'
IOS
RIGID DYNAMICS.
auxiliary figure
The
shows the motion

line
of the point
due to
the two systems.

of the great circle,
The
in the
ZCZ'
is
the tangent to the line

evidently have angular
and the point
C will
velocities
av
co
directions indicated
by the arrows
it
has also a motion
along the tangent

at
sin 6
to the great circle at C,
and
motion
-^f-
perpendicular to this
former.
This
dt
velocity '- sin $ arises from the fact that C, owing to the \}r dt motion, has a velocity along a tangent to a small circle with
CC as radius, and its velocity CC ^= OC sin 6 _rl = _Y_ s dt dt dt the radius OC unity.
(
perpendicular to
[
ZCZ' must
be
n q smce
we have agreed
to call
Hence, we have from the auxiliary

the radius
is
figure,
remembering
that
unity, the relations,
velocity of
dd C along ZC - = co
dt
sin
^ + o).7
cos 0,
( I
velocity of
C perpendicular
to
ZC-^dt
sin 9
=
And by
velocity of
co
cos
(f)
+ &> 2 sin
0.
(2)
considering the motion of the point E,
we have
the
E along the tangent

+ OE cos
(1),
at
E equal
to
d -
dt
<l = 3 dt dt dt

(3),
(3) v/
The
relations
(2),
along with Euler's equations of
motion, Art. 60, give a complete solution of the problem as far

as the actual motion and position of the
Fig.
at
49
is
given merely to
body are concerned. show how the principal axes which body
itself
any time
really represent the
were
initially coin-
cident with the fixed axes in space, and have turned through
angles
6,
<f>,
yfr.
The
complications
in
the former figure are
omitted.
109
Fig. 49.
63.
Pressure
011
the
Fixed Point.
The
pressures on the fixed point, measured along three fixed
rectangular axes, will be given by the equations,
2w ~='ZjuX+P cos X,
Zm^ = ZmY+P cos

cit"
fj,,
d Zm -=z,mZ+P cos
2~
v,
dt-
where
S;
dt"
is
now
to be expressed in terms of the coordi-
nates of the centre of inertia, the mass of the body, and the
HO
angular velocities.
of
co z , co
y
,
RIGID DYNAMICS.
Thus,
if
we
evaluate as formerly
dt'-
in
terms
o) z ,
we
get
2 o v d x ^ y-^-y dw z 2,m=Zm dco,. ^-(o-x + oi

f
,
x (xay x
+yco y + ca) z )
,
) \
and
if
x, y,
z be the coordinates of
the centre of inertia,
we
have, on reduction, to determine the three pressures,
Mass
.\-s^-y^-to^ + mt (x<o
(
dt
dt
+y(o t + a<o.)\
)
= Pcos\ + ZwX,
and two similar relations for
P cos
/a,
Pecs
v.
These equations are with reference to axes fixed in space but if we refer them to the principal axes moving with the body,
we may use
Euler's equations, and substitute for
y
,
!
,
dt
their values in terms of A, B, C, L,
dt
.
dt
M, N,
(o
co
2,
<w
The
equations
when
finally
reduced
in this
way become
Mass
^(B+C-A^+^-i^ + co^jj
= P cos + 1?uX Mass
A.
~z
y
fi,
with the two analogous expressions for
P cos
P cos
v.
In
these expressions x, y, z are the coordinates of the centre of

inertia, L,
the
M, TV the couples due to the external principal moments at the fixed point.
it
forces, A, B,
And
is
evident that
if
x=y=z=o,
in
the pressure on the
fixed point will
be the resultant of the external forces ILmX,

example,
the case of a heavy body fixed
1m Y, SwZ;
at its
as, for
centre of gravity, where the pressure must be simply the
weight of the body.
Illustrative
Examples.
i.
If
(o z ,
o)
to z
be the angular velocities about the coordinate
axes by which the motion of a body about the origin

exhibited, find the locus of the points the
may be
whose
magnitude
of
velocity
is
aw x
2.
The
locus of points in a
body (which
is
moving with one
point fixed) that have at any proposed instant velocities of the
same magnitude,
3.
is
a circular cylinder.
body
fixed at
one point moves so that a

sin nt,
its
angular
velocities about its principal axes are

t
a cos
nt, in
which
represents the time, and n and a are constants.
Show
that the
instantaneous axis describes a circular cone in the body with
uniform velocity.
4.
uniform rod, length 2

is fixed,
a,
turns freely about
its
upper
end, which
at
and revolves so as
vertical.
to be constantly inclined
an angle a to the
Find the direction and magni-
tude of the pressure on the fixed end.

5.
Any heavy
body, for which the momental ellipsoid at the

is
centre of inertia
a sphere,
will, if fixed at its
centre of inertia,
it
continue to revolve about any axis around which

nally put in motion.
was
origi-
6.
A
is
right circular cone,

its
whose
altitude
is
equal to the diam-
eter of
base, turns about its centre of inertia,

in
which
is fixed,
and
originally put
its
motion about an axis inclined
at
an
angle a to
will
axis of figure.
Show
that the vertex of the cone

is
describe a circle whose radius
| a sin
a,
being the
altitude.
This
is
evident, since the
momental
;
ellipsoid at the centre of
inertia of the
cone
is
a sphere
therefore the cone will revolve

5
about the original axis permanently (Ex.
above), and
its
axis
II2
will
RIGID DYNAMICS.
describe another cone, and
..
its
apex
will trace out a circle of
radius | a sin
7.
circular plate revolves about its centre of gravity fixed.

co
If
an angular velocity
were originally impressed upon

its
it
about
an axis making an angle a with

to the plane of the plate will
plane,
show
that a normal
in
make
2
17
a revolution in space
time
eoVi
8.
+3
sin 2
line passing
/,
body has an angular velocity w about a

, /3, 7, is
through the point
and having direction cosines

equivalent to rotations
/co,
;;/,
;/.
Show
(lfS
that the motion
71100,
nco
about the coordinate axes and translations
(wy- ?i/3)oo,
(nafy)a>,
)nu)oo
in
the directions of these axes.

velocities about
9.
body has equal angular
two axes which

is
neither meet nor are parallel.
Show
line.
that the motion
equiva-
lent to a translation along a line equally inclined to the
two
axes and a rotation about this
64.
Top spinning on a Rough Horizontal Plane.

a
When
is
common
top,
symmetrical with respect to
its
axis,
spun and placed on a rough horizontal plane, with

it
its
axis
inclined at an angle to the vertical,
satisfies
;
approximate! v
the conditions for motion about a fixed point

first
and we may
consider the ideal case of a top, spinning on a perfectly

its
rough horizontal plane, with

all
apex
fixed,
and free to move
in
directions about this apex considered as a fixed point.
Let a
top, Fig.
50
(1),
be set spinning about

its
its axis,
and placed
on a rough horizontal plane, with

at a given angle.
axis inclined to the vertical
Then
lines
after a certain time its position with

in
reference
figure
to
its
fixed
space will
be as indicated
in
the
by
principal axes
OA, OB, OC, drawn through the
fixed point.
is
the centre of gravity of the top, and
OG=h.
"3
Fig. 50.
114
RIGID DYNAMICS.
the line the line of nodes. ify called the Nutation, and _L the Preis
The angle Z0C=6, and The angular 5

cession.
NON'
velocity J
dd
dt
is
dt
The top is acted upon only by the external force of gravity, since we suppose an ideal case first and neglect the couple of
friction acting at the fixed point, as well as the resistance of
the
air.
The
external couple
(3),
is
equal to
Mgh
sin
0,
as
is
seen
from Fig. 50
nodes.
which tends
to turn the top about the line of
This couple
may
evidently be resolved into two others,

c/>,
one equal to Mgli
sin 6 cos
tending to turn the top about OB,

sin
and the other, equal to
Mgh
0sin
</>,
tending to turn
it
about
of
OA,
as
may be
seen from Fig. 50
(2).
Hence the equations
motion are
A î-(B- C)a>2a>3 = Mgh sin 6 sin 0,

l
(1)
dt
B^-(C-A)a)s =Mgh sin

(o
dt
cos
<f>,
(2)
C 3 (A B)co,co., = o,
(
-
(3)
dt
and we have also the relations

d&_
&>
dt
sin
(f)
+ o> 2 cos
sin
<f),
(4)
LV sin 6 =
dt
L.
&).,
6 r co,1 cos n
<f>,
(5)
dt
+ IX COS 6 = fW 3
dt
that
&>
3
q,
(6)
and
its
it
is
;
known
and that
A=B,
has an
since the top

initial
is
symmetrical about
it
axis
value n given to
in spin-
ning, while 6 has an initial value 8Q) at

vertical
which inclination
to the
we
place the top at the beginning of the motion.

Equation
(3)
115
becomes
dt
.'.
&>
= constant = n,
(2) give,
its initial
value.
Equations
tively,
(1)
and
when
multiplied by
co
co
2,
respec-
and added together,
A(
co
^-\-q) 2
-~ \ = Mgh sin 6(a>

becomes
sin
<f>
+ co 2 cos $),
which, by aid of
(4),
A[co,i + co 2 -2) = Mgh * l

\
dt dt J
This, on integration, gives
sin 61^.
di
<
A\
.
'2 (a d<o
x
-\-
~2
w 2 d(o 2 = 2Mgh\
sin Odd.
A (co* + w 22 = 2 Mgk{cos d - cos 0)

)
But, taking
(4)
and
(5),
and squaring and adding, we get
...
A^J + A
sin*
0^J =
Mg/<(cos0 o -cos
6),
(a)
which, as will be seen hereafter,

energy.
OK. J
is
one form of the equation
of
In order to obtain another relation

as follows.
(f>
between
d0
-r-,
d-fr
-,
dt
dt
we may proceed
Multiply
get
(1)
by cos
and
(2)
by
sin
<f>
and subtract, and we
sin^^-cosc^ = --^-;.-,
1
,doi. y
.dco,
CA
dd
from
(4).
RI
ZS.
But by Sh
dt
d:
a dd dt
a d*+
-
d-
-a \
and since
'
-^-cos0
n d&
-.
5in
1r7r=r
..
.
r>d-
d9
dt
~n
and
bit
anc
nultipl)
.
ha
y,
the
of the
:he relat
66.
The
relation
hich
r.
depends u
-
e sup-
he least angle the

the
re belc
can
r.
^cos
0.
ace
as the c
lent to
5
;ed
re-
be top acquir
above or be
ch
it
ex ah
moves.
precession and
.
n can easily be
by a top
.
of special construct
arranged that one
:er at will the
TIOX ABOUT
.-.
7
in
51.
117
of
is
:he top is
shown
It c:
an
IB, pointed at
and B, to which
:th flange
attached
veight
ick conical shell S, of br
can be moved along the
axis.
Without the
slider C, the
gravity of the top is nearly at the point B,
and thus
C up and down,
is
it
can be made to
ier ah
or
:he point B, or to coincide with
The
anc
in
top
spun by holding
it
in the position
shown
in
between an arm
which the point
ADE
(movable about a hinge at
mall cup, roughened on the inside,
A
I
und about the

he top
the
is
nd the arm
ADE
being
arm being then remov

id
spun by pulling the -.ring; remains spinning about
exhibits the motions of precession indicated
by the theor
Il8
It
RIGID DYNAMICS.
may be
a
noticed here that
if
the centre of gravity be exactly

its
at the point
B, and the top be accurately made,

axis,
axis will be-
come
permanent
and no motion
of precession will be
seen, the top while spinning preserving the position initially
given to
it.
67.
The motion
from the
of the top after
it
has been set spinning

ex-
and placed on the plane, may be completely determined

plicitly
(b)
initial
:
conditions and the two relations
(a)
and
just obtained
a( Y + Asln
0^J = 2Mo-/t
2
(cos
- cos 6),
0).
A sin d^t=Cn{cos
dt
-cos
These give
^,
and then the position and the motion of the

known.
depends
it
dt dt top at every instant are
As we have
seen, -^-
for its sign
on
;/
and the
posi-
tion of the centre of gravity;
also
changes with 6; and, on
eliminating
-,
dt
we
get
m
,4 sin
Q-j
t
= Vcos0 o -cos0V2JUo-/fAsm 2 6-C2 n' (cos6 o -cos6);

1
and
(o)
dt
dd
will also
change &
in value,
and
will
have
minimum
values
when O =
2
{)
and
=
sin 2
being a root of the quadratic
A Mgh
it
C->r (cos
cos 0)
o.
The
to
top will then, as
is
first
placed on the
increasing
its
plane, tend
drop down, and
dt
/0
will
go on
it
until,
having
value
passed
some maximum
value,
reaches
minimum

when
d = 6v
II 9
Meanwhile ^- has
dt
also
been going through
peri-
odic changes, being a
The
at the
6 = 6V top then oscillates between the positions 6
maximum when
and 6 V and
same time
is
carried about a vertical axis with a pre-
cessional motion (not constant)
dt
To an
point
observer placed above the top and watching the proits
jection of
centre of gravity on the horizontal

in
plane, that
52,
would describe the curve indicated

circles
Fig.
//
lying
between two
whose
radii are
//
sin d
and
sin 6 V
Fig. 52.
The curve
will
also,
described
will
not
necessarily be closed
of 2
77-.
that
depend on a being an integral part

from the
fact that
It
is
evident
maximum and minimum
values exist at
I2 o
RIGID DYNAMICS.
the cusps and the outer points, that the curve described touches
one
I
circle
and cuts the other
at right angles.
he
maximum
value of j-
may
be round by putting
=o
in
the equations on page 118, which will give
sin 2
d(^Pj=2Mgk{cos
-cos
0),
sin2
0^=O*(cos0o -cos0).
d^r
dt
_2Mgk_ 2 Wh
Cn
of the top.
Cn
W being the weight

When
.
n,
it
can be seen that both
dt
and
^
dt
vanish
identically.
68.
Top spinning with Great Velocity on a Rough Horizontal
Plane.
In most cases the top
is
spun with a very great
velocity,
and
then placed on the plane.

found,
By taking the
value of
JQ
already
A
it
Sin
&t
~dt
= Vcos d
o~ cose ^ 2 MghA
if
sin 2
0- CV(cos
O
-cos
0),
will
be seen that
n become very great, cos
cos
must
become very small in order that the expression under the radical may remain positive, hence the axis of the top, instead of performing large
position,
will
oscillations, will depart but little

-
from
O,
its initial
and
^
dt
will
approach a constant value, and the motion

steady.
therefore
become
in
may
be found
the following
The time way

:
of a small
oscillation

Let
121
0.,
it,
u being small.
cos
n
cos
sin
approximately, and the foregoing relation for
becomes
A =\ *
,d0
dt
^
cos
?_^
sin
cos 0^1 MghA \2 tst a *

j
cos# a r<> 9cos# 5__ sin O-C-n 1 sin

sin
.*
^ ^= V2 MghA
A
Cu
dO
dt
- CV2*2
where
But
<z
* = J/<>-/^-Jsin0 n 2
"
d0 = du
dt dt
A
c-u
,
du
j. at.
V2
<?//
-1 2
;/
^ t= vers Cn
11
(u \a
=a =
vers
Cn A
1
/,
and
This
time
+ a( cos
Aevery
is
a periodic function which repeats values of

2 7T
t is
increased by
A
and therefore the time
of a
complete small oscillation
is
2itA Cn
I2 2
RIGID DYNAMICS.
dyjr
Also,
_ Cn dt" A
COS
fl
CQS0 _ Cn ~^ sin*
2
i
?/
#
sin0
fl
A
rtty_
a[
cos
sin #
-4
Cn
Mjr/iAs'm6,f
Cn \
dt
sin #
'
cos^/
Mgh
Cn
Mgh
C-'ir
Cn
A
of the time.
and consist
of
two terms, one increasing uniformly with the

and a periodic function
time, the other very small,

If
n be extremely large,
we
,
have, approximately,
Mgh
+ =^n'>
and the precession
is
then nearly constant and equal to
Wh
Cn
//'being the weight of the top.
69.
If,
then,
a top be spun
with very great velocity and
placed on a rough horizontal plane, inclined at an angle to the

vertical,
and at the n same time will revolve about a vertical axis with an angular 1 V - In the ordinary case, the velocity very nearly equal to
it
will
make
small oscillations in time
A
? IT
C
oscillations will
be so rapid
at first as to
be barely visible to the

air
eye; as the speed diminishes, owing to resistance of

friction at the apex,
and
they become more noticeable
until finally,

when
the top
is
123
quantities,
"dying" n becomes comparable with the other the oscillations become wider, and the formulas of
Art. 67 apply.
70.
Top spinning on a Smooth Horizontal Plane.

(Fig.
53)
Let a top
be spun and placed

let
its
in
any manner on
a smooth horizontal plane, and
position after any time
Fig. 53.
has elapsed be that shown in the figure.
It is
acted upon
only by the reaction

at
of the plane
;
and
,
its
weight
Mg
acting
G, the centre of gravity
and
if
V>
K be the coordinates
of
G, the equations of motion of translation are
tm~=M -^k = dt
l
o,
dt 2
%m*k=M^ dt
dt 2
2
o,
124
RIGID DYNAMICS.
d2 ~
2;;/
d2 Y
From
these
it
is
seen
that
dP * =
dt
;
constant
initial
value
dt
constant
initial
value
and
if
therefore any horizontal J

it
motion be imparted
initially to
the centre of gravity,
will
preserve that velocity at every instant thereafter.
And, since =/^cos#,

inclination
relation
of
CG
being equal to
k,
and 6 being the
the axis of
the top to the vertical, the third
becomes
M dHhcos6) =R-M< dt
%
g-
R= v
'
d2 {h
cos 6)
df-
The equations
of
motion of the top about the centre of
gravity considered as a fixed point are
(i)
A -^1 + (CA)(o
dt
(o
= /?/i sin 6 sin 0,
2)
A'^ + (A -C)a>
dt
co
=Rh sin 6 cos

n
;
<,
(3)
&>3
and we have also the relations
(4)
- = &>!
(it
sin
04- (o 2 cos
<f>,
(5)
<it
^ sin 6
e
io
sin
(f)
a)
cos
<p,
(6)
-p +
dt
dt
Y cos 6 = w =
q 3
;/.

Thus
it
125
will
be seen
that, considering the centre of gravity
as a fixed point, these equations are similar to those previously
obtained in the case of a top spinning on a rough plane

only difference being that for
the
Mg
in
those relations
we have
in these.
The
and
65.
solution
is
therefore similar to that given in Arts. 64
We
have
R = Mg+M dHhc ^ 6)
dt 1
=M s srhsmv - 2
{
/z
cos
dt
\dt)
}
S
And
multiplying
(1)
by
co
and
(2)
by
co
2,
we have
<6
A(> x
j + Aq) -2 =R/i sin tf^sin

-
dt
"
dt
+ - J///2 sin 2 6
^
O
-J/// 2 sin
6>
</0.
A (co 2 + o) 22 = 2 Mg/i(cos
)
- cos 0) - J/// 2 sin 2 6
(~J-
ai2+
<=(f) + (f)%in^.
= 2 Mg/i (cos 6 cos 0),

and the other relation
will
be as before
#
A
These two
sin 2 6
^ = 6";/ (cos
cos 0).
relations give the solution of the problem.
126
RIGID DYNAMICS.
it is
And
evident that, independent of
its
motion of translation
in a horizontal direction, the centre of gravity can only
move up
and down with an oscillatory motion while the apex describes

on the plane the fluted curve already obtained
rough plane
those which
If
<w it
3
in the case of a
1
(Fig. 52), the values of #
and
being as before
make
a minimum. dt
is
u be very great, the discussion
the same as before,

will
and
can easily be seen that the apex of the top
describe
a simple circle (approximately) on the plane, and the motion

will
be steady, the time of a small oscillation and the period of
precession being obtained as formerly.
71.
All the previous results obtained theoretically in
the
case of motion of a top on a smooth or rough plane can be

verified experimentally
by having a number
of tops
made
similar
to that
shown
in Fig. 54.
Fig.
54.
circular plate of brass, a quarter of an inch in thickness,

to five inches in
and from three
diameter, has
steel
axis
through the centre.
The
centre of gravity of the top

it
may be
and
from one to two inches from the apex on which

the point
spins,
may have varying degrees
of sharpness.
Everything should be symmetrical and made true, so that
A =
B.

The
top
is
127
most readily
set spinning
by using a two-pronged
handle with openings through which the axis

put through a hole in the axis and
rapidly,
may
pass
it,
a cord
wound about
is
pulled
little
and the top drops with a high speed from the handle. practice enables one to spin the top and let it drop on a
smooth or rough surface at any required inclination. The following problem may also be examined by using several
of these tops of various sizes, of sharpness
:
and with points
of varying
degrees
A common
position.
top,
when spun and placed on a rough

this.
horizontal
plane, at an angle to the vertical, gradually assumes an upright
Explain
is
This
the case of the ordinary peg top of the schoolboy,
which
is
usually
made
of a
cone of wood through which passes

;
a steel axis ending in a sharp point
when spun upon

'
a rather
rough surface,
It will
it
gradually becomes upright and

little
sleeps.'
be found, after a
experimenting, that this appar-
ently paradoxical rising of the top to a vertical position against
the force of gravity depends on two things

1.
The degree of sharpness of the apex

The position of the centre of gravity.
oji
which the
top spins.
2.
If
the point be very sharp so that the top in spinning
is
not
able to form a small conical bed for itself and thereby be acted
on by a couple arising from from the point,

it
friction at a considerable distance
cannot possibly become erect.

point
is
When, however, the

of the friction
tion),
rather blunt, and the centre of
gravity not too high, the top will slowly rise
up under the action
(which tends to diminish the angle of inclina-
and
'
sleep.'
The
The
equations of motion are similar to those obtained in Art.
64, with the additional relations introduced
by
friction.
solution of the equations
shows that the top
rises to the
is
vertical,
on the supposition that the point of the top
a portion
128
of a spherical surface
RIGID DYNAMICS.
and that
friction
is
thus enabled to act
in
the proper manner.
complete analytical solution of the problem
is
given
in
Theory of Friction, Chap. VIII, where the top is supposed to be a symmetrical pear-shaped cone with a spherical
Jellett's
surface as the apex upon which
it
spins.
Fig. 55.
72.
The Gyroscope moving
in
Horizontal Plane about a
Fixed Point.
If
a gyroscope be put in rapid motion and placed so that the
prolongation of the axis of rotation can rest on a fixed point of

support, and
if,
at the
same time, an
initial
angular velocity

about the point of support be given bodily to the gyroscope
the proper direction) in a horizontal plane,
it
129
(in
will revolve
about
pre-
a vertical axis, and the apparently paradoxical motion
is
sented of a body whose centre of gravity moves in a horizontal

plane although
its
point of support
is
at quite a distance
from
the vertical through the centre of gravity. In Fig. 55 the gyroscope

is
supposed to be
set rotating
and
started in a horizontal plane with its centre of gravity at the
point G, the weight acting vertically

tion indicated
downwards
in
the direc-
by the arrow.
It is
supported only at the point
O, and,
if
rotating rapidly enough, will keep on
moving uniformly
its
in this horizontal
Its position at
plane in a direction hereafter determined.
any time
these are
is
given by the position of
prin-
cipal axes at
It
is
OA, OB, OC.

and that
evident that 6
C moves
along
cf>.
XNN'
XON'
being the line of nodes, and the angle
BON =
At each
instant the gyroscope tends bodily to turn about

this turning
NON'
couple
under the action of gravity, and the value of

is
nigh,
being the mass of the gyroscope and
OG =
//.
Resolving this couple
mgh
cos
sin
into two,
we
get
mgh
and
(f>
about OB, about OA.

:
mgh
Euler's equations
(/>
Then
become
A-^+ (C' A)w. = ingh sin ~dt

2
ai
(f>,
Aj^ (C A)(o dt
(o.
1
= mgJi cos
</>,
^dCOr.
from which
it is
seen that
co
= constant =n.
130
Also,
RIGID DYNAMICS.
we have
'
dd
dt
d^jr
= o = <o
sin
4>
(o
cos
(f>,
co
dt
d$_
sin
<f>
c>i
cos
(p,
n,
dt
since
= ~,
2
and therefore cos# = o.
From
the preceding relations
we have
&)j
sin
cf>
+ co 2 cos = 0,
co
sin
<j)
a)
cos
.*.
squaring and adding

'
i
/fX
dt j
But since
A -j- + (CA)
x
dw
(w. &)
= mgh
sin 0,
^4t^ (C' A)co l o)^ = nigh cos
cf).
Therefore, multiplying the former by
<o
v and the latter by
co
and adding, we get

(/co. da* ,, Aw ~ +Ac0 2 -jr = }/ig/i((o
.
sin
q>
+ a> 2 cos$)=o.
,.
A (ojj 2 +
.-.
(t>
= constant.
= its
initial value,
&)
1
'-
&).
= 2
say.
d-dr
(/d>
Then

.*.
<f>
131
= nt,
y}r
= af,
/ is
since both
may be taken
.
zero
a)
when
zero.
".
= a cos nt,
= a sin nt,
co
a>
= n.
in
And, substituting these values

couple,
the
relation
for
the
first
we
get
sin nt) 4-
A(an
(CA)n(u
sin nt
sin
nt)=mgh sin
sin nt.
nt.
Cna
= 7/isrh
.'.
Cmt = wgh,
_dyjr _mgh _
Wh
Cn
initial
dt
Cn
\V being the weight of the top, and n being the

of rotation.
velocity
Hence the
axis
plane with uniform velocity

is
OC Wh
Cn
;/
moves around
in a horizontal of revolution
and the direction

<w
indicated by the sign of
or
that
is,
to
an observer
will revolve
looking
down
in the direction
ZO,
the gyroscope
same direction as the gyroscope axis when viewed by an observer at C.

bodily in the
It
is
rotates about its
important to observe that the necessary condition for
the motion of the gyroscope bodily about
OZ is
that
it
receives
an
initial
angular velocity, so that

fdy!r\ + &) 22 = J-\ =some
(
<u
2
1
finite quantity.
If
this initial velocity
be not given to
to drop
it,
it
will act in
the
it
same way as a top, tending moves around the vertical.
down and
oscillate
as
132
RIGID DYNAMICS.
;/
Usually
sional
is
is
very great, so that a

slow.
of the
is
small,
and the preces-
motion
For a complete discussion
experiments which can be
performed with the Gyroscope see Chap. X.

73.
To find the Pressure on the Fixed Point in the Case of
the
Gyroscope.
As an may find
revolves.
illustration of the use of the equations of Art. 6$,
we
the pressure on the point about which the gyroscope
In this case
vS
we
shall have, calling the
mass
of the
gyroscope
to avoid confusion,
cl 5 lco
B+CA.
yco 2
ô 3
-(0) 22
+ G)3
,,
V
I
=P cowX+^mX S[ z y
s\(o
-
C+A-B
f.ZCOo
-I'd)
o.
= P cos n + -///
S
J
/ v Sl^x L
VC
o,
A+B-C^ +) - KH
cos
<o*)z
J
= P
which become, since
v+-utZ î-^y - -x\

and
(x,
A = B,
y, z) are
(o, O, h),
s|o, 2 S\
CM=P
cos
/4
+5^sih^+5{ÎL*.^|
1/,
- (a,! 2 + to)h\=P cos
the last of which can be obtained from elementary considerations.
'

P zos\=m\&cos
,
133
(///<?"
<4 *-
,.,
It
^Jin\ ^-cos^ + WjC >,

,
,
/^ cos
ft
P cos
A v = m\ (a)} 2 + a) 2 2 )/;
(
/;/
w;r sin<f) 2^
:
/r
/9
?sin(f> +
eo
C-^-\,
the mass being denoted by m.
These
relations taken in conjunction with

sin
co
(f)
co.
cos cos
cf)
= 0, = W%
u)
sin 4>
co
Oz
d$
dt
give,
= u,
on squaring and adding, the value of
P in
terms of known
quantities.
Similar equations
may be
obtained in the case of the top
spinning on a smooth horizontal plane.
CHAPTER
VII.

Impulsive Forces.
74.
forces,
In forming the general equations of motion for finite
we had two
2;;/
sets of relations of
which the types are
- = S m = ^wX+ P cos \,
dfi
dt
dt
and
^n \y^- z V
dt*
m
di-\
of
dt
'&J,*-,*] =L V dt dt\
of
and,
remembering the
t,
definition
an impulse, we get our

/,
impulsive equations from these by integrating with respect to
from o to
some small value

and
of the time.
That
change
is,
instead of a continuous change
we have an abrupt
taking place
of velocity
moment
r.
of
momentum
during an exceedingly small time
Hence, for impulses X,
V,
Z,
we get the equations
^{(fj-(i)}=îw,'-^')-(^-^.)s
= (a)/ (o^lwz (toj coM)1my
= Ms
(coj
- a>u - JfjioJ - &),)

)
= ZA'+Pcos\,
with two similar relations for
and Z.
These determine the
impulse
/'.
134

For the couples we have
135
v
But
dz
dt
dy)
dt
da
dt
dy)
dt
= L.
2/(j>
d--,4A- 2 >" bijWzXVy) - Z X - ~<*) = { <Z

dt
dt
= a^LmjP 4- z'z to^Lmxy to^Lmxz
= Aco Fco Eco

x
.'.
we
get, for the three couples,
A (coj - co - F(coJ - - E(coJ - co = L, B(coJ - co -D(a>J - toz - F(toJ - co = M, C (coJ - toz - E(coJ - co - D(coJ - co = N,
x) co ) y
z) y)
x)
x)
y)
(o z , co y
co z
being the angular velocities about axes fixed
in
space
at
time
t,
and these being suddenly changed by the impulsive

toJ, toj, coj.
actions to
75.
Taking the foregoing expressions
for
the
impulsive
axes,
couples,
we can simplify them by choosing which make D, E, F vanish if, at the same
;
principal
time, the
body
starts
from
rest, co
co
y,
co s
are zero, and the equations

Aco' x
become
= L,
Bto>=M,
.
Cto',=N.
The
equations of the instantaneous axis are
x
to
y
(o'
z
y
to'*
or
x __ y _z
ABC
Ax_By L ~M
Cz
or
I3 6
RIGID DYNAMICS.
plane of the impulsive couple
is
The
Lx+My+Nz=o,
and therefore the instantaneous axis
which the body
impulse)
is
(that
is,
the line about
will
begin to rotate under the action of the
the line conjugate to the plane
Lx+My+Nz=o
with regard to the ellipsoid
Ax* + By 2 +Cz2 = c.
The
equations of the instantaneous axis are
Ax _By _Cz ~~ L M~~ N'

and the equations of the
axis of the impulsive couple are
x_ y
__
Hence
it
will
if
be seen, by comparing these two sets of

it
rela-
tions, that
a body fixed at a point be struck,
will
not begin
to rotate about the axis of the impulsive couple induced
by the
plane.
blow, unless
A = B=C,
or unless the plane of the impulsive
couple be a principal plane or parallel to a principal
For the two sets cannot reduce to a single set unless A = B=C, or unless two of the quantities, x, y, z, vanish, (which means
that the axis of the couple
It
is
one of the principal axes).

that,
if
will
be seen from the preceding investigation

free to turn about a fixed point, the
in the
a
of
rigid
body be
problem
determining the change produced

the action of a given impulse,
is
motion of the body by

acted on by a given
fol-
equivalent to determining the

is
change
in
its
motion when the body
impulsive couple.
This equivalence also appears from the
lowing considerations.
The impulse may be
resolved into an

equal and
parallel
137
impulse acting at the fixed point and an
impulsive couple.
The impulse
acting at the fixed point will
have no influence on the motion of the body, and therefore only

the
couple
to
need be considered.
the coordinate
Resolving the
latter
with
respect
axes
we
obtain
the equations on
page
135.
Illustrative
1.
Examples.
cube
is
fixed at its centre of inertia,
and struck along
an edge.
In this simple case
it
is
evident, without forming the equa-
tions of motion, that, since the
momental
ellipsoid
is
a sphere,
A=B=C,
Thus,
and the cube begins

cube
to rotate about the axis of the
impulsive couple.
in Fig. 56, the
is
fixed at O, its centre of inertia,

to rotate about the
and on being struck by a blow Q, begins

axis of the impulsive couple
AOB.
138
RIGID DYNAMICS.
its
tion perpendicular to the plane in which
axis moves.
Deter-
mine the subsequent motion.

3.
lamina in the form of a semi-ellipse bounded by the

is
axis
falls
minor
movable about the centre as a

in
fixed point,
and
from the position
which
its
plane
is
horizontal
deter-
mine the impulse which must be applied
at the centre of inertia,

it
when the lamina

If this
is
vertical, in order to
reduce
to rest.
at
impulse be applied perpendicularly to the lamina,
the extremity of an ordinate, through the centre of inertia,

instead of
being applied at the centre of inertia
itself,
show
that the lamina will begin to revolve about the major axis.
4.
triangular plate
(right
angled) fixed at
its
centre
of
inertia
and struck
at the right
angle perpendicularly to the plate.
Fig. 57.
In Fig. 57 let
be the centre of inertia of the triangle, and

is
(Tthe point where the blow
struck
at right
angles to the plane

of the paper.
it
139
Then
if
we
construct the momental ellipse at G,
touches the three sides at their middle points.
The
;
impulsive
couple in this case contains the line
CG
is
in its
plane
but since
AB
is
a tangent to the ellipse,
A'GB'
the diametral line con-
jugate to CG.
The
triangle
is
therefore
commences
to
rotate
about A'GB', which

5.
drawn
parallel to the hypothenuse.
A
/>,
/,
solid ellipsoid fixed at its centre is struck

q, r.
normally at a
point
If
m,
n,
be the direction cosines of the line of the blow

is
whose magnitude
Q, and
2
if
the equation of the ellipsoid be

2
r v +-2- + =1
a1
tr
c*
then the equations of the instantaneous axis will be
Ax = By = Cs N* L
Q{qn nu)
or
(P + c*)* qn mi
is
{c*+a*)y
rl pit
(a2
+ #*)z pm ql
'
and since the blow
normal
I
to the ellipsoid at/, q,
r,
CHAPTER
VIII.
MOTION ABOUT A FIXED POINT. NO FORCES ACTING.

76.
Heavy Body fixed at

itself is that of a
it
its
Centre of Gravity.
The
in
simplest case of motion under no forces which ordinarily
presents
body acted on by gravity and

can only rotate about
its
fixed
such a manner that
centre of
gravity considered as a fixed point.
Here we have
dco 1
dt
(BC)(d 2 w 3 = o,
(CA)a> s co l = o,
B day
dt
<d(0n C^-iA-Bju^ô.
dt
And, multiplying these three equations by

tively,
oo
a)
2,
<d
respec-
and adding, we get

A
1
d(o x
n
-
dw
dt
r
6
d(o~
dt
dt
Ao) 1 2 + Bci} 22 + Cq) s2 = a constant
= /-.
Similarly, multiplying the three equations
respectively, adding, and integrating,
(i)
by Aco v
Bco.,.
Cco y
we
get
A*a*+B*a>*+C*<o=
a constant
= h\
140

(1)
4I
states that the kinetic

;
energy
this
is
constant, as might be
expected, since no forces act
can be seen by taking
^=H(Hi)
)
2+
(i)
1
= h-w\(zco 2 -y(o 3 2 +
2
J
since the products of inertia vanish.

is
(2)
another way of
of
expressing
the
constancy of
the
moment
For
momentum. (moment
of
momentum) 2
2
=h 2+
/l
+h
where
142
78.
If
RIGID DYNAMICS.
we now
construct the momental ellipsoid at the fixed
point 0, as in Fig. 58,
OA, OB,
OC
being the principal axes,
Fig. 58.
and
POP
the instantaneous axis at any time
t,
the equation
of the ellipsoid will
be
and those of the instantaneous axis
x
Wj
_v __ c
O).,
_r
CO
&J
Now,
.i",
r,
g being any point on this line, let
it
represent
the point
then at
P we
have

x
(O-,
143
y
&>
z
COg
r
CO
s/Ax2 +Bf+Cz*
_c
a>
k =-
and
I4 4
RIGID DYNAMICS.
is
point where the instantaneous axis cuts the ellipsoid

parallel to this invariable plane.
always
Hence, the motion

action of no forces,
is
of
the body fixed at O, and under the
completely represented by the rolling of the momcntal ellipsoid on a plane fixed in spaec and parallel to
it
the invariable plane, and at a distance from
equal to
00'
79.
The
ellipsoid in rolling
on the fixed plane traces out a

its
curve on that plane, and also one on
own
surface.
is
The
curve traced out on the surface of the ellipsoid

its
called
the Polhode, and
equation
is
found by taking the condition

with the
that the perpendicular from the centre of the ellipsoid on a
tangent plane at
x, y,
is
constant, and combining
it
equation of the ellipsoid
itself.
is,
The equation
of the
Polhode
therefore,
Ax?+By2 +Cz2 =c*,

]
A\r + B y + (?z = e'

2
2
2
.
I
,
The curve
and
its
traced out on the plane

is
is
called the HerpoUiode,
equation
O'P* = p2 =
and
will
OP2 -00' 2 = r2 -p2

00
vary with
r,
and therefore with
and with/.
and the motion
in
It is
apparent that any one of the central ellipsoids might be

ellipsoid,
chosen instead of the moniental
of the
body exhibited
in a similar
manner by the changes
motion of
the ellipsoid chosen.
Innumerable problems may be constructed from the preceding

representation
ellipsoid,
;
but they are
all
dependent on properties
of the
ami are not problems
in
Dynamics.
CHAPTER
IX.
MOTION OF A FREE BODY.

80.
ciple,
We
have already seen, in discussing
D Alcmbcrt
Prin-
that the general equations of motion of any
body are
2;
X
Y
o,
'
dfi
2;
dPy
'
0,
dfi
d*z df\
= 0,
o,
and
"2vi\j'(
Z _d^
dfi
~dfi)\
Hm
-%~ X[Z
dtl
'dfi)\-'
sy y
If
-**-}z'
M be the whole mass,

t,
x, y, s the coordinates of the centre
of inertia at time
and
x',
y\
the place of
relatively to a
system of axes originating
at the centre of inertia
and
parallel
to the original set of axes, then the equations of
motion become
Md x dt
2
r
^mX,
M^=2mY, dt~
d M l-i=ZmZ,
(
2^
dfl
H5
46
2z
RIGID DYNAMICS.
2~> Z dh \y dfi
[
and
jfy
d*S\)
'
d 2x' dp
-A z
-y\X
dh'
'
= 0,
df-
d 2x'
'
dt*
J*=o,
which
latter
can be transformed in the ordinary way so as to

velocities.
determine the angular
These equations
problem.
theoretically give a complete solution of the
But the most important case of free motion of a body, and

the only one which admits, of simple solution,
is
that in which
o
Fig. 59.
the /'articles of the body
move
in parallel planes.
Here
it
is
evi-
dent that
I''
we need only
consider the motion of one particular

of inertia
is
me
of particles,
and that containing the centre
147
chosen, and the position of the body at any time determined in

the following way.
Let the plane
in
which the centre
of inertia
moves be
repre-
sented by the plane of the paper, the same section of the body
being represented at any two times as
in Fig. 59.
let
Let the body be referred to fixed axes OX, OY, and
ACB
be any
C,
line in the
body passing through the centre

the body has reached
of inertia
and
in its initial position let this line
be parallel to OY, as
its
shown.
position,
Then, after any time
t,
second
and
it
is
evident from elementary geometry that the

its first
body can get from

angle
position to the second
by translation
of the centre of inertia C,

0,
and by rotation about
through an
equal to that which
ACB
in its
second position makes
with the axis
O Y,
or with a parallel line fixed in space.

of the centre of inertia,
For translation
bert's principle,
we
have, by
D'Alem-
d2r
dt 2
d 2ldt 2
'
dt 2
dt 2
inertia considered as a
And
for rotation about the centre of
fixed point,
we
get
v zm
d' v x^r y d J 2
2
x\ = ^ od -:N. Zniv
2
dt
dt
AT
dt 2
Therefore, at any time, the motion of the body will
be fully
known when we know

1.
The
initial conditions, so
that 6
is
known.
2.
The
coordinates of the centre of inertia with reference to

fixed in space
;
some axes
3.
this gives
-^-.
Mk
about
the axis
of
rotation
through the centre
of
inertia.
4.
Geometrical relations between
x, y,
14S
RIGID DYNAMICS.
roll
In cases of constraint where bodies
or slide on others,
geometrical relations are easily found, and the

tions eliminated
unknown
reac-
by taking moments.
heavy sphere rolling down a perfectly rough inclined
plane.
In this problem gravity,
by the aid
of friction
and the reac-
tion of the plane, produces both the translation of the centre of
inertia
and the
rotation.
Let OX,
OY (Fig.
60) be the axes of the coordinates fixed in
space, the sphere starting to roll from O.
Then
at
any time
/,

For the translation
of the centre of inertia,
149
we have
(2)
M~ + F- Mg = M^ + Mg a-R =
sin
o,
d/r
cos
o.
(3)
The
rotation about
C is
given by
Mk^ =
dt"
Fa.
(4)
These four
for
relations give a complete solution of the problem,
we have
dj_
and, therefore, from
(2)
djx_ ePd a''<&' dt*~' dfi~

and
(4),
M(k2 + d2 )-^ = Mga

dt*
d*0
sin a,
(5)
from which
it is
seen that
d 2 v _5
and
also,
x=-^gsin
a-
fiy
R = Mg cos a,
F=%Mgsma.
These
sevenths
inertia.
results give the space passed over in time

is
/,
and show
that five-sevenths of gravity

is
used
in
translation, while two-
used in turning the sphere about the centre of
The
tance
relation (5)
may
also be obtained at once

fallen
by forming the
through a
is
eqiiation
of energy.
a,
For the sphere has
dis-
x sin
and therefore the work done by gravity
ô
RIGID DYNAMICS.
Mgx sin
or
MgaQ sin
to the kinetic
which must be equal

fore
]
energy
at
time
a.
t,
and there-
M(v*+Pa?)=Mga6
)
sin
M{a 2 + 2
Y = Mgad
sin ,
which
gives,
on differentiation,
M(a2 +/P)^=Mga
ill
sin
as before.
2.
If
a heavy circular cylinder rolls

is
down
a perfectly rough
inclined plane, one-third of gravity

thirds in translation.
3.
used in turning and two-
very thin
spherical
shell
surrounds a sphere,
both
being perfectly smooth and consequently no friction between
them, and the system

In this case,
if
rolls
down
it
rough inclined plane.
we
neglect the mass of the outer shell, the

if
inner sphere acts just as

since there
rolls
it
slid
it
down
the
plane, because,
is
no
friction
between
and the
shell, as
the shell
is
slips
around, and therefore the equation of motion
M-=Mg sin
a,
M being
mass
If,
the mass of
the sphere, which

is
is
so large that
the
of the outer shell
negligible in comparison.
however, the shell and sphere were united, the system

roll clown,
would
and then the equation
of
motion would be
And
the times occupied in rolling a given distance in the two

:
cases would be to one another as v'5
7.
151
In the case of a cylinder surrounded by a cylindrical shell,

gravity would be diminished to two-thirds of
its
value,
and the
times occupied in rolling a given distance would be as
V2 V3
:
under similar circumstances.
4.
To determine whether
it
a sphere
is
hollow or solid by
roll-
ing
down
a rough plane.
This could be done by observing

motion
the space passed over in a given time, and by calculating the
moments
of inertia
and forming the equations

;
of
(1)
on the supposition of a solid body

a shell of radii a,
b.
(2)
on the supposition of
5.
homogeneous heavy sphere

;
rolls
down
within a rough
spherical bowl
it
is
required to determine the motion.
Fig. 61.
152
RIGID DYNAMICS.
b,
Let the radius of the spherical bowl (Fig. 61) be

sphere, a; and let the sphere start with
and
of the
AP coincident
shown
with
BQ.
Then,
at
time
/,
the circumstances are as
in the figure.
Let
co angular velocity about P,

It will
153
be found on reduction, that
R= (17 cos (/> 10 cos

and
{b
),
a)l-y\
=- Y1 ^(cos $ cos
1
'
).
<
From
this latter expression,
by
5
differentiation,
we get
<**<!>-
dt
/;
sin a
<,
and
if <
becomes
small, this gives the time of a
small
oscillation
of a sphere within a spherical bowl.
For
^/2
7-
ba
is
represents a motion of oscillation of which the periodic time
2 7T
$g
may also be noticed when cos 4> = \j cos .
It If
that the pressure on the bowl vanishes
BOB' were completed and the sphere supposed to rotate about C with angular velocity sufficient to keep the smaller
sphere at the top, the pressure against the outer sphere and the
conditions of equilibrium can at once be found from the relations already obtained,
which also furnish a solution to the

:
following instructive problem
6.
perfectly rough ball
is
placed within a hollow cylindrical
garden
roller at the lowest point,
and the
roller is
V.
then drawn
that the
along a level walk with a uniform velocity

ball will
roll
Show
if
quite round the interior of the roller
V2
be
>
V"
g{b a)> a being the
radius of the ball, and
of the roller.
154
7.
RIGID DYNAMICS.
uniform straight
rod slips
down
in
vertical
plane
between two smooth planes, one horizontal, the other

find the motion.
vertical
Let OX,
position
OY
be the horizontal and vertical planes, and

its
let
the rod starting from
upper position when
=o
assume the
AB at
time
/,
as in Fig. 62.
*<Mc,
Fig. 62.
Then we have two

weight
reactions at the points
and B, and the
Mg acting
if
at
the centre of gravity,
C.
So that
x,
be the coordinates of
C,
and 6 the angle
of
inclination of the rod
AB
<f2x
to the horizontal,
we
get
[r (f
r>
dt-
df-
d-y
lr (f
/,
lr
&

and
I55
xa cos
ya
0,
j
sin 0,
where
2 a
is
the length of the rod.
Also, taking
moments about the

a cos
centre of gravity,
we would
have
O+Mk*
^=R
sin 0,
and we may suppose that
is initially
equal to
a.
These four
It will
relations give a complete solution of the problem.
be found that the rod leaves the vertical plane when

since,
sin
|-
and then the motion becomes changed, the rod

velocity along the horizontal
it
moving with a constant horizontal

plane equal to
plane.
',
until
finally
drops and
lies in
the
The problem may

energy.
8.
also be solved
by
aid of the principle of
circular disc capable of

its
motion about a vertical axis

its
through
D,.
plane
is
set in
is
motion
gently
with angular velocity
rough uniform sphere

;
placed on any point of the disc, not the centre
prove that the

will
2
sphere will describe a circle on the disc, and that the disc
revolve with angular velocity
7 '-
Mk
O, where
centre,
Mk
is
is
the
moment
of inertia of the disc about
its
the
mass
9.
of the sphere,
and r
is
the radius of the circle traced out.

is
homogeneous sphere
plane, the coefficient
placed
at
rest
fi
on a rough
;
inclined
of friction being
determine
whether the sphere

10.
will slide or roll.

is
homogeneous sphere
being
/*,
placed on a rough table, the

of the
coefficient of friction
and a particle one-tenth
mass
of the sphere is attached to the extremity of a horizontal
56
RIGID DYNAMICS.
diameter.
Show
that the sphere will
begin to
roll
or slide
according as ytt>or<
What
will
happen
if fi
10V37
81.
10V37'
Ball.
Impulsive Actions.
Motion of a Billiard
of a
The complex motions

billiards,
homogeneous sphere moving on

in
rough horizontal plane are well illustrated
where an ivory sphere
is
struck by a
game of cue and made

the
little
to
perform evolutions that seem to the unscientific
short
of marvellous.
In the general case the course which the billiard ball takes
depends on the
way in which it is struck by the cue and the motion is made up of both sliding and rolling, so that the centre of the ball moves in a portion of a parabola until the sliding motion ceases, when
initial
circumstances, that
;
is
to say, on the
it rolls
on
in a straight line.
If
struck so that the cue
is
in the
same
vertical
is
plane with the centre of

;
the sphere, then the

if
motion
purely rectilinear
which
is
also the case
the cue
is
held in a horizontal position.

It
may
also
happen that
if.
the ball be struck by the cue at a

its
certain oblique inclination to the table,
path,
after sliding
ceases, will be opposite to the horizontal direction of the stroke,
and
it
will roll
backwards.
For a complete solution of the problem, then, we should
know
the direction, intensity, and point of application of the
blow struck by the cue, so that the velocity of translation of

the centre of gravity
82.
will
is
known, and the

initial
initial
angular velocity.
rolling" friction
In ordinary blows, the
value of the
be very small compared with the sliding
friction, so that at
the beginning the former
may be
neglected, and the equations
of motion for sliding found in the following way.
Let the plane

plane of
.iy,
in
which the centre

(x,
of the ball
moves be the
of the point
friction,
so that
t.
y,
a) are the coordinates
of contact at time
Let
be the value of the sliding

axis of x.
and
(3
the angle
it
makes with the

Then
evidently the
157
is
pressure on
the
table
equal to the
weight of the
ball, so that
R=Mg and F=^R.

F cos 8,
The
equations of motion of the centre of gravity are
M d*x =
dt 2
M^=
dt"
-F sin 0,
M^=o=R-Mg. dt"
For rotation about the centre
of gravity
we have
!= aFs'm H
dt
dt
8,
A^2= aF cos 8,
/.da)* A 3 =o.
dt
A(co 1
.-.
-n
)=
aM(&-v
A(<o 2
-a )=-aMf^-zA
2
&) a
= fi.
where
?/
are the axial components of the initial velocities
of the centre of gravity,

velocities about axes
and
nv
X2 2
2 3 are
the
initial
angular
through the centre of gravity.
The above
lasts
give a complete solution of the motion during
sliding which, however, in the case of an ordinary billiard ball,
but for a small fraction of a second.
83.
At
the instant the ball
is
struck by the cue the impulsive
equations will evidently be formed as follows.
15 tf
RIGID DYNAMICS.
Let
be the value of the blow struck by the cue, and a the

;
angle the cue makes with the table
also, let
.Fbe the impulsive

/3
value of friction at the instant of striking, and
the angle
which
it
makes with the

line
axis of
x
in
Then, the axes being chosen as

and the
the preceding problem,
and angular velocities being denoted as formerly
by u Q
Vq, l v Xl 2 ,
3>
we have
Q
ft,
Mu = Q cos a Fcos Fsin/3, Mv =

Al x =
Afl 2 =
.
'
Qh sin a aFs'm
Qk
/3,
+ aF cos ft
cos
,
Al 3 =
Qh
where
//
is
the horizontal distance from the centre of the ball to

is
the vertical plane containing the line of blow, and k
the per-
pendicular on the line of blow from the point where h meets the
vertical plane
containing that
to
line.
And
See,
the impulse on the
table
must be equal
du jeu de
sin
Thcoric mathimatique
1835.
des
effets
billard,
par
G. Coriolis, Paris,
84.
1.
Impulsive Actions.
Free Body.
uniform rod
is
lying on a smooth horizontal table and

its
is
struck at one end in a direction perpendicular to
length.
What
if
it
be struck at the centre, or at the centre of per?
cussion for a rotation-axis through one end of the rod

2.
Two
uniform
rods
of
equal
length
are
freely
hinged
together and placed in a straight line on a smooth horizontal

plane.
The system
its
is
then struck at one end
in a direction
initially
perpendicular to
length.
Examine the motion
and
subsequently

Here, the circumstances are a
in
little
it
159
the preceding problem, so that
more complicated than is well to form the equaC,
tions of motion of the
two rods
separately.
Let
m
co'
be the mass of each rod, 2 a the length,

v,
the
centres of gravity,
v'
the velocities of translation of C,
and
and
a,
the angular velocities.

O,
Then
if
O' be the instantaneous centres so that
CO=-v
CO' =x', we
get
cox
(o'x'
= v,
=v'
(a
and
(a
x)(o =
+ x')oo'
And
if
be the blow, and
the reaction at the free hinge,
the equations of motion of the two rods are
mv=Q + R,
ma^ =Q _
mv'=R,'
maw'
3
j = R,
T
i
Rf
from which
it
will
be found that
03
= 2 (O
and the
initial
velocity of
the end
struck
is
four times that
of the other end.
3.
Three uniform and equal rods AB, BC,
CD are
arranged
as three sides of a square having free hinges at
B and
C; the
end
to
is
struck in the plane of the rods and at right angles
AB
by a blow Q.
Determine the motion, and show that
the
initial velocity of
is
nineteen times that of D.
6o
This
is
RIGID DYNAMICS.
solved in the
same way
as the former problem by
considering each portion separately.

of B,
Thus,
if
be the reaction
we have
mv=Q+R,'
3
and
Also,
if
ax=v.
R' be the reaction
at C,
R R' = m(ax)(o = m(a+x') '"co',

since the displacements of
direction.
and
are equal and in the
same
And
for
CD,
mv'=R\
DlcKO __
3
4.
If in
is
the preceding problem
EC
be a thin string whose
mass
negligible,
show
that the initial velocity of
will
be
seven times that of D.
This
5.
is
evident, for
R = R'.
AB, BC,
at
Two
equal uniform rods
freely jointed at B, are

at
placed
on a smooth horizontal table

a blow
initial
is
right
angles to one
another, and
applied
A
C
perpendicular to
are a? 8 to
1.
AB
prove that the

6.
velocities of A,
Four equal uniform rods AB,

D, are
is
/><f,
CD, DE,
freely jointed
at B, C,
laid
on a horizontal table in the form of a square,
and a blow
applied at
at right
angles to
AB
from the inside
of the square; prove that the initial velocity of
is
79 times
that of E.
7.
Three equal
inelastic
rods
of
length
a,
freely
hinged
together, are placed in a straight line on a smooth horizontal

plane, and the two outer ends are set in motion about the ends

of the middle rod with equal but opposite angular velocities
6i
(co)
show that after impact the triangle formed by the three move on with a velocity â<o.
8.
will
Four equal rods freely jointed together so as to form a square are moving with given velocity in the direction of a
diagonal of the square, on a smooth horizontal plane.
If
one
end of
this diagonal
impinge directly on an
will
inelastic obstacle,
line.
find the time in
which the rods
be in one straight
9.
Four equal uniform rods each connected by a hinge

form a square with produced
sides,
at
one extremity with the middle point of the rod next

initially
in order, in
and are
motion
with a given velocity in direction parallel to one of the rods.

If
an impulse be given at the free extremity of this rod, and

rest,
the centre of inertia of the system be thereby reduced to

find the initial angular velocities of the four rods,
and prove
that these angular velocities remain
unchanged during the sub-
sequent motion.
10.
A lamina in
is
the form of an ellipse

co
is
rotating in
its
own
this
plane with angular velocity

focus
about a focus.
Suddenly
freed and the other fixed.
Find the velocity about the
second focus.
CHAPTER
X.
THE GYROSCOPE.
85.
This instrument, to which reference has already been

in
made
ring
connection with motion about a fixed point, consists
essentially of a wheel
:
which
is
put
in
rotation within an outer
the latter being provided with knife edges and
other
arrangements whereby the whole mass may be experimented
upon while the wheel
is
kept in motion.
A
63,
type of gyroscope,
known
as Foucaults, is
shown
in
Fig.
and also more in
detail in Figs. 65
and
66.
Fig. 63.
It
is
made
of a disc, turned to offer the least resistance to
the
air,
which can be made to rotate with great speed (from

fifty to five
two hundred and

an axis through
hundred times per second) about
its
centre of gravity.
done by means of the wheelwork motor (driven by hand) shown in Fig. 64, which is geared up at the top to the
This
is
small toothed cog-wheel seen in Fig. 63, at the left-hand side

of the disc, on the axis of the gyroscope,
ring.
162
and within the outer
THE GYROSCOPE.
The
and
axis of rotation
is
163
in
of course
movable
the outer ring,
this latter is provided with

in the
two knife edges which should
be exactly
prolongation of a line passing through the
centre of gravity and perpendicular to the rotation axis.
Fig. 64.
Four movable masses, two within the
ring,
and two outside,
Fig. 65, are used to adjust the instrument in
two perpendicular
planes, so that the centre of gravity of the system will be in the

line of the knife edges.
It is
quite a difficult matter to perform this adjustment, which

;
must be exact
since the slightest deviation of the position of
the centre of gravity from this line destroys the value of the
results obtained in the
pendulum experiment.
is
The
readiest
way
to adjust the gyroscope
to let
it
oscillate,
under the action of gravity, about the knife edges, the centre
of gravity being arranged at first to
fall
below the
line of the
knife edges (by properly altering the positions of the movable
masses)
and then, by
slight variations of these positions, to
bring the centre, of gravity up until the oscillations about the

knife-edge axis are
of the knife edges
made
in
from eight
to ten seconds
the line
is
in that case infinitely close to the centre of
gravity and the equilibrium nearly neutral.
164
86.
RIGID DYNAMICS.
The Gyroscope moving in a Horizontal Plane about a
indicated by
Fixed Point.
The gyroscope being adjusted, the experiment the theory of Art. 72 may easily be performed.
It is
only necessary to place the instrument on top of the

to set the
motor so that the wheels are properly geared, and

fully cleaned
disc in rapid rotation, taking care that the bearings are care-
and
oiled.
it
Then, placing
as
shown
in Fig. 65, so that a small
pointed
hook which
is
directly in the prolongation of the axis of rota-
Fig. 65.
Fig. 66.
tion rests on a little agate cup at the top of an upright stand,
the instrument
is
given a slight angular displacement bodily
about a vertical axis passing through the point at which the hook rests, and it slowly moves about the vertical with an angular velocity
equal to that found by the theory of Art. 72.

is
Moreover, the direction of motion

that
is,
as
shown
in Fig.
66
the gyroscope moves bodily about a vertical axis (when

in
viewed from above)
the same direction as the disc rotates

fixed point
when viewed by an observer looking towards the

about which the motion takes plaee.
Thus there
is
is
perfect accord
iment, and the truth of

established.
between theory and experthe fundamental equations of motion
THE GYROSCOPE.
I6 5
Fig. 67.
66
It
RIGID DYNAMICS.
may be observed
as a top,
also that
let
if
the gyroscope be given no

it
initial
impulse, but be merely
drop,
will
act in the
it
same
in
manner
and
oscillate
up and down while
keeps
motion about the

87.
vertical.
its
To prove the Rotation of the Earth upon
Axis.
This experiment depends on the permanency of the rotation

axis in space.
stand with pendulum

is
is
arranged as shown
in Fig. 6y.
There
a ring suspended
by means
of a fibre
without torsion
from a hook above, and the whole being carefully levelled so

that the line of suspension
in rapid
is
vertical,
the gyroscope
is
put
rotation and placed in the ring with the knife edges
resting within beds provided for
them
the ring, being then

is
released by the small screw seen at the right,

in space,
quite free
and owing to the rapid rotation of the disc the axis of

is
rotation
permanent axis and remains
fixed in space.
it
Hence, while the earth moves along, carrying with

and observer, the gyroscope preserves
its
the stand
position in space for

it
some time
and
if
a long index be attached to

it,
in prolonga-
tion of the rotation axis or parallel to
this index will

is
have an
carried
apparent motion from east to west, as the observer

along with the earth from west to east.
If
the pendulum with the gyroscope were placed at the north

it
pole,
is
evident that the apparent motion of the index would
be 360
in
twenty-four hours.
;
At
the equator there would be no apparent motion as although

still
a permanent axis would
exist,
the earth would simply carry
the whole instrument bodily about the rotation axis of the earth.
Action in
Any Latitude
68,
X.
To find the let PCF, Fig.
angular velocity of the gyroscope
in
any
latitude,
be the axis of rotation of the earth.

at
And
plane,
let
tin,'
gyroscope be suspended
let
A,
in
the tangent
in
and preferably
the plane of rotation of the disc be
the geographical meridian plane.
THE GYROSCOPE.
Then
the angular velocity of the earth about
o)
167
PCF
is
360
in
twenty-four hours.
And
this,
if
resolved along CA, will produce a rotation about

sin X,
CA
equal to
at
is
and
this is the
component which
affects the
gyroscope
Since w
A.
against the hands of a watch, looking towards
<y
C
69
from P, therefore
will
sin X, looking
from A' towards

if
or C,
be against the hands of a watch, and therefore
Fig.
represents the tangent plane at A, to an observer at A' above
the gyroscope, the earth will

cated by the arrow, and
move from west
to east as indi-
the
apparent motion of the index
attached to the gyroscope will be as before from east to west.

88.
if
It is
evident also that the angular velocity being
sin X,
this
be observed by noting the time and the angle passed over

co is
in that time, since
known
to be
360
in
twenty-four hours,
we
get a method for finding X, the latitude of the place of
experiment.
i6S
89.
RIGID DYNAMICS.
Electrical Gyrosc
The
defect of Foucault's gyroscope

its
being that
it
does not
in
keep up
motion long enough to give marked results

electrical
the
pendulum experiment, an
gyroscope has been devised
by Mr. Hopkins, who gives a description of his instrument in the Scientific American of July 6, 1878, and also in his recent textbook on Physics.
His instrument
is
shown
in Fig. 70.
Fig.
70
The rectangular frame which

by a
that
fine
contains the wheel
is
supported
and very hard
steel point,
which rests upon an agate
step in the bottom of a small iron cup at the end of the

is
arm
supported by the standard.
The wheel
it
spindle turns on
carefully
made
steel points,
and upon
are placed two cams,
one
at
each end, which operate the current-breaking spring
THE GYROSCOPE.
The
tical
109
horizontal sides of the frame are of brass, and the verare iron.
sides
To
the vertical
sides are attached the
cores of the electro-magnets.

cores on each side of
it
There are two helices and two the wheel, and the wheel has attached to
side,
two armatures, one on each
which are arranged
at
right angles to each other.
The two magnets
are oppositelyastatic.
arranged in respect of polarity, to render the instrument
An
insulated stud projects from the middle of the lower end
of the
frame to receive an index that extends nearly to the
periphery of the circular base piece and moves over a graduated

semicircular scale.
An
iron point projects from the insulated

is
stud into a mercury cup in the centre of the base piece, and
in electrical
communication with the platinum pointed screws
of the current breakers.
The
current-breaking springs are con-
nected with the terminals of the magnet wires, and the magnets
are in electrical communication with the wheel-supporting frame.
One
ard.
of the binding posts
is
connected by a wire with the meris
cury in the cup, and the other
connected with the stand-
drop of mercury
is
placed in the cup that contains the
agate step to form an electrical connection between the iron
cup and the pointed screw.
The
nets
current breaker
is
contrived to
make and break

full effect of
the
current at the proper instant, so that the

is realized,
the mag-
and when the binding posts are connected with

cells
four or six
Bunsen
will
the wheel rotates at a high velocity.

its
The wheel
maintain
plane of rotation, and
when
it
is
brought into the plane of the meridian, the index
will
appear to
move slowly over the

from west to
90.
east,
scale in a direction contrary to the earth's
rotation, but in reality the earth
and the scale with
it
move
while the index remains nearly stationary.
FesseV s Gyroscope.
is
Another most useful and instructive form of gyroscope

that
"
known
as Fessel's, which
is
represented in Fig. y\.

is
is
a heavy fixed stand, the vertical shaft of which
-jo
RIGID DYNAMICS.
cylinder bored smoothly, in which works a vertical rod

far as possible
CC,
as
without
friction,
carrying at
its
upper end a small
frame BB'
In
BB'
a horizontal axis works, at right angles to
which
is
a small cylinder D, with a tightening screw H, through

of
which passes a long rod GG', to one end

large ring
which
is
affixed a
AA' and
,
along which slides a small cylinder carrying

capable of being fixed at any point of the
a weight
IV,
which
is
rod
and so that
it
may
act as a counterpoise to the ring, or to

it.
the ring and any weight attached to

pivots in the ring, in the
An
axis
AA
works on
;
same straight line with GG' to A A' a disc, or sphere, or cone, or any other body, can be attached, and thus can rotate about AA' as its axis to the body thus attached to A A' a rapid rotation can be given, either by means
;
wound round A A' or by a machine contrived for purpose when A A' and its attached body are applied to it.
of a string
is
the
It
evident that the counterpoise
W can be so
/>/>'
;
adjusted that the
centre of gravity of the rod, the ring, the attached body, and
the counterpoise, should be

either side of
it
;
in
the axis
or at any point on
may be positive, or be equal to o, or may be negative. Also by fixing BB' in the arm of CC which carries it, the inclination of the rod GG' to the vertical may be made constant; that is, 6 may be equal to # throughout the
that
is, Ji
rt
motion.
When
is
the counterpoise
is
so adjusted that the centre of

is
gravity of the rod

or,
GG' and
its
appendages
o."
in
CC' then h
,
= O,
what
It is
equivalent,
mhg =
(Price, Calculus; vol. iv.)

its
evident that with such an instrument, with
various
THE GYROSCOPE.
adjustments,
all
171
the motions about a fixed point can be fully dis;
played and examined

of the top (Art. 66)
and the results already obtained
in the case
and the gyroscope (Art. 72) thereby shown.

of
91.
Another form
by him
in
gyroscope worthy of notice
is
that
first
constructed by Professor Gustav

scribed
Magnus
of
Berlin,
and de-
Poggendorff's Annalen
der Physik
consists of
und
two
Chcviic, vol. xci., pp. 295-299.
The instrument
as the rod
at
rings and discs such as AA', Fig. 71, connected by a rod sup-
ported in
scope.
much
the same
is
way
GG'
B, to
in Fessel's gyro-
There
a binding-screw
arrest,
,
when
so
desired, motion about the horizontal axis
BB' and
axis
also a short
rod projecting horizontally from the upper part of the vertical

axis
CC
by which the motion about that
erated, retarded, or completely arrested at will.
may be accelBy means of

off,
two cords wound round their axes and simultaneously pulled

ties either in the
the discs can be put in rapid rotation with nearly equal veloci-
same or
in
opposite directions.
The
follow-
ing
phenomena
and
if
are exhibited by this apparatus
If
the connecting rod be supported

the discs be
midway between the
discs,
made
to rotate rapidly with equal
velocities in the
at
same
direction,
and no weight be suspended

remain at
will
rest.
(Fig. 71), the connecting rod will
If
weight be suspended at W, the rod and discs

about the vertical axis
slowly rotate
CC.
If
the motion round the vertical
axis be accelerated, the
loaded end of
GG'
will
rise,
if
the
If
horizontal rotation be retarded, the loaded end will sink.
the binding-screw be tightened so as to arrest this rising or

sinking, the rotation about the vertical axis will also cease, to
commence again
If
as soon as the binding-screw
is
loosened.
the discs rotate with equal velocities in opposite directions,
the loaded end of
GG'
will sink.
If
the connecting-rod be sup-
ported at a point nearer to one disc than to the other, and the
discs be
made
to rotate with equal velocities in opposite direcwill still
tions, the
instrument
be found extremely sensitive.
NOTE ON THE PENDULUM AND THE

i.
TOP.
In Art. 35, pp. 47 to 49,
we have found
the equation
(/r
ffi ) (
2 gh (cos 6
cos
),
or, as it
may be
written (see page 50),
/[
=2^(cos 6
cos a)
(i)
for the oscillations of a rigid
and have applied

small oscillations.
it
to
body about a fixed horizontal axis, the case of a pendulum making extremely
shall
We
here consider the general case,

is
when
Let
the arc of the oscillations cos 6 cos

.'.
not necessarily small.

2
<f>.
=(i
cos ) cos
cos 6 = {\ cos ) sin 2
(f>
and
Differentiating,
cos # = cos 2 ( + cossin 2
<.
(ii)
sm
0 =2
dt
sin
6 ^
cos d>([ cos )
dt
.:
(1
+cos
6)
^J = 4(cosd-cosa),^J.
172
Substituting in
(i),
/(^W(i-sina isinV> Kdt)
NOTE ON THE PENDULUM AND THE TOP.

Let
/e
173
=sin 2 â,
and
lv l =i.
9
dtj
=^(i- 2 sin 2 ^)).

*
.
vt- f
'
^/(i
2 sin 2 0)'
r .-v
an
elliptic integral of
the
/.
first
kind.
<jE>
= am(W),
(iv)
and
(ii)
becomes
cos # = cn 2 (i^) + cos sn 2 (i>/).
Equation
(ii)
may be
written in the form

sin
\ 6 = sin
|-
a sin
<>
consequently
(iv)
may be
written in the form
sin 1
= sin | a sn
i>/.
This equation determines the position of the pendulum at any

given instant, and, by inversion, the times at which the pendulum
is
in a
If
given position.
the period of the pendulum,
i.e.
T be
the length of time
required for the pendulum to

arc 2a,
make
a double swing through the
vT= A^
Integrating and writing
J* C a/(i-/c
y/(i
/c
sin 2 <) sii
e
I
for y2
and
sin - for k,
Z= 2tt^
i
[
+(l)2 (sin l)2 +
^y
/,
-,\2
(sin
\ of
+ Q-^-|J(sin i of +...}.
(v)
I74
2.
RIGID DYNAMICS.
In Art. 67,
p.
118,
we have found
O
the equation
(A
sin
0 Y= (cos - cos 0)
lT
2
//
2 ,4
Mgh sin 2
o
(cos
cos
0)
I ,
(a)
for the nutation oscillations of a top spinning about a fixed point,
we have determined the approximate period of The period of oscillations of any magnitude small oscillations. at any given instant may be determined as and the value of
and
in Art.
68
follows
Let
A = M (/r +
2
X- )
= MM,
O
(see page 50)
and
A Mgh sin2 6C 2 n 2 (cos
cos 0)
7 cos
0),
= 2 A Mgh (cos 6 cos

which requires that
cos
0,
0j) (cosh
+ cosh 7 =
AMsrh
2
and
Substituting in
/(sin
cos 0,- cosh 7 =

2
(a),
A Mgh
1.
that equation
becomes
0Y = 2-(cos
cos
.-.
-cos
0)(cos
0-cos
X)
)(cosh 7 -cos
0).
(0
Let
cos = (cos
cos
cos 2 t.
cos0 cos0 1 = (cos0 o cos
)sin 2 T,
sin 2 T.
and
cos0 = cos0 1 cos 2 T + cos0 o
(2)
Differentiating,
sin
...
=2
dt
sin t
cost (cos
cos0,)^-1
aft
fs in0Y=4(cos0o -cos0)(cos0-cos0V^J.
in
(
I ),
Substituting
l[
th
\ =
r A {cosh 7
-cos
-(cos
-cs 0!
sin*r|
NOTE ON THE PENDULUM AND THE
TOP.
175
=i 1
''-(cosh
7 cost/,)1
/)\|
{
cos0, -7r-sin cosh 7 cos 6^

cos#
r^
.
9 2
\S t u2 2 = ^(cosh- 7-cos i\ a x/ |6' ) 1

.1
cosh 7 cos 2 I
cos2 ô -1^-9 2
_ cos2 \ 0i
J A4sin 9 T
0j
Let
.2
=
<
cos2
6>
2
2
7}
cosh
/y2
'//t\ 2
o- cos2 î 7 cosH^'
7}
and
= o-(cosh 2 | 7 cos 2
=1/(1
0^).
'.
2 sin-T).
dr
(
1
dtj
vt-
fT
rv
first
.*.
2 sinV)
an
elliptic integral of
the
kind.
T=
am(w),
and (2) becomes

cos 6
cos #j
en 2 {vt) + cos # sn 2 {vt),
(4)
thus determining the inclination of the axis of the top to the

vertical at
any given
instant.
The
period of a complete oscillation will be

/*5
7^_4
dr
vjo
y(i
sin 2T)
l
=27r
91 , -(cosh- .} 7 <f
,
^tth) cos- k B^)J
x I
{
+ (^2 + (T*
\2
4/
nr^HComparing equations
same character
pendulum,
is
<*>
(4)
and
(5) with (iv)
and
(v), it will
be
seen that the top's oscillations in nutation are of exactly the

as the oscillations of
in
an ordinary pendulum.
Note, however, that
the discussions of the oscillations of the

initial
measured from an
in
axis directed straight
downwards, while
the discussion of the motion of the top, 9
176
is
RIGID DYNAMICS.
vertical axis as initial, so that 6,
tt 6,
measured from the
a,
and
(/>
in the
7T
former discussion should be replaced by

to
it a,
and
t,
bring
it
into
strict
conformity of notation with the

of the top.
discussion of
the
movements
is
ir,
On making
these
changes,
it
will
be found that the pendulum oscillating about a
fixed horizontal axis
merely the special case of the top
in
is
which
=7r a,
#=o,
and, therefore, 7 =
and
i>
constant.
Equation (4) enables us to find the value of 6 at any given Instant /, but to completely determine the position of the top, it
is
necessary to be able also to find
yfr.
To do
this requires the
integration of the equation (b) of Art. 65, p. 116, which
may be
reduced to the integration of two

kind, as follows
elliptic integrals of
the third
sin 2 6
^ = Cn (cos
at sin2 %
fl
- cos
0).
(/>)
dtyCnf cos2 \ O dt~~ A Vi + cos 6

jCnf
"
1 cos 0y
cos 2
1
n
\i
+cos
0j cos'-T
+ cos
1
sin'-V
sin 2
cos 9
cos'-t
cos 0q
sm-rj
cos 2 \ O JCnf " A \i+cos^ + (cos^ -cos^

1
)sn 2 (v/')
6^
sin 2
1
.]
cos 6 (cos
1
cos^
Y
)sn'-(iV)/ 1
Thus
yfr
is
expressed as the difference of two
elliptic integrals
of the third kind.
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES.
-o-O^&ÔO-
i.
Find the principal axes of a quadrant of an
ellipse at the
centre.
2.
If a rigid
body be referred
to three rectangular axes
such
that
A =B
and 2 (mxy)
o,
show that the mean
principal
moment
3.
of inertia
= A.
O in a triangular lamina, AOB, BOC, COA, about an
may
Determine the position of a point

through O, perpendicular
such that the moments of inertia of

axis
all
to the plane of the lamina,
be equal.
4.
Find the moment
of inertia of the solid
formed by the
the
initial
line,
revolution of the curve r
= a{l
+cos#) about
about a line through the pole perpendicular to the

5.
initial line.
uniform wire
is
bent into the form of a catenary.

its axis,
Find
its
moments
6.
of inertia about
and
its directrix.
Find the moment of
inertia of a paraboloid of revolution

;
about a tangent line at the vertex
the density in any plane

fifth
perpendicular to the axis varying as the inverse

its
power
of
distance from the vertex.

7.
Find the moment

minor about the
of inertia of a semi-ellipse cut off
by the
axis
line joining the focus
with the extremity of
the axis minor.

8.
If the
moments
of inertia of a rigid
body about three
axes,
passing through a point and mutually at right angles, be equal

to
one another, show that these axes are on the surface of an

n
177
178
elliptic
RIGID DYNAMICS.
cone whose axis
is
that of least or greatest
moment
or less
according as the
than the
9.
mean moment of inertia is greater arithmetic mean between the other two.
that the
its
Show
is
about one of
and
moment of inertia edges is | a 2M, where a
of a regular octahedron
is
the length of an edge
the mass of the octahedron.

tetra,
10.
Prove that the moment of inertia of a solid regular

its
hedron about any axis through

being the length of an edge.
centre of inertia
is
M a 20
n.
If
/3,
7 be the perpendiculars from
and
Cona
;
principal
that
axis at the angular point {a 2

12.
A
7
2
of the triangle
}
ABC, show
2
2
(
_ b 2_ f 2 )(/3 2 _
that
if
2 /3 2
+ ^2 +
_^
^
of inertia
Show
a plane figure have the
moments
round two
lines in
it,
not perpendicular to one another, equal, a
principal axis with respect to the point of intersection bisects
the angle between them.

13.
Determine the points of an oblate spheroid with respect

to
to
which the three principal moments are equal

14.
one another.
Show
that the conditions which

it
given straight line in order that
must be satisfied by a may, at some point of its

is
length, be a principal axis of a given rigid body,

fied
if
always
satisits
the rigid
body be a lamina and the
straight line be in
plane, unless the straight line pass through the centre of inertia.
15.
If a straight line
in
its
be a principal axis of a rigid body

it
at
every point
length,
must pass through the centre
of
inertia of body.
16.
Assuming
that the radius of gyration of a regular poly-
gon
in
of u sides about
any axis through
its
centre of inertia and
its
own
plane,
1
is
2V
*+=)/('=)}
;
where
c is
the length of any side
find the radius of gyration
of a circular disc about a line through
179
in its circumit is
any point
ference and perpendicular to
its
plane,
and show that
equal
to the radius of a circular ring

17.
about a tangent.
The
locus of a point such that the
sum
of the
is
moments
constant,
of inertia about the principal axes through the point

is
a sphere
18.
whose centre
is
the centre of inertia of the body.
If
A, B,
be the moments of inertia of a body about
principal axes,
A
will
cos 2 a
+ B cos 2 /3 + C cos 2 7
any other
/S
be the
moment
of inertia about
axis
its
passing
direction-
through the origin and having cos a cos

cosines.
19.
cos 7 for
If the centre of inertia of a rigid
body be the
origin,
and
the principal axes at that point the axes of coordinates, then at
an umbilicus of the ellipsoid

1-*-l
/\l**
A+X
If the density at
B+\
C+\
be equal.
circular cone be
two of the principal moments of

20.
inertia will
any point of a right
proportional to the distance from the exterior surface, show that a2 radius of gyration about the axis of figure is where a is the
.
the radius of the base.

21.
Find the moment of
inertia of the solid
about the axis of
x.
Find
22.
also the
moment
of inertia of the surface of this solid.
The
locus of points at which one of the principal axes
passes through a fixed point in one of the principal planes
through the centre of

23.
If
inertia, is a circle.
a and b be the sides of a homogeneous parallelogram,

the inclinations of
its
6 and
principal axes in
its
own
plane,
So
its
RIGID DYNAMICS.
centre of inertia, to these sides respectively, show a 1 sin 2 6
through
tnat
24.
= b 2 sin
<.
Find the moments of

its
inertia of a
uniform circular lamina

its
about
25.
principal axes through a given point in

that two of the principal
plane.
Show
moments
of inertia with
respect to a point in a rigid body cannot be equal unless two

are equal with respect to the centre of inertia and the point be
situated on the axis of unequal
26.
moment.
body the locus
is
Prove that
in
any
rigid
of
the point
through which one of the principal axes

is
in a
given direction
a rectangular
hyperbola whose plane passes through the

is in
centre of inertia, and one of whose asymptotes

direction
;
the given
unless the given direction be that of one of the prin-
cipal axes
27.
inertia.
series of parabolas are described in
one plane having
common
the
vertex
and a common
axis,
and from a point
in
one of them an ordinate

if
PN
is
drawn
to the axis.
Show
that
moment
of inertia of the curvilinear area
APN about
an
ellipse.
an
axis
through
perpendicular to the plane of the parabolas be
proportional to the area

28.
APN,
the locus of
is
Show
that
if
the
momental
ellipsoid at a point not in

inertia
one of the principal planes through the centre of

a spheroid,
29.
it
be
will
at the centre of inertia
be a sphere.
Find the moment of

its
inertia of
segment
of
a circle
about
30.
chord.
of inertia of an equilateral triangular
Find the moment
lamina about an axis through the centre of inertia and perpendicular to the lamina
if
the density of the lamina at any point
varies directly as the distance of the point from the centre of

inertia.
31.
If
A, B,
be the moments of inertia about principal axes

a,
(3,
through the centre of inertia and

inertia
7 be the moments of
about principal axes through a point P, show that
(I)
8i
U
If
(a
+ j3-ry) = A+B-C,
+
/3
the locus of
will
be one
of the principal planes through the centre of inertia.

(II)
7 be constant, the locus of
will
be a sphere
with centre at centre of inertia.

(III)
If
(Va
x
(
be constant, the
larly situated
+ V/3 + Vy)(V/3 + V7" - Va) Vy + Va - V/3)( V^ + VJS - V7) locus of P will be an ellipsoid similar
and
simi-
and concentric with the central
ellipsoid at the
centre of inertia.
(IV)
If /3
y<a
and
lie
on a lemniscate of revolution
ellipsoid
is
having for
sphere,
foci the points

ft
where the momental

fi
= A B,
a and
being the moments about the

axis A.
axes through
32.
which pass through the
Find the moment
of inertia of a portion of the arc of

its
an
equiangular spiral about a line through

its
pole perpendicular to
plane.
33.
Find the moment of
inertia of the
segment
of a parabolic
area bounded by a chord perpendicular to

line in its plane
its axis,
about any
through the focus
and determine the position

equal.
of the chord that all such

34.
moments may be
Prove that
its
if
the height of a
cylinder be to
diameter as
all
V3
homogeneous right circular 2, the moments of inertia of
the cylinder about

will
axes passing through the centre of inertia
be equal.
35.
Find the moment of

latus
inertia of a parabolic area

line
bounded
by the
rectum about the

its
joining
its
vertex to the
extremity of
36.
latus rectum.
ellipsoid, the
Find the locus of those diameters of an

of
inertia about
moments
which are equal
to the
moment
of
inertia about the

IJ.
mean
axis.
is
One
extremity of a string
attached to a fixed point; the

of given radius
string passes
round a rough pulley
and over
lS2
RIGID DYNAMICS.
is
smooth peg and

pulley.
attached to a weight equal to that of the

of the string
Determine the motion, the positions
on
either side of the pulley being vertical.

38.
heavy uniform rod has
at
;
one extremity a ring which

the other extremity
is
is
slides
on a smooth vertical axis
in
motion on a horizontal plane, and

string with the point
connected by an
elastic
where the
axis
meets the plane.
Deter-
mine the motion supposing the string always stretched.

39.
ball
spinning about a vertical axis moves on a smooth
horizontal table and impinges directly on a perfectly rough vertical
cushion.
Show
that the vis viva of the ball
is
diminished
e is the co-
in the ratio
ior+
14 tan 2 6: 10
+ 49 tan 2 6,
in
where
efficient of restitution of the ball
and 6 the angle

its
of reflection.
its
40.
homogeneous lamina rotating

is
it.
plane about
centre of inertia,
brought suddenly to rest by sticking a two-
pronged fork into

the fork
41.
Show
that the impulses on the prongs are
equal to one another, and are of the same magnitude wherever

is
stuck
in.
free rod
it
is
at rest
and a
ball is fired at
it
it
to
break
if it
it.
Show
it
that
will
be most likely to cause
to
break
strike
;
at the midpoint, or at one-sixth of its length

it
from either end

if
it
and that
will
its
be least likely to break the rod

length from either end.
it
strike
it
at
one-third of
And
that in either case
the most likely point for

42.
to
snap
is
the middle point.

rigid
Three pieces cut from the same uniform

to
wire are
is
connected together so as
form a triangle ABC, which
then set in contact with a smooth horizontal plane.

direction
nections.
Find the
and magnitude
following
of
the strains at the angular con-
Prove the
strains:
III)
construction
to
for
the
direction
of the
If
AB,
AC
be produced
D,
respectively,
will
and
and
CE
be each
made equal
to
EC, then
DE
be paral-
lel to
the direction of the strain
at
A.
Also show that the direction of the strain at
the side
^3
A makes
with
BC
an angle
= tan-i{
1 1
sin
~ sin
/3
+cos
+ cose
C I
J
43.
The ends
of a uniform
smooth,
fixed, vertical ring.
heavy rod move on the same Determine its angular velocity in

it
the lowest position, supposing

starting
44.
to fall
from a given position
from
rest.
body revolves about a horizontal

the centre of inertia
is
axis,
starting
from
rest
when
in
the horizontal plane con-
taining the axis.

,
Show
that
when
the body has revolved through
the effective force upon the centre of inertia makes with 45 the vertical an angle = tan -1 3.
45.
box
is
fixed
placed in a vertical
upon a horizontal plane and position a blow is given to the

;
its
lid
is
lid at
its
the
midpoint of the upper edge and perpendicular to
plane.
Determine the
initial
impulse on the hinges, the
finite
pressure
on them during the motion, and the impulsive pressure on them when the lid impinges on the opposite edge and closes the box.
46.
AB,
the rod
BC are two equal heavy rods hinged together at B AB is capable of moving in a vertical plane about A,
and
can slide by means of a small ring along a vertical axis
passing through A.
Find the angular velocity with which the
whole must revolve about

equilateral.
47.
is
AC
that the triangle
ABC
may be
string with
one end fastened to a smooth vertical wall
wrapped round
a cylinder
which
is
then placed in contact
with the wall.
Find the velocity of the cylinder and the tension
of the string in terms of the inclination of the string to the wall.

48.
The lower
extremity of a heavy uniform
beam
of length
a,
slides
on a weightless inextensible string of length 2
whose
extremities are attached to two fixed points in a horizontal line,
and the upper extremity
slides
on a vertical rod which bisects
the line joining the fixed points.
Prove that the only position
IS 4 of equilibrium of the
RIGID DYNAMICS.
beam
is
vertical
is
and that the time
small oscillation about this position

2
of a
where
^(a 1
49.
b-) is
the distance between the two fixed points.
pulls
by means
of an unextensible string passing

circle,
over a rough pulley in the form of a vertical

turn freely about an axis through
its
which can
is
centre,
which
fixed.
Determine the velocity attained after a given space has been

described.
50.
hoop
of
mass
rolls
down
a rough inclined plane,

at a point of its circum-
and carries a heavy particle

ference.
51.
of
mass

hollow tubular ring of radius a contains a heavy
its
particle with
plain vertical
a horizontal velocity
upon a smooth horizontal plane 2^/2ag is communicated to the ring in its
own
plane.
Show
that the particle will just rise to the top of
the tube.
52.
Four equal
particles are connected
by four equal
strings,
which form a square, and the particles repel each other with a
force varying directly as the distance.
cut, find the velocity of
If
one of the strings be
each particle
at the instant
when they
are
all in
a straight line.
half of the inner surface of a fixed hemispherical
half
53.
One
is
bowl
smooth and the other
rough
a solid
sphere slides
down
rolls
the smooth part of the bowl, starting from rest at the
horizontal rim, and at the bottom
comes
in
contact with and
up the rough part
of the surface.
Find the change of vis

if
viva of the sphere at the bottom of the bowl, and show that
6 be the angle which the line joining the centres of the sphere
and bowl makes with the
vertical
when
|.
the
sphere begins to
descend the rough surface, cos^ =

54.
cone of mass
its
;;/
ami
vertical
angle
can
move
its
freely about
axis
and has
a tine
smooth groove cut along
surface so as to
make
a constant angle
with the generating
lines of the cone.
185
heavy
particle of
mass
moves along
Show-
the groove under the action of gravity, the system being initially
at rest with the particle at a distance c
from the vertex.
that
if
6 be the angle through which the cone has turned

is
when
the particle
at
any distance r from the vertex, then

a a .^' COtfe
.
,
rf+ ^sia-
55.
is
w 2 + Pr2 s'm 2 a =2
k being the radius of gyration of the cone about
its axis.
heavy ring
just fitting
round a smooth vertical cylinder

to
suspended by u vertical strings of equal lengths, and fixed
the ring at equidistant points.

to the ring
rises
is
When
show
an angular velocity
is
given
it
about
its
centre,
that the height to which

strings.
it
independent of the length of the
Find
also
the greatest value of the angle through which

56.
turns.
sphere has a fine wire fastened normally to a point
on
its
surface, the other
end being fastened
to
a point on a
rough inclined plane.

its
If the
sphere be slightly displaced from
position of equilibrium on the plane, find the time of a small
oscillation, neglecting the

57.
weight of the wire.
Two
equal uniform beams
AB,
AC are
freely
movable
in
a vertical plane about A,

string
and
are connected
by an
elastic
whose natural length is equal to AB. The beams are held in a vertical position and suffered to descend. Determine
the motion, the coefficient of elasticity of the string being equal
to four times the
58.
weight of either beam.

is
circular wire
revolving uniformly about
its
centre
fixed.
If it
be cracked at any point, show that the tendency

is
to
..
break ,
at
an angular distance a from the crack
proportional
to
sur2
59.
disc
which has a
particle of equal
mass attached
disc,
to its
circumference, rolls on a rough inclined plane.
Determine the
supposing
it
motion and the friction in any position of the
^6
to start
rigid dynamics.
from the position
in
which the
particle
is
in
contact
with the plane.

60.
ball
spherical shell
is
whose centre
is
fixed contains a
rough
which
held at one extremity of a horizontal diameter of

If
the shell and then allowed to descend.

shell
the radius of the

ball is next in
in contact,
be three times that of the

t
ball,
and when the

is
instantaneous rest the same point of each

1 1
again
.
angular velocity of the line joining their centres
...
is
3\M
the rsin 0) f
being the inclination of this line to the horizon, and a being

the radius of the
61.
ball.
is
circular ring
suspended with
the
its
plane horizontal, by
three equal vertical inextensible strings attached at equal dis-
tances to
its
circumference.
in
If
ring be twisted
left to
till
the
strings just
meet
a point,
and be then
itself, find its
angular velocity
62.
when
AB,
the strings are vertical again.
connected* by a hinge at B are in motion on a smooth horizontal plane, the end A being fixed.
Two
rods
BC
If initially
that
when
AB BC
has no angular velocity, that of

has no angular velocity, that
will
BC being of AB will
;
co,
show-
be
\>
and the angle between the rods
be cos -1 ]-
2d
and 2b being the lengths of the rods which are supposed equal
in
mass.
63.
uniform heavy beam of length
2 c is
supported
in a
horizontal position by
of length
b,
means
of
two strings without weight, each

to its ends, the other
which are fastened

;
ends of the
strings being fixed
in
equilibrium each of the strings makes an
angle a with the horizontal.
Find the time of a small oscillation

plane
in
when
which
64.
the system
it
is
slightly displaced in the vertical
is
situated, the strings not being slackened.
A lamina
bounded by
a
a cycloid
oi
its
and
its
It
base has
is
its
centre
its
of inertia at the middle point
axis.
placed with
base vertical on
perfectly rough horizontal plane, and allowed
to roll
87
down.
its
Show
,
that at the
moment
2 ^^( 7r
9
its
l
vertex reaches the

\
,
plane
radius
angular velocity
))
is
where a
is
the
of the generating circle

inertia.
and k the radius
of gyration
about the centre of

65.
A wire is bent into the form of the lemniscate

upon a smooth horizontal
of the wire
,2
<?
cos2
0,
and
laid
table
fly
walks along the

that
if
top of the wire, starting from one vertex.
Show
: ,
the
/'
masses
and
fly
be in the
ratio a 2
k 2 where
is
the radius of gyration of the lemniscate about a vertical axis
through the node, then when the
fly
IT
has arrived at the node
the wire has turned through an angle & 4

66.
A uniform circular wire

its
of radius a,
movable about a
fixed
point in
circumference,
lies
on a smooth horizontal plane.

it,
An
insect of mass, equal to that of the wire, crawls along
starting
from the extremity

its
of the diameter opposite to the fixed point,
velocity relative to the wire being uniform

t
and equal
to v.
Prove that after a time

angle
2a
67.
the wire will have turned through an &'

)
v1 V3
'
tan -1 (
- tan VV3 Wx 2 a)
is
uniform string
stretched along a smooth inclined
plane which rests on a smooth horizontal table.

string
Enough
of the
hangs over the top

If
of the plane to
keep the whole system
at rest.
the string be gently pulled over the plane, and the

left to itself,
whole system be then

the plane.
68.
ties of
its
investigate the ensuing motion,

to
supposing the length of the string
be equal to the height of
Two
particles of equal
mass are attached

all
to the extremi-
a rigid rod without inertia, movable in
directions about
middle point.
The
rod being set in motion from a given

its
position with given velocity, find equations to determine
sub-
sequent motion.
69. at
A rod of length
a movable about
its
lower end
a>
is
inclined
an angle to the
vertical,
and
is
given a rotation
about the
lS8
vertical.
If 6
RIGID DYNAMICS.
be
its
inclination to the vertical

is
velocity about a horizontal axis

3
when its angular maximum, show that

4
g sin 3 6 tan 6 + 4 aar sin

down
= o.
same
is
70.
The time
of descent,
a rough inclined plane, of a
spherical shell which contains a smooth solid sphere of the
material as
itself is t x
the time of descent
down
the same plane

as the shell
of a solid sphere of the

/2
.
same material and radius

shell.
Determine the thickness of the

71.
heavy chain,
flexible,
inextensible,
homogeneous, and
vertex of two
principle to deter-
smooth, hangs over a small pulley at the
common
smooth inclined planes.
Apply d'Alembert's
mine the motion

72.
is
of the chain.
perfectly rough right prism,

its
placed with
axis
whose section is a square, horizontal upon a board of equal mass
lying on a smooth horizontal table.
vertical plane containing
the centres of inertia of the two

the prism
;
is
perpendicular to the axis of
a horizontal blow in this plane communicates motion
to the system.
Show
that the prism will topple over
if
the
momentum
of the
blow be greater than that acquired by the
system falling through a height

the square section of the prism.
73.
-tan a, where a
12
is
a side of
Determine the small
oscillations in
space of a uniform
fixed
heavy rod of length 2a, suspended from a

inextensible string of length
that
it'
point by an
fastened to one extremity.
Prove
x be one
of the horizontal coordinates of that extremity

is
of the rod to which the string

.v
fastened
=A
sin( 1 /+ a)
+ Bsin(n2t +
/5),
where n lt
)i.
are the two positive roots of the equation
aM - (40 +
and A,
/>, a, /8
ll)g& +
3.r
are arbitrary constants.
74.
89
The bore
of a gun-barrel
is in
is
formed by the motion
of
an
ellipse
whose centre
the axis of the barrel and plane per-
pendicular to that axis, the centre moving along the axis and
the ellipse revolving in
its
own plane with an angular

is
velocity
always bearing the same
ratio to the linear velocity of its centre.

fired
spheroidal ball fitting the barrel
from the gun.
If
v be the velocity with which the ball would have emerged from the barrel had there been no twist, prove that the velocity of rotation with which it actually emerges in the case supposed is
2 1711V
V(/
the
+ 4ttW2
)'
number
of revolutions of the ellipse corresponding to the

/ of
whole length
the barrel being
;/,
and k being the radius
of
gyration of the ball about the axis coinciding with the axis of
the barrel, and the gun being supposed to be immovable.

75.
plane lamina moving either about a fixed axis or
in-
stantaneously about a principal axis, impinges on a free inelastic

particle in the line
through the centre of inertia of the lamina
perpendicular to the axis of rotation at the

If
moment
of impact.
the velocity of the particle after impact be the
maximum
velocity,
prove that the angular velocity of the lamina will be

1
:
diminished in the ratio of

76.
2.
Two
equal uniform rods are placed in the form of the
letter
on a smooth horizontal plane, the upper and the lower
extremities being connected
by equal
is
strings.
Show
that which-
ever string be cut the tension of the other will be the same
function of the rods, and initially
inclination of the rods.
f^sin, where a
is
the
yj.
An
equilateral
triangle
to
is
suspended from a point by

sides,
cut,
three strings, each equal
one of the
attached to
its
angular points.
If
one of the strings be
show
that the
:
tensions of the other two are diminished in the ratio of 36
43.
I9
78.
RIGID DYNAMICS.
Apply
the principle of energy to determine the time of a
small oscillation of a uniform rod placed in a smooth, fixed, hemispherical bowl, the motion taking place in a vertical plane.
79.
A frame formed of
four equal uniform rods loosely jointed

is
together at the angular points, so as to form a rhombus,
laid
on a smooth horizontal plane and a blow

rods in a direction at right angles to
will
it.
is
applied to one of the
Prove that the frame
begin to move as a rigid body provided the middle point of
the rod which receives the blow be equidistant from the line of
action of the blow and the perpendicular dropped
upon the rod
from the centre of

Prove also that
inertia of the frame.

in this case the initial
is
angular velocity of the

it
rod which receives the blow
one-eighth of what
would have
been had
80.
it
been unconnected with the remaining
rods.
Three equal uniform rods AB, BC, CD, freely jointed at B and C, are lying in one straight line on a smooth horizontal table, and an impulse is applied at the midpoint of BC, perpenFind the stresses on the hinges at B and C dicular to that rod.
in
any subsequent positions
of the rods,
and show that when
AB,
CD
are perpendicular to
BC,
their midpoints are

_1
moving
in
directions
81.
which make an angle cos

parallelogram
is
(^) with
BC.
formed
of
If
four rigid uniform rods

the parallelogram be laid
freely jointed at their extremities.
on a smooth horizontal table and a blow be applied to any one

of
the rods
at right
angles to
it,
and
in
a direction passing
its
through the intersection of the

ties parallel to the diagonals,
lines
drawn through
initial
extremi-
determine the
motion of the
parallelogram.
82.
circular disc
is
capable of motion about a horizontal

co
tangent which rotates with uniform angular velocity

fixed vertical axis
about a
if
through the point of contact.
Prove that
the disc be inclined at a constant angle a to the horizontal,

co-
sin
= z^..
5<'
83.
I9I
A
its
uniform rod
is
rotating with angular velocity */[_^]

is at
about
centre of inertia, which
rest at the instant
when
the rod, being vertical, comes in contact with an inelastic plane

inclined to the horizontal at an angle sin
_1
V^.
The motion
being in a vertical plane normal to the inclined plane, prove

that the angular velocity of the rod
when
it
leaves the inclined
plane
84.
is
^{1(1
+-L)}-
body which is initially at rest, and which has a point in it fixed, is struck by a given impulsive couple, show that the vis viva generated is greater than that which would have
If a rigid
been generated by the same couple
if
the body had been con-
strained to turn about an axis through the fixed point and not
coincident with the axis of spontaneous rotation.

85.
and
are two fixed points in the

in length to
same horizontal
line;
CD, a heavy uniform rod equal

four inextensible strings
AB,
is
suspended by
length to
cut,
BD, and
AD
AC, AD, BC, BD, where AC is equal in If two of the strings AC, BD be to BC.
determine the tension of the other two immediately after
cutting,
its
and
find the angular velocity of the rod
when
it
reaches
lowest position.
86.
A
is
beam
AB
is
fixed at A.
is
At
is
fastened an elastic
the other end of the
string string
whose natural length
equal to
AB;
fastened to a point
vertically
above A,
AC
being
equal to
AB.
If
The beam
it
is
held vertically upwards and then
displaced.
come
to rest
when hanging
vertically
down-
wards, find the greatest pressure on the axis during the motion.
87.
Two
fixed
equal rods
AB,
BC
are connected by a hinge at B.
is
and
C is
in
contact with a smooth horizontal plane,

If
the system being capable of motion in a vertical plane.
motion commence when the rods are inclined at an angle

the horizon,
to
show
that there will be no pressure at the hinge

is
when
their inclination 6
given by the equation
3 3 (sin 6
+ sin 6) = 2 sin a.
Q2
88.
RIGID DYNAMICS.
rod
AB is
movable freely
in a vertical
plane about
to
B is
fastened an elastic string, the other end being attached
to a point
C in
is
the vertical plane at such a distance from
that
when
If the
the rod
held horizontal the tension on the string vanishes.
rod be
of the string
89.
now allowed to fall, find the modulus of elasticity that the rod may just reach a vertical position.
is
prolate spheroid
fall
fixed at
one of
its
poles,
and
is
allowed to
from
its
position of unstable equilibrium under the
action of gravity only.
Find the pressure
at the fixed point in
any subsequent
90.
position.
Every
particle of
two equal uniform
rods, each of length
2 a, attracts
every other particle according to the law of gravita-
tion
in a
the rods are initially at right angles and are free to
move
plane about their midpoints, which are also their centres of
inertia
and are coincident.
If
angular velocities
&>, to'
be comt
municated
to the rods respectively,

is
show
that at the time
the
angle 6 between them
(MS*
<3- 2 v 2 )(cos- + s -+,j

1
)(T
e e cos - + sin
.
91.
Two
is
equal spheres of radius a and mass
M are attached
material,
to the extremities of a rigid rod of the
same
whose
length
If
the
4a and section y1^ of a principal section of the sphere. rod can move freely about its midpoint and one sphere be
struck by a blow
normal
to
it
and the
rod, the time
which
is
must elapse before the other sphere takes the place
of this one
44
77(7
Jl
attached to a
position.
is
92.
thin uniform rod, one

is
end of which
is
smooth hinge,
allowed to
fall
from a horizontal
in
Trove that the stress on the hinge
any given direction

to
maximum when
and
the
rod
is
equally
inclined
this direction
is
to the vertical,
and the
stress perpendicular to this
then
-Y-JFcosrt,
93
where IV is the weight
of the rod
and
is
the
incli-
nation of the given direction to the horizontal.

93.
man
standing in a swing
is
set in motion.
Supposing
is
that the initial inclination of the swing to the vertical
given,
and that the man always crouches when

and stands up when
in the lowest, find
in the highest position,
how much
the arc of
vibration will be increased after u complete oscillations.

94.
Three rods are hinged together
so as to
form an isosceles
is
triangle
ABC, A being
co
the vertex.
The whole
rotating with
angular velocity
round an axis through the middle point of
the base and perpendicular to the plane of the rods,
when
it
is
suddenly brought to
bisects the angle
95.
rest.
Show
that the impulsive action at
A
by
BAC, and
find its magnitude.

is
triangular lamina
suspended
at rest horizontally
vertical strings attached to its angular points A, B, C.
If the
strings at
and
C be
to
simultaneously cut, show that there will

in the string at
be no instantaneous change of tension

be perpendicular
either
A,
if
AD
AB
or
AC.
AD = CD cos
ADC,
D being the
96.
midpoint of BC.
is filled
hollow spherical shell

solidifies
with homogeneous fluid

the
which gradually
solidification
without alteration of density,
proceeding uniformly from the outer surface, so

of the solidified portion
is
that the
time.
If
mass
proportional to the
the shell initially rotate about a given axis with a

co,
given angular velocity
find the angular velocity at
any subse-
quent period before the

97.
solidification is complete.
is
lamina whose centre of gravity

it
G
in
is
revolving
it
about a horizontal axis perpendicular to
and meeting
in
C
is
Supposing
of
it
to
begin to move from a position
which
CG
horizontal, prove that the greatest angle
which the direction

the vertical
is
the
-1
f
pressure on
^
J,
the axis can

is
make with
cot
11-^ tan
where
the corresponding angle which
CG
194
RIGID DYNAMICS.
vertical,
makes with the

through
98.
is
the radius of gyration about an axis

//
perpendicular to the lamina, and
CG.
rough uniform
rod, length 2 a,
is
placed with a length
c(>a)
will
projecting over the edge of the table.
Prove that the rod
begin to slide over the edge
when
it
has turned through an
angle tan -1
If
a*
+ 9 (c-df
and the body be started from
it
99.
gravity be the only force acting on a body capable of
freely turning about a fixed axis

its
position of stable equilibrium with such a velocity that
may
just reach its position of unstable equilibrium, find the time
of describing
100.
If
any angle.
an isosceles triangle move, under the action of gravity

its
only, about
position,
base as a fixed axis starting from a horizontal

axis
is
show that the greatest pressure on the
seven-
thirds the weight.
10 1.
If
the centre of oscillation of a triangle, suspended from

oscillating with
its
an angular point and

at the point
102.
plane vertical,
lie
on
the side opposite the point of suspension,
show
that the angle
must be
a right angle.
horizontal circular tube of small section and given
mass
is
freely
movable about a
Given the
vertical axis
is
through
its
it
centre.
heavy
particle within the tube
projected along
with a
given velocity.
coefficient of friction
between the
tube and the particle, determine the terminal velocity of both,
and the time which must elapse before that motion

103.
is
attained.
Part of a heavy chain

its
is
coiled
round a cylinder freely

is
movable about
axis of figure
which
horizontal,
and the
remainder hangs
vertically.
Determine the motion, supposing
the system to start from rest and neglecting the thickness of

the chain.
104.
Two
weights are connected bv

its
a tine
chain which passes
over a wheel free to rotate about
centre in a vertical plane.
Given the
coefficient
195
of
friction
between the string and the
wheel, find the condition which determines whether the string

will slide
over the wheel or will not

straight equal
slide.
105.
Two
and uniform rods are connected
at
their
ends by
fine strings of
equal length a so as to form a parits
allelogram.
One
it
rod
is
supported at
centre by a fixed axis
about which
can turn freely, this axis being perpendicular to

is
the plane of motion, which
vertical.
Show
that the middle
point of the lower rod will oscillate in the
same way
as a simple
of the rods
pendulum
is
of length
<?,
and that the angular motion
independent of
106.
this oscillation.
is
loaded cannon
suspended from a
fixed horizontal
to the
axis,
and
rests with its axis horizontal
and perpendicular
fixed axis, the supporting ropes

vertical.
If
being equally inclined to the
v be the
initial
velocity of the ball
whose mass
is
of the weight of the cannon,

axis of the
and
//
the distance between the
cannon and the

is
fixed axis of support,
when
the cannon
fired off the tension of

i'
show that each rope is imme1
diately
107.
changed
in the ratio
+ irgJi
n(n
)gh-
Two
equal triangles
ABC, A'B'C,
line.
right-angled at
and C, rotate about
their equal sides
CA and A'C
as fixed
The distance CC is less than the sum of the sides CA, A'C. The triangles, being at first placed horizontally, impinge on one another when
axes in the same horizontal straight
vertical.
Determine the
initial
subsequent motion and discuss
the case in which

108.
in
A A'
is less
than one-fifth
all
CC
lie
Find the envelope of
the axes of suspension that
a principal plane through the centre of inertia of
a rigid
body, and such that the length of the simple pendulum
may be
always twice the radius of gyration of the body about one of

the axes lying in the plane.
109.
flat
board bounded by two equal parabolas with their
axis
and
foci coincident,
and
their concavities turned towards
I9 6
RIGID DYNAMICS.
is
each other,
the vertices.
capable of moving about the tangent at one of
Find the centre
of percussion.
its
HO.
point
elastic
is
A
in
uniform beam capable of motion about

equilibrium in a horizontal position
;
middle
a perfectly
ball,
whose mass
is
one-fourth that
is
of
the
beam,
is
dropped upon one extremity and

other extremity of the beam.
the ball
afterwards struck by the
Prove that the height from which
was dropped was ^f (2 n
\)ir
x length of beam.
in.
in
its
Two
equal circular discs are attached, each by a point

axis,
circumference, to a horizontal
one of them
it,
in the
is
plane of the axis and the other perpendicular to
and each
struck by a horizontal blow which, without creating any shock
on the
axis,
makes the
disc revolve through

:
90
Show
that
the two blows are as

112.
V6
V5.
body capable of rotation about a fixed axis is struck by a blow so that the axis sustains no impulse. Prove that the axis must be a principal axis of the body at the point
rigid
where
it
is
met by the perpendicular
let
fall
on
it
from the
point of application of the blow.
113.
its
uniform rod
AB
is
of
mass
a
is
freely
movable about
extremity A, which
fixed;
at C, a point
such that
fixed over
AC
is
horizontal and equal to
AB,
smooth peg
supported
fall
is
which
also
passes an inelastic string fastened to the rod at B, and to a
body
below
also
of
If
mass
M which
is
in
a position
the rod be allowed to
from coincidence with
AC, and
the string be of such a length as not to
become
tight
until the rod is vertical, the
angular velocity of the rod
will
be
suddenly diminished by
114.
three-fifths.
piece of wire
is
bent into the form of an isosceles

its
triangle
and revolves about an axis through

its
vertex perpen-
dicular to
that
it
plane.
Find the centre of

base
oscillation
is
and show
will lie in the
when
the triangle
equilateral.
115.
197
circular lamina performs small oscillations

its
(1) about a tangent line at a given point of

(2) about a line
circumference,
its
through the same point perpendicular to
plane.
Compare the times

116.
of oscillation.
is
A uniform beam
;
drawn over the edge

its
of a
rough
hori-
zontal table so that only one-third of
length
is in
contact with
the table
that
it
and
it is
then abandoned to the action of gravity.
Show
it
will
begin to slide over the edge of the table when

-,
/j,
has
turned through an angle equal to tan -1

of friction
117.
being the coefficient
between the beam and the
table.
is
uniform beam AB, capable of motion about A,
in
equilibrium.
Find the point

impulse at
is
at
which a blow must be applied

be one-eighth of the blow.
its
in order that the
A may
118.
rectangle
struck by an impulse perpendicular to

it
plane.
Determine the axis about which
will
begin to revolve,
and the position

in the rectangle.
of this axis with reference to
an ellipse inscribed
119.
rectangle rotates about one side as a fixed axis.
Find
the pressure on the axis (1)

to the horizontal.
120.
when
horizontal, (2)
when
inclined
About what
fixed axis will a given ellipsoid oscillate in

?
the shortest possible time

121.
A uniform semicircular lamina rotates

through
this axis.
its
about a fixed hori-
zontal axis
stresses
122.
centre
in
its
plane.
Determine the
on
If
and
T2
are the times of a small oscillation of a
rigid body, acted
on only by gravity, about parallel axes which
are distant a x and a 2 respectively from the centre of inertia, and
T be
the time of a small oscillation for a simple
pendulum
.
of
length a 1
123.
+ a2
then will (a l
cn
)T'
a x T^
a 2 T2
uniform beam of mass m, capable of motion about

its
its
middle point, has attached to
extremities by strings, each of
98
/,
RIGID DYNAMICS.
two
particles,
length
the
beam
is in
each of mass p, which hang freely. When equilibrium, inclined at an angle to the vertical,
is
one of the strings

other string
the
initial
is
-
cut
.
prove that the

,
initial
tension of the
w+
3/sin 2
and that the radius of curvature of

.
9
path of the l particle r
is
Ip sin* vi
a
.
cos u
its
124.
uniform inelastic beam capable of revolving about

is
centre of inertia, in a vertical plane,
inclined at an angle a to
let fall
the horizontal, and a heavy particle
is
upon
it
from a
angular
point in the horizontal plane through the upper extremity of the
beam.
Find the position of
this point in order that the
velocity generated
125.
may
be a maximum.
uniform
elliptic
board swings about a horizontal axis
at right angles to the plane of the
board and passing through

|,
one focus.
Prove that
if
the excentricity of the ellipse be \
the centre of oscillation will be the other focus.

126.
If
circular ring
hangs
in a vertical
that,
plane on two pegs.
one peg be removed, prove
P v P2
being the instanta-
neous pressures on the other peg calculated on the supposition

that the ring
is
(1) smooth, (2) rough,
2
x
:
2 2
: :
+ ^ tan 2 a,
of
where
is
the angle which the line
the ring to the centre of

127.
drawn from the centre the peg makes with the vertical.
uniform beam
that a ball of
can rotate about a horizontal axis weight equal

to that of
it
so
placed
the beam,
resting on one end of the beam, keeps
horizontal.
is
blow,
perpendicular to the length of the beam,

end.
struck at the other
Investigate the action between the ball and the beam,

stress
and the
128.
on the
axis.
There are two equal rods connected by

and that of the second along
a
smooth
joint;
a fixed
the other extremity of one of the rods can

point,
move about
smooth horizontal
axis
is
passing through the fixed point, and about which the system
revolving under the action of gravity.
199
differential equa-
Find a
tion to determine the inclination of the rods to the axis at any-
time.
129.
An
elliptic
its
lamina whose excentricity
is
^Vio
If
is
sup-
ported with
plane vertical and transverse axis horizontal by

its foci.
two smooth, weightless pins passing through

other pin will be
130.
initially unaltered.
one of
the pins be suddenly released, show that the pressure on the
A
is
plane lamina in the form of a circular sector whose

a,
is
angle
suspended from a horizontal axis through

its
if
its
centre, perpendicular to
oscillation,
will
plane.
Find the time
of a small
and show that
3 =4sin
the time of oscillation
be the same about a horizontal axis through the extremity
of the radius passing through the centre of inertia of the lamina.

131.
is to
A hollow cylinder open at both

3 to
ends, of which the height

its
the radius as
V2, has a diameter of one of

lie is
ends
fixed.
Show
that the centres of percussion
on a straight
eight-ninths of
line the distance of
which from the
fixed axis
the height of the cylinder.
AB as a fixed axis. CD be parallel to AB and AB =3 CD the centre Show that of percussion will be at the intersection of AC and BD.
132.
lamina
if
ABCD
is
movable aoout
133.
axis,
In the case of a rigid body freely rotating about a fixed

in
show that
order that a centre of percussion
may
exist
the axis must be a principal axis with respect to some point in

its
length.
134.
uniform rod movable about one end, moves

as to
in
<'
such
with
manner
the vertical.
make always nearly the same angle Show that the time of its small oscillations
/{
is
2 a COS a
V l3î+3cos 2 )J'
a being the length of the
rod.
2oo
RIGID DYNAMICS.
o> One end

smooth wire
axis
of a
heavy uniform rod
slides freely
on a
fine
in the
form of an
ellipse of excentricity
2,
and
minor equal
to the length of the rod
the other end of the
rod slides on a smooth wire coinciding with the axis minor of

the ellipse.
The system
is
set rotating
about the
latter wire,
if
which
is
fixed in
a vertical position.
Prove that
t,
6 be the
initial
inclination of the rod to the vertical at the time
a the
value of
0,
and w the
initial
angular velocity of the system about

(cot
the vertical axis, cos 6 = cos a cos

136.
sin a).
lamina
in
the form of an equilateral triangle rests

is
with
its
base on a horizontal plane, and
capable of moving in
its
a vertical
plane about a hinge at one extremity of

it
base.
its
Prove that
will
turn completely over
if
it
be struck at
vertex a blow greater than 2 iky\(-f^=\ in a direction perpendicular to that side which does not pass through the hinge,
;;/
being the mass, a the length of a side of the lamina,

of gyration about an axis through
its
radius
one of
its
angular points per-
pendicular to
137.
its
plane.
In the case of the motion of a rigid body about a hori-
zontal axis under the action of gravity,
show that the
forces are
reducible to a single force
if
the axis be a principal axis at the

it
point where the perpendicular on
from the centre of gravity
meets
ular on
it
and not otherwise.
If
the horizontal fixed axis be a
principal axis at a point other than that at

it
which the perpendicit,
from the centre of gravity meets

determine the pressures.
elliptic paraboloid, cut off
and
if
the centre
of gravity start
fixed axis,
[38.
from the horizontal plane passing through the
An
by a plane parallel Find the
to the
tangent plane
at the vertex, is
capable of freely rotating about a

axis.
diameter of the base as a fixed
line of action of
an impulse which, acting on the paraboloid, produces no impulse
on the
fixed diameter.
139. to
If a rigid
201
a given axis,
in
body have a centre of percussion with respect show that there is one with respect to any
a plane containing
parallel axis,
the
given axis
and the
centre of inertia.
140.
Investigate the angular velocity of

is
still
the top (Fig. 51,
unwinding, assuming (1) the tension of the string to be constant and the axis to be cylindrical, (2)
page 117) while the string
the increase of the tension of the string over the
initial
tension to vary as the length of string
drawn
off
and the
axis to
be conical.
141.
The
part of a paraboloid of revolution cut off

is
by a plane
in a direc-
through the focus

circular base.
tion parallel to
142.
is fixed,
fixed at a point in the circumference of its
If
it
be struck by a blow at any point,
its axis,
find the initial instantaneous axis.
If
but one force act on a rigid body, one point of which
the body's angular velocity about the instantaneous axis
will
is
be a
maximum
or a
minimum when
the instantaneous axis
perpendicular to the direction of the force.

143.
uniform rod can turn freely about one end which

If
is
it
fixed,
the other end resting on a smooth inclined plane.

its
be just disturbed from

that
it
position of unstable equilibrium, prove

its
will
never leave the plane unless
inclination to the
horizon be
> tan"
(^ tan B),
where
rod.
is
the semi-vertical angle
of the cone described

144.
by the
rigid body, fixed at
one point only,

If,
is
in
motion under
the
action
of
finite
forces.
throughout the motion, the
angular acceleration of the body about the instantaneous axis
bear to the
moment
if
of inertia about this axis
and
to the forces
acting on the body the
same
relation as
if
the axes were fixed,
prove that
the three principal

all
moments
of inertia at the fixed
point be not
equal the locus of the axis relatively to the
body
is
a cone of the second order.
145.
A triangular
lamina
ABC has
the angular point
C fixed,
and
is
capable of free motion about
it.
blow
is
struck at B,
202
RIGID DYNAMICS.
perpendicular to the plane of the lamina.
Show
that the instan-
taneous axis passes through one of the points of trisection of the

side
AB.
146.
Two
equal uniform rods are capable of motion about a

is fixed,
common
by an
extremity which
their
upper ends being joined

If in the position of
elastic string.
They
are set in vibration about a vertical
axis bisecting the angle
between them.
steady motion the natural length (2 /) of the string be doubled,

the modulus of elasticity being equal to the weight of either
rod, then the angular velocity about the vertical will be
3^(/'-/) 2hl VI
j/
where h
147.
is
the height of the string above the fixed extremity.

rigid body, of
which two of the principal moments
at
the centre of inertia are equal, rotates about a third principal

axis,
but this axis
is
constrained to describe uniformly a fixed
right circular cone of
which the centre of
inertia
is
the vertex.
is
Prove that the resultant angular velocity of the body

stant, that the requisite constraining
con-
couple
is
of constant
mag
nitude,
and that the plane
of the couple turns uniformly in the
body about the

148.
axis of unequal
is
moment.
its
An
ellipsoid
rotating with
centre fixed about one
of
its
principal axes (that of x) and receives a normal blow at a

(//,
point
k, I).
If
the
initial axis
its
of rotation after the

is
blow
lie
in the principal
2 c (a'
2
plane of yz,
equation
/>
+ r2 )(rt 2 -
b2 )k-v
+ b\# +
is
)(<r
- c*)Is = o.
149.
sphere whose centre
fixed
has an elastic string
attached to one point, the other end of the string being fastened
to a fixed point.
To
the sphere
is
given an angular velocity

its
it
about an
axis.
Give the equations for determining
motion,
contact
the string being supposed stretched and no part of
in
with the surface of the sphere.
If the natural
length of the
string be equal to a, the radius of the sphere,
203
it
and
be fixed at
a point
at a distance
= a( V2
1)
from
it
its
centre,
and
if
the
is
sphere be turned so that the point on

fastened
to
which the string
may be
at
the opposite extremity of
the diameter
through O, prove that the time of a complete revolution
=V(-)(-f
where
where
1
,
n= modulus
. .
of elasticity
,
= \ \( aM\f 7r H 2V2\
.
weight of sphere
of elasticity.
\ V5
//
/V
\x
= modulus
If the
50.
angular velocities of a rigid body, at any time

x, y, z, are
/,
about the axes
proportional respectively to
cot {n
cot(;w
n)t,
V)t,
cot
(lm)t.
determine the locus of the instantaneous

151.
axis.
uniform rod
In
of length 2
a can turn freely about one
extremity.
its initial is
position
it
makes an angle
it
of
90 with
vertical
the vertical and

locity
is
(o.
projected horizontally with an angular ve-
Show
that the least angle

4<?&>
2
makes with the

2

152.
cos
3g sin
6.
rigid
body rotates about a
fixed
point under the
action of no
forces.
Investigate the following equations, the
invariable line being taken as the axis of z
= G sin 6 sin
2
(f>
<b
cos
<b
r f cos ~kl~ \ a
(fy _
sin 3
(A
b r
C
;
W+
dt
cos
e*t= Gcos0
dt
G
s\
denoting the angular
momentum
of the body,
and the other
mbols having their usual meaning.
204
153.
RIGID DYNAMICS.
One
point of a rigid body
is
fixed
and the body
is
set in
motion in any manner and

force.
left to itself
under the action
of
no
moments of inertia at the fixed point, G its angular momentum, X its component angular velocity about the invariable line, w its whole angular velocity, the component angular velocity of the instantaneous
Prove that
if
A, B,
C be
its
principal
axis about the invariable line will be
(G - A\)(G - B\)(G - C\)

ABC(to 2
154.
- \2
rod
is
fixed at
it
one end to a point
in a horizontal
plane about which

it is
can move easily in any direction.
When
be the
at
inclined to the horizon at a given angle, a given horizontal

is
velocity
velocity
communicated
the rod
to
its
other end.
What
will
and direction
of the
falls
motion of the free end

?
the
moment when
155.
at L,
on the horizontal plane
AD,
such
BC are two equal rigid rods movable about a pin that AL = DL = BC CL, and their ends are conIf the
nected by four elastic strings of equal lengths.

are
beams
its
made
to revolve in opposite directions

left to
about
itself,
through a
given angle, and then the system be
determine
subsequent motion.
1
56.
AB, BC,
CD
are three equal

in
beams connected by pins

If a
at
and
and lying
the
same
right line.
given im-
pulse be communicated to
BC
at its centre in a direction per-
pendicular to
157.
its
length, determine the impulse on the pins.

is
uniform rod
free to rotate about

is
its
extremity
in a
vertical plane, while that plane
constrained to revolve uni-
formly about a vertical axis through the extremity of the rod.
Show
if is
that
if
the rod be
it
let
fall
from an inclination
to the vertical
of 30
above the horizon,

dco 2
will just
descend
position
$g, where
2
co is
the angular velocity of the plane and
2a
the length of the rod.

aa>
is
Also explain the nature

than
of the
motion
according as
less
$g
or greater than
158.
205
its
rigid rod of given
mass can revolve about

to
middle
point in a plane inclined at a given angle to the horizon.
given angular velocity
is
communicated
both rod and plane
about a vertical axis through the middle point of the rod, the
system being then

late
left to itself.
Show
that the rod will oscil-
about
its
horizontal position.
of the principal axes of a
159.
in
One
body revolves uniformly

it.
a fixed plane,
while the body rotates uniformly about

if
Determine the constraining couple and show that
the mo-
ments
of inertia about the other
two principal axes are equal,
the couple has a constant moment.

160.
A body, two of whose principal moments are equal,

its
is
free
to rotate about
centre of gravity, which
is
fixed relatively to
the earth's surface.
Prove that
if
the body be
made
if
to rotate
very rapidly about

will
its
principal axis of unequal
moment, that
axis
move both
in altitude
and azimuth, and that

will
the motion
in altitude
be prevented and the axis be originally placed horiit
zontally in the meridian,
be in a position of equilibrium,
is
stable or unstable, according as the rotation
from west
to east,
in
or from east to west.
If the axis
be originally directed
its
any
other azimuth,
it
will oscillate
about
position of stable equi-
librium nearly in the
same way
as the simple circular
pendulum
whose length = Bg/{Alco cosX), where A and B are the principal moments, fl the angular velocity of the earth about its axis, co that of the disc, and X the latitude of the place of experiment.
161.
body turning about a
fixed point of
it is
acted on by
forces which always tend to produce rotation about an axis at

right angles to the instantaneous axis.
velocity cannot be uniform unless
Show
that the angular
C-B ^B-A Â-C

A, B,
being the principal moments of inertia with respect to
the fixed point.
20 6
162.
If
RIGID DYNAMICS.
forces
act
on
homogeneous
,
spheroid
in the
tending
always to produce rotation about an axis

the body about
polar axis
plane of the
equator, the instantaneous axis will describe a circular cone in

its
;
but the angular velocity about
the instantaneous axis will not be uniform unless the axis a be
always
163.
is
at right angles to the instantaneous axis.
sphere movable about a point

is
in its surface,
which
fixed relatively to the earth,
in equilibrium
under the action
of gravity.
its
Suppose the earth
to
suddenly cease rotating about
axis, find
the instantaneous axis of rotation of the sphere

it
and show that the angular velocity about

2
would be
;
w cos^/]i+(^+^) tan^J
7
o)
being the angular velocity of the earth,
/x
the ratio between
its
radius and that of the sphere, and 6 the latitude of the place.
164.
body under the action of given forces is in Defining the momental plane at motion about a fixed point. any instant as that which would be the invariable plane if the
rigid
forces affecting the
body were
at that instant to cease acting,
show that if the body be constantly acted upon by a couple whose plane passes through the instantaneous axis and is normal to the momental plane, the distance of the momental If the body plane from a fixed point will remain unchanged. be acted upon at any instant by an impulsive couple in the plane referred to, show that the tangent of the angle through which the momental plane is suddenly turned varies as the
moment
165.
of the couple.
moving about a fixed point at a distance P from the invariable plane. Assuming that the central ellipsoid rolls upon the invariable plane, show that the equation to the surface generated by the instantaneous axis in the body is
body
is
Ax- 4- Bf + Cc 2 = r-( a-a- +
By + C-
2
),
the equation to the central ellipsoid being
AxL +Byi +Czt =\.
166.
If
207
it
the motion of a rigid body about a fixed point in

a> x , co
y
,
be represented by three coexistent angular velocities
wz
about three axes mutually at right angles, show that

particles in a cylindrical surface
all
the
whose
axis
is
--==-=
(O x
wy
2.
will
wz
in.)
have linear velocities of equal magnitude. (See Prob.

167.
p.
An
equilateral triangular lamina

its
is
revolving in
its
own
plane about
centre of inertia.
fixed,
If
one of the angular points
becomes suddenly
it
show
that the lamina will rotate about
with one-fifth of the original angular velocity.

168.
A
co
rigid
body
is
free to
move about
a fixed point, and in
the notation of Art. 62,

1
= a sin 9 sin
(f>,
o)
= a sin
at
6 cos
cf>,
a>
= a cos 6,
find the position of the

169.
body
any given time.
Show from
Euler's Equations of Motion (Art. 60), that

forces act, no axis other than a principal
axis.
when no impressed
axis can be a
170.
permanent
a body
is
When
acted on by no forces and moves about

is
a fixed point,
show
that the locus of the instantaneous axis
conical surface.
171.
prolate spheroid of revolution

it
is
fixed at
its
focus; a
blow
is
given
at the
extremity of the axis minor in a line tan-
gent to the direction perpendicular to the axis major.

axis about
172.
Find the
which the body begins

rigid
to rotate.
is
body
fixed at a given point
free to rotate in
velocities
any way about that

velocity of
point.
Given the angular
about
three axes mutually at right angles and fixed in space, find the
any point
in the
body and the
vis viva of the
whole
system.
173.
In the case of a rigid body moving about a fixed point

to the action of
and subject
no forces
if
the
moment C be
a har-
2o8
RIGID DYNAMICS.
monic mean between the moments

constant,
will increase uniformly,
and B, and the
instan<
taneous axes describe the separating polhode, then

y\r
will
f?
,
be
and tan 6
tan
where
174.
Integrate Euler's equations determining the motion of a

fixed point for the case in
rigid
body about a
which no forces
act
and two
If a
of the principal
moments
are equal.
175.
body be
in
motion about a fixed point under the
action
of
no external
forces,
about the radius vector of

the body
is
show that the angular velocity the momental ellipsoid, about which
turning, varies as that radius vector, and that the
perpendicular on the tangent plane at the extremity of the

radius vector
176.
is
constant.
plane
lamina of
uniform
density
and thickness,
bounded by a curve represented by the equation
r=a + &sm2 20,

if
moves about
constant, and
177.
its
pole as a fixed point.

its
Show
that
the lamina
will
be under the action of no forces,

its
angular velocity
be
axis will describe a right cone in space.

in the
its
lamina
form of a quadrant of a
circle is fixed
at
its
one extremity of
arc
and
is
struck a blow perpendicular to
plane at the other extremity.
Find the
If
velocities generated
and the pressures on the

point,
fixed point.
6 be the inclination of
the instantaneous axis to the radius vector through the fixed
show
that
a tan 6
.
^7T 1577 10
IO
178.
The
point
of a rigid
body
is
fixed in space, but the
body
is
capable of free motion about the point.

/".
are the principal axes and A',

of inertia of the
are
OA, OB, Oi the principal moments

cone with
body
at O.
Show
that the couple necessary to

shall describe a
keep the body moving so that
OC
semi-vertical angle a uniformly about the fixed line
shall maintain a constant inclination to
2 OQ
OZ and CO A
in the
[
ZOC, must be
x(C - B')cos (3 cos a + j{C -A') sin /3 cos a + z(A sin (3 sin a = o, referred to OA, OB, OC as axes.
plane
179.
If the
B')
component angular
in
velocities of a rigid
co x ,
,
body about
a
a system of axes fixed in space be
wy
,
ro 2 ,
and those about
v co 2 co 3 and if these coincide respectively with the former at the time t, prove that
to
system fixed
the body be
d 2 w,
dt
2
d 2 w> x
dt
2
dw,
tit
dw,,
z
'
dt
Examine
180.
fixed,
is
this
and get the equation
for
~ in
terms of w x w y
,
co z
body acted on by no
if
forces,
and having one point
such that
A, B,
are the principal
moments
of
inertia at the fixed point,
B.
Show
that
if
6 be the
mean between A and angle which the axis of C makes with

is
a harmonic
the invariable
line,
and
the angle which
the plane of
CA
axis
makes with the plane through the

of C, then will sin 6 cos 2
181.
in
it
invariable line
and the
</>
be constant.
A rigid
lamina, not acted on by any forces, has one point
which
is fixed,
but about which
it
can turn freely.

its
If the
lamina be set
in
motion about a
line in
own
:
plane, the
its
moment
of inertia about
its
which
is
O,
show
is
that the ratio of

Q,
greatest to
least
angular velocity
A+ Q B+
where
and
are the principal

If
moments
spiral
of inertia about axes in the
plane of the lamina.
the lamina in the previous problem be
bounded by an equiangular
point be the pole,
and the intercept

if
of
the
radius vector to the extremity of the curve, and
the fixed
4-
Q:
B+Q
::
cos
27
sin 2 (y
/3)
is
cos 2 7 cos 2 (7 /3),

to
where the extreme radius vector

an angle 7 and to the axis at an angle /3
axis at
p
inclined
one principal
initial position of
the instantaneous
2io
182.
RIGID DYNAMICS.
moves around the circumference of a disc of radius r-\-a and of four times the mass of the ball the disc is supported at its centre and provided with a rim (whose weight may be neglected) sufficient to keep the ball
smooth
ball
of radius a
from falling
that the disc
horizontal,
is
off.
Show
that the velocity of the ball, in order

to the
may
maintain a constant inclination of 45
gir-af
VI:
183.
>~
rigid lamina in the
form of a loop of a lemniscate

is
= a 2 cos2 6,
not acted on by any force,
started with a given

its
angular velocity about one of the tangent lines through

point,
nodal
the nodal
point
being
its
fixed.
Prove that
its
greatest
angular velocity has to
least
angular velocity the ratio

7r).
V(3tt + 4): y(3

184.
rigid body,
movable about a
at
fixed point,
point.
If
is
struck a
blow of given magnitude

velocity thus impressed
a given
the angular
possible,
upon the body be the greatest

l
prove that
-(
t\B*
where A, B,
J-^-i-A^-L
CV m\C
the
AV
c
\
^ o
&J
'
n\A*
C are
moments
of inertia of the
a, b, c
body about the
principal axes at the fixed point,
are the coordinates of
the point struck in relation to the principal axes at the fixed

point,
and
/,
;;/,
;/
are the direction-cosines of the line of action
of the blow.
185.
A square
lamina with one angle attached to a fixed point
rotates about a side.
What must
be the angular velocity of the

it
lamina in order that the side about which

vertical
186.
?
rotates
may remain
rigid
body
is
rotating about an axis through
its
centre
of inertia,
fixed,
when
a certain point of the
body becomes suddenly

Prove that
if
the axis being simultaneously set free.
the
new instantaneous
point must
lie in
2 II
axis be parallel to the original fixed axis, the
the line represented by the equations
cPlx+Pmy+frnzô, (P-c-) + (c2 -a 2 )^- + (a--b 2 )^ = o,

/
}>i
the principal axes through the centre of inertia being taken as
axes of coordinates,
a, b, c
the radii of gyration about these lines, the

originally fixed
axis
and
/,
m, n the direction-cosines of
referred to them.
187.
An
elliptic
lamina, fixed at the focus,

its
is
struck in a direcaxis
tion
perpendicular to
if
plane.
Find the instantaneous
and show that
the blow be applied at any point of the ellipse
y + x(l-^ (l+4
2 )
_ ,2 )2
the angular velocity will be the same, the focus being origin,
and the axis major and

tively,
latus
rectum the axes of x and y respec-
and
being the excentricity.

about one end,
188.
A uniform rod of length a, freely movable

If 6
is initially
o)
projected in a horizontal plane with angular velocity
about the fixed point.

(/>
be the angle which the rod makes
with the vertical and
be the angle which the projection of the

initial position,
rod on the horizontal plane makes with the

that the equations of motion are
sin 2 e
show
d$_ =
dt
cos q _ ('Iff = \dt 1 a

of the rod
2
ft)
cot2 e
Find the lowest position
and
if
this
be when 6 = >
is
show
that the resolved vertical pressure on the fixed point

-|^
then equal to
189.
of the weight of the rod.

is
lamina having one point fixed

its
at rest
and
is
struck
a blow perpendicular to
plane at a point whose coordinates,
referred to the principal axes at the fixed point, are

that the equation to the instantaneous
h,
k being the
radii of gyration
about the
Show axis is a/fix + bkh=o, Show principal axes.

a, b.
2I2
that
if
RIGID DYNAMICS.
ab
lie
on a certain straight
line,
there will be no impulse
on the fixed point.

190.
A uniform
<
rod of length 2 a and mass m, capable of free

is
rotation about one end,

it is
held in a horizontal position, and on
placed a smooth particle of mass

;
at a distance c
from the
point, c being
the rod
is
then
let go.
Find the
initial pres-
sure of the particle on the rod, and
show
that the radius of
curvature of the particle's path
is
<K2
4a 3c
191.
f l+ cp
\
am
lamina
in the
is
form of a symmetrical portion of the

its
curve r=a(u7r 2 6 2 )
vertical,
placed on a smooth plane with
axis
then infinitesimally displaced and allowed to

If
fall in its
is
own
its
plane.
the lamina be loaded so that

its
its
centre of inertia
at the pole
and
radius of gyration
= 2 a,
find the time in
which
axis will fall

192.
from one given angular position to another.

lamina stands on a perfectly rough inclined
its
An
elliptical
plane.
Find the condition that
equilibrium
may
be stable,
and determine the time of a small

193.
oscillation.
perfectly rough plane, inclined at a fixed angle to the
vertical, rotates
about the vertical with uniform angular velocity.
Show
that the path of a sphere placed
upon the plane
is
given
by two
linear differential equations of the form,
the origin being the point where the vertical line, about which
the plain- revolves, meets the plane
straight line in the plane
194.
;
the axis of
y being
the
which
is
always horizontal.
The
equal uniform beams
AB, BC, CD, DE,

at
are con-
nected by smooth hinges and placed

zontal plane, each
rest
on a smooth hori-
beam
at right
angles to the two adjacent.
so as to form a figure resembling a set of steps.
An
impulse
is
213
given at the end A, along
AB
determine the impulsive action
on any hinge.
195.
2
rectangle
is
formed of four uniform rods

revolving about
of lengths
a and 2 b respectively, which are connected by smooth hinges
at their ends.
The
rectangle
is
its
centre on a
u>,
smooth horizontal plane with an angular velocity

point, in
when
one of the sides of length
2 a,
suddenly becomes
fixed.
Show
ately
that the angular velocity of the sides of length 2 b immedi^ (i 1 h
becomes
-r
7<w.
Find, also, the change in the angular
velocity of the other sides
and the impulse
at the point
which
becomes
196.
fixed.
uniform revolving rod, the centre of inertia of which

at rest,
is initially
moves
in a
plane under the action of a conits
stant force in the direction of

of the radius of curvature of
length.
Prove that the square

through which the
the path of the rod's centre of
inertia varies as the versed sine of the angle
rod has revolved at the end of any time from the beginning of
the motion.
197.
Six equal uniform rods are freely joined together and
are at rest in the form of a regular hexagon on a smooth horizontal plane.

point,
One
of the rods receives an impulse at

its
its
mid-
perpendicularly to
length,
and
in
the plane of the

is
hexagon.
Prove that the
initial
velocity of the rod struck

it.
ten times that of the rod opposite to

198.
uniform rod of length

is
lies
on a rough horizontal
plane and perpendicuits
plane,
and a force
applied to
it
in that
larly to its length at a distance
from
midpoint, the force
being the smallest that will move the rod.

2
Show
2
that the rod
begins to turn about a point distant y/{a +f> midpoint.

199.
)p from
the
AB is a rod whose end A is fixed and which has an equal rod BC attached at B. Initially the rods AB, BC are in the same straight line, AB being at rest and BC on a smooth
2I4
RIGID DYNAMICS.
horizontal plane having an angular velocity w.
Show
that the
is
greatest
angle between the rods at any subsequent time
cos
-1
and that when they are again
in a straight line, their
angular velocities are

200.
and
^-
respectively.
rectangular board moving uniformly without rotation
in a direction parallel to
one
side,
on a smooth horizontal plane,
comes
in contact
with a smooth fixed obstacle.
Determine
at
what point the impact should take place in order that the angular velocity generated may be a minimum.
201.
ties,
Four equal uniform rods, freely jointed at their extremiare lying in the form of a square on a smooth horizontal
table,
when
a blow
is
applied at one of the angles in a direction
bisecting the angle.
Find the
initial state of
motion of each rod,
and prove that during the subsequent motion the angular velocity will
be uniform.
202.
A sphere is moving at a given
moment on an
imperfectly
rough horizontal table with a velocity v, and at the same time has an angular velocity w round a horizontal diameter, the angle
between the direction
of v
and the
axis of
co
being
a.
if
Prove
that the centre of the sphere will describe a parabola
ak2 a> 2
203.
+ (a 2
O
k 2 )v(o sin
<(
av2
Two
rods,
OA
and OB, are
fixed in the
same
at
vertical
plane, with the point
upwards, the rods being
the
same
be
angle to the vertical.

slide
The ends
if
of a rod
AB
it
of length 2 a
on them.
Show
that
the centre of inertia of
AB
k,
its
middle point, and the radius of gyration about

of a complete small oscillation
/j
rt
be
the time
is
tan 2
ft
2
/fr
|
\
\
204.
ag cot
rests
One end
of a
heavy rod
on a horizontal plane and
against the foot of a vertical wall; the other end rests against a
parallel vertical wall,
it
all
the surfaces being smooth.

<,
Show
it
that,
the rod slip down, the angle
through which
will
turn
round the common normal
the equation pr(i
is
215
to the vertical walls, will

</>)
be given by
C,
2 3 cos
"'
,
2N
sm 4> =
where
2 a
the length of the rod and 2 the distance between the walls.
205.
Two
one
equal uniform rods, loosely jointed together, are at
rest in
line
on a smooth horizontal
table,
when one
of
them
ini-
receives a horizontal blow at a given point.

tial
Determine the
circumstance of the motion, and prove that,

line,
when next
the
rods are in a straight

velocities.
they will have interchanged angular
206.
One end
of a
uniform rod of weight
can
slide
by a
smooth ring on a
horizontal plane.
vertical rod, the other
end sliding on a smooth
The rod descends from a position inclined at an angle /3 to the horizon. Show that the rod will not leave the horizontal plane during the descent, but that its maximum
pressure against
is
it
is
^wcos 2 /3 and
that
its
ultimate pressure
\ w.
207.
lamina capable of free rotation about a given point
in
its
own
plane,
which point
is
fixed in space,
moves under the

of the
action of given forces.
If the initial axis of rotation
lamina coincide very nearly with the axis of greatest
moment
of inertia in the plane of the lamina, the angular velocities about
the other principal axes will be in a constant ratio during the
motion.
208.
sphere of radius a
is
partly rolling and partly sliding
on a rough horizontal plane.

01 friction
Show
axis of
<o.
that the angle the direction
makes with the
is
tan -1
being the
209.
initial velocities, a> v
the
initial
-, u and v v aa>.2 angular velocities.

'
perfectly rough circular cylinder
is
fixed with its axis
horizontal.
sphere
is
placed on
it
in a position of unstable
equilibrium, and projected with a given velocity parallel to the

axis of the cylinder.
If the
sphere be slightly disturbed in a
2i6
RIGID DYNAMICS.
horizontal direction perpendicular to the direction of the axis of
the cylinder, determine at what point

210.
it
will leave the cylinder.
parabolic lamina, cut off by a chord perpendicular to
its axis, is
kept at rest in a horizontal position by three vertical
strings fastened to the vertex

if
and two extremities of the chord
the string which

is
is
fastened to the vertex be cut, the tension
of the others
211.
suddenly decreased one-half.

equal, perfectly rough, inelastic spheres are in
is
Three
contact on a horizontal plane; a fourth equal sphere, which

rotating about
its
vertical diameter, drops
from a given height
and impinges on them simultaneously.

quent motion.
212.
Investigate the subse-
rod of length
length on a
lar to its
moving with a smooth horizontal

a,
velocity v perpendicu-
plane, impinges on an
centre.
is
inelastic obstacle at a distance c
from
its
Show
^.
that
its
angular velocity
213.
when
the end quits the obstacle
solid regular tetrahedron is placed with

is
one edge on
its
a smooth horizontal table and

of unstable equilibrium.
allowed to
fall
from
position
tetra-
Find the angular velocity of the

it
hedron just before a face of
reaches the table, and the magni-
tude of the resultant impulsive blow.

214.
A
/;
uniform sphere of radius
a,
when placed upon two

has
its
parallel, imperfectly rough, horizontal bars,
centre at a
It
height
is
above the horizontal plane which contains the bars.
started with a velocity v parallel to the bars,
and an angular
In the case in
a time
velocity
a about a
horizontal axis perpendicular to the bars in

friction.
such a direction as to be diminished by
which 2a 2 D.
>
5 bv,
the sphere will begin to
roll after
2ab(v
l*g(2 a*
+ btt)
+ $&>)'
What
will at that instant
where
/jl
is
the coefficient of friction.
be the velocity and position of the sphere?
215.
217
its
heavy uniform rod

being
initially in a
if
slips
down with
extremities in
contact with a smooth horizontal floor and a smooth vertical

wall, not
plane perpendicular to both wall
and
(f)
floor.
Prove that
be the inclination to the horizon and
the angle which the projection of the rod on the floor
makes
with the normal to the wall,
(& + ^)sin<
and
(
2
2(cos
(it
cos
^ = ffcos/^ cos * sin *>

a
CI/
+ ^)cosflsin<j//2(sh;^
dt
9 ^ -^ = k" sin /i^ (cos sin d>) ag cos A sin $, 2
,
. .
it
dt*
a being the length of the rod and k
its
radius of gyration
inertia.
about an axis perpendicular to

216.
A body
possesses given motions of translation and rotait.
tion referred to a given point of
Find under what condition
the motion
may be
exhibited by rotation about a single axis, and
the equations to this axis

217.
when
the condition
is satisfied.
heavy straight rod

its
slides freely over a
smooth peg.
Show
that the equations to
motion are
2
.
dh
dt*
fd0\ \dt)
and
where
r
dt
] {
(r2
k2 )
dt
\
)
= gr cos, 0,
and
are coordinates of the centre of inertia reckoned

line.
is
from the peg and a horizontal

218.
ellipse
smooth wire of given mass

laid
is
bent into the form of an

;
and
given weight
upon a smooth horizontal table an insect gently laid on the wire and crawls along
elliptic
of
it.
Find the path described by the centre of the

trace
it
wire and
on the
table.
219.
The
effect of
an earthquake being assumed

in a
to
be a sud-
den horizontal displacement
given direction of every body
2i8
fixed to
RIGID DYNAMICS.
the surface of
the earth, explain
in the half of a
the nature of
the
motion caused by the shock

stone column which
diagonally,
is
uniform cylindrical
cut off
by a plane bisecting the cylinder

base upon a fixed horizontal
at
and which
rests with its
plane, friction being supposed the

220. pulses,
If a rigid
same
every point.
body
initially at rest
is
be acted on by given im-
whose
resultant
a single impulse,
show
that the axis of
instantaneous rotation will be perpendicular to the direction of

that resultant.
221.
circular disc rolls
down
a rough curve in a vertical
plane.
If the initial
and
final positions of
the centre of the disc

is
be given, show that when the time of motion

sible
the least pos-
the curve on which
the
disc rolls
is
an involute of a
cycloid.
222.
circular ring
it
is
free to
move on
smooth horizontal
its
plane on which
lies,
and an uniform rod has
extremities
ring.
connected with and movable on the smooth arc of the
The system being
set in
motion on the plane, show that the

is
angular velocity of the rod

of the centres of the rod
constant, and describe the paths
and
ring.
223.
wheel whose centre of gravity does not coincide with

is
the centre of the figure
allowed to
roll
down an
If
//
inclined
incli-
plane which
is
so rough as to prevent sliding.
be the
nation of the plane, a the radius of the wheel,

its
the distance of
/
centre of inertia from the centre of the figure, and

its
the
radius of gyration of the wheel about an axis through

of inertia perpendicular to
its
centre
plane,
show
7,
is
that
when
to
the wheel
has rolled from rest through an angle
the resistance exerted
by the plane cither equals zero or

being given by the equation,
[tan a tan
normal
the
plane, 7
.]
+ hf +
/,-
- a- + a-f
J
224.
219
is
sphere on a smooth horizontal plane
placed in con-
tact with a
rough vertical plane which
is
made
to revolve with a
in itself. If
uniform angular velocity w about a vertical axis

be the
initial
distance of the point of contact from the axis,

t,
r the distance after a time
and
the radius of the sphere,
prove that 2 r = (a + c^l)e"'^ + (rt-cV|)tT w<v/ *.

as
/
Also show that

friction
increases
indefinitely,
1
:
the
ratio
of
the
to
the
pressure approximates to
225.
V35.
A free
plane lamina receives a single blow perpendicular

that
(i) if
to its plane.
Show
the locus of points where the blow

line,
may have been

will
applied be a straight
the spontaneous axis

if
pass through a determinate point,
(ii)
the locus be a
circle (centre C), the
spontaneous axis
will
be a tangent to an
ellipse
whose axes are
in the direction of the principal axes at
in the
plane of the lamina.

sphere, in contact with two fixed rough planes, rolls
226.
down under
which
the action of gravity.
If 2 a
be the angle between
the planes which are equally inclined to the horizon, and with
their line of intersection
makes an angle
is
j3,
show
that the
to
acceleration of the centre of the sphered

5 sin
2
uniform and equal
sin /3 v 5 sin
cr.
'
227.
Three equal smooth spheres are placed
in contact,
each
with the other two, on a smooth horizontal plane, and connected

at
the points of contact.
fourth equal sphere

three.
is
then placed
so as to be supported
by the other
Supposing the con-
nections between the three spheres suddenly destroyed,

that the pressure between the fourth sphere
show
of the
and each
other three
is
suddenly diminished by one-seventh.
Also deter-
mine the subsequent motion.

228.
sphere
is
placed upon two smooth equal spheres held

rest
in contact,
and these
on a smooth horizontal plane

if
in the
position of equilibrium.
Show
the spheres be
left to
them-
220
selves, the
RIGID DYNAMICS.
pressure on the upper sphere
its
is
instantaneouslv
diminished to six-sevenths of
229.
former amount.
table.
If
A plane lamina lies on a smooth horizontal

it
one
point of
line
be constrained
table,
to
move uniformly along
a straight
on the
show
that the lamina will revolve about the
point with uniform angular velocity, and determine the magni-
tude and direction of the force of constraint at any time.

230.
sphere has an angular velocity about a horizontal

falls
diameter and
upon a rough,
inelastic
board which
is
moving
uniformly in a horizontal plane
in
the direction of this diameter.
Find the
231.
initial
direction of the motion
and
its
path afterwards.
If the velocities of
two given points
of a rigid
body be
given in magnitude and direction, determine the velocity of any

other point in the body.
232.
Prove that any motion of a rigid rod
may be
represented
of axes,
by a single rotation about any one of an
infinite
number
and
find the locus of these axes.
233.
A A
free ellipsoid
is
struck a blow normal to

is
its
surface.
Show
234.
that, in general, there
no axis of spontaneous
rotation.
free rigid
body
is
at a certain
its
moment
in a state of
rotation about an axis through
centre of inertia,
when another
axis
point in the body suddenly becomes fixed.

are
Prove that there

for
three
directions
of
the
original
instantaneous
it,
which the new instantaneous
axis will be parallel to
and that
these directions are along conjugate diameters of the momenta!

ellipsoid at the centre of inertia.
235.
little
is
squirrel clings to a thin
rough hoop, of which

a
the
plane
vertical
and
is
rolling along
perfectly rough
horizontal plane.
The
squirrel
makes
a point of keeping a con-
stant altitude above the horizontal plane and selects his place
on the hoop so as
to travel
from a position of instantaneous rest,

Prove that
;//
the greatest possible distance in a given time.
being the weight of the squirrel and
inclination of the squirrel's distance
to the vertical
is
221
tri
that of the hoop, the

of the
from the centre

-.
hoop
equal to cos -1 n
\m + 2m')
236.
tal
A
;
rough homogeneous sphere

a heavy inelastic
rests
on a rough horizon-
plane
beam
sliding through
two smooth
order
rings in the
same
vertical line falls
upon
it
from a given height.

beam,
sphere
in
Find the position of the sphere

that the angular velocity
relatively to the
to the
communicated
may be
the greatest possible.

237.
Two
equal uniform rods, freely jointed together at one

each, are at rest on a smooth horizontal plane.
at
extremity of
Find the point

system
238.
which either must be struck
in order that the
may
begin to
move
is
as
if it
were
rigid.
heavy beam
placed with one end on a smooth

If the verti-
inclined plane
and
is left
to the action of gravity.
cal plane constraining the
plane, find the
beam be perpendicular to the inclined motion of the beam and the pressure on the
plane
239.
when
a given angle has been turned through.
disc rolls
upon a
straight line on a horizontal plane,
the disc moving with
its flat
surface in contact with the plane.
Show
that the disc will be brought to rest after a time
64 fi
where v
is
the
initial velocity of
the centre, and

table.
/z
the coefficient
of friction
between the disc and the

rigid
240.
in
Determine how a free

it
body
at rest
must be struck
order that
241.
may
rotate about a fixed axis.

is
A uniform
bar
constrained to
move with
its
extremities
on two fixed rods
at right angles to
each other, and
is
under the
action of an attraction varying as the distance from, and tending

to,
the point of intersection of the rods.
Determine the time of
a small oscillation
position of rest.
when
the bar
is
slightly displaced
from the
222
242.
RIGID DYNAMICS.
heavy cycloid, the radius
of
whose generating
circle
4 with
is
is
mounted
so as to admit of sliding in a vertical plane

it
its
base always horizontal and so that every point of
moves
zontal.
in a straight line, inclined at
an angle of 45
over
so
if
to the hori-
uniform, smooth, heavy chain of length a and mass

cycloid
is
is
equal to
that of the
laid
it
as
to
be
in
equilibrium
when
of
the cycloid
supported;
the support be
suddenly removed, find the tension at any point at the com-
mencement
motion and show that
it
is
maximum
at a
distance from the vertex given by the equation

8
7T
a =(96
- ^-)s -
32
VO - s
2
2
).
243.
inertia
;
body
is
turning about an axis through
its
centre of
If the
a point in the body suddenly
becomes
fixed.
new
instantaneous axis be a principal axis with respect to the point,
show
that the locus of the point
is
a rectangular hyperbola.
244.
to
it
uniform rod of mass
in
and length
2 a has attached
b.
a particle of
mass/ by
is
a string of length
The
rod and
string are placed in a straight line on a
smooth horizontal plane,
and the
particle
projected with velocity v at right angles to
the string.
Prove that the greatest angle which the string makes

is
with the rod
2 sin"
12 b
and that the angular velocity & 3

245.
at the instant is
v
a
+b
rough sphere
is
projected on a rough horizontal plane
and moves under an acceleration tending to a point in the plane and varying as the distance from that point. Show that the
centre of the sphere will describe an ellipse, and find
its
com-
ponent angular velocities

246.
in
terms of the time.

rods,
Three equal uniform
AB, BC, CD,
freely jointed
together at
and
C, are lying in a
straight line on a
smooth
horizontal plane and a given impulse
of
is
223
applied at the midpoint
BC
at right angles to
BC
Determine the velocity of
BC
and
with
when each
of the other rods
makes an angle
with
it,
prove that the directions of the stresses at
and
C make
BC angles
247.
equal to tan _1 (| tan
0).
Three equal uniform straight lines, AB, BC, CD, freelyjointed together at B and C, are placed in a straight line on a
smooth horizontal plane and one of the outside rods receives a
given impulse in a direction perpendicular to
midpoint.
its
length at
the
its
Compare the subsequent
stresses
on
hinges
with the impulse given to the rod.

248.
homogeneous
right
co
circular
cylinder of
radius
a,
its
rotating with angular velocity

axis horizontal
about
its axis, is
placed with
its
on a rough inclined plane so that

it
rotation
tends to
move
up the plane.
If a
be the inclination of the
plane to the horizontal and tan a the coefficient of friction, show

that the axis of the cylinder will remain stationary during a
period
1
T=
2
<f
and that
equal to
i
*.
its
angular velocity at any time
sin a
is
j during 4.1. this period
2rf _^ sin
a
249.
radius.
I.
hoop
is
hung upon
is
is
a horizontal cylinder of given
Determine the time
of a small oscillation
II.
When When
the cylinder
the cylinder
rough.
smooth.
250.
Prove the following equations for determining the mo-
tion of a rigid
body whose principal moments of
inertia at the
centre of inertia are equal
=
G
it,
dt
v0a 3
2O0 O etc., 2
,
= -1
A
dt
co
(i)o0 3 2 *
+ (0o0o, 3
l
etc.
v,
:o
being the velocities of the centre of inertia parallel to
the three axes
moving
V
in space,
2, Z
about these axes,
v a> 2 co s the angular velocities the angular velocities of these axes

,
about fixed axes instantaneously coincident with them, X, Y,
224
RIGID DYNAMICS.
the resolved forces, L,
M,
and
N their
A
its
G the
axis
mass
of the body,
moments about the axes, moment of inertia about any

and length
of
2
inertia.
251.
to
it
uniform rod of mass
a has attached
length
/;
a particle of
mass
f>
by means
is
a string of
the rod and string are placed in one straight line on a smooth
horizontal plane, and the particle
projected with a velocity
v at right angles to the string.
Prove, then,
when
the rod
and string make angles
6,
cf)
with their
initial positions,
{& + ab cos(0 -6)X^-+\b* + ab cos(<f> - 0)1^ = {a + b)v,

\dt)
vr
f
dt
dt
^
3
?;
\dt)
where
252.
ft
= a2
^+
IP
sphere of radius a
roll
is
projected on a rough horizontal

to slide.
&>
plane so as partly to
and partly
If
the
initial
velocity of translation be v, the initial rotation
about a hori<c
zontal axis, and the direction of the former
make an angle
with the axis of the
latter,
show
that the angle through which
the direction of motion of the centre has turned,

rolling begins,
is
when
perfect
tan"
1
-i
2 aco cos a
5
i'
2 au> sin a
homogeneous sphere roll on a perfectly rough plane under the action of any forces whatever, of which the resultant
253.
If a
passes through the centre of the sphere, the motion of the centre
of inertia will be the
same
as
if
the plane were smooth and

;
all
the forces were reduced in a certain constant ratio
and the
plane
254.
is
the only surface which possesses this propert}
smooth ring of mass

Determine the velocity
it
;;/
slides
on a uniform rod of
mass M.
rod which
of the ring at
any point
of the
reaches, no impressed forces being supposed to act.
If
225
rod, the
when
the ring
its
is
distant c
is
from the centre of the
angle at which
path
inclined to the instantaneous position

]
of the rod be greater than cot -1

will
-\
show
that
it
never reach the centre of the rod, k 2 being the radius of

its
gyration of the rod about

255.
centre.
A
c,
uniform rod of weight
W and length
fine vertical
c
is
supported
of
in a horizontal position
by two
threads, each
length
and each
is
attached at a distance
is
from the centre

of a
of the rod.
The rod
slightly displaced
is
by the action
horizontal couple
whose moment
bW, and which does not

line.
move
the centre of the rod out of a vertical
Show
that the
time of a small oscillation of the rod will be
256.
circular lamina, rotating about an axis through the

its
tion
plane,
is
placed in an inclined posi-
on a smooth horizontal plane.
Give a general explanation

principles,
will
of the motion
deduced from dynamical
and show that

fall
under certain circumstances the lamina

ground, but that
its
never
to the
centre will perform vertical oscillations, the
time of an oscillation beins:
being the inclination of the lamina to the horizon at

its
first,
radius,
and
to its
angular velocity.
a smooth horizontal plane,
257.
A beam rests with one end on

beam and
and has the other suspended from a point above the plane by a
weightless, inextensible string; the
beam
is
slightly displaced in
oscil-
the plane of
lation.
string.
Find the time of a small
226
2 5 8.
RIGID DYNAMICS.
Find the condition that a free
rigid
body
in
motion
may
be reduced to rest by a single blow.

259.
perfectly rough horizontal plane
is
made
to rotate
with constant angular velocity about a vertical axis which meets

the plane in O.
sphere
is
projected on the plane at a point
P so
in
that the centre of the sphere has initially the
same
velocity
direction
and magnitude as
at a point Q.
if
the sphere had been placed
freely
on the plane
Show
that the sphere's centre
will describe a circle of radius
that
OR
is
parallel
OQ, and whose centre and equal to OP.
is
such
260.
If a free rigid
body be struck with a given impulse, and

initially at rest after
any point of the body be

dition that this
the blow, show
that a line of points will also be at rest, and determine the con-
may
be the case in a body previously at
rest.
261.
inertia
free rigid
body
of
mass
111
is
at rest, its
its
moments
of
about the principal axes through

C.
its
it
centre of inertia
being A, B,
Supposing the body

will
to
be struck with an impulse
through
centre of inertia, and with an impulsive couple G,

revolve for an instant about an axis whose
prove that
velocity
is
in the direction of its
length and equal to
LX MY NZ
Am
I? A*
X,
Y,
Bui
J/-
Cm
.V- x
'
B2
being the components of R, and L,
MN
t
the com-
ponents of G, in the principal planes.

262.
latter
sphere with a sphere within
it,
the diameter of the

is
being equal to the radius of the former,
placed on a
its
perfectly rough inclined plane, with the centre of inertia at
shortest distance from the plane, and
is
then
it
left to itself.
Find
the angular velocity of the body
when
has rolled round just
once, and determine the pressure then upon the plane.
263.
227
Two
equal rods of the same material are connected by a
free joint
plane
and placed in one straight line on a smooth horizontal one of them is struck perpendicularly to its length at its
extremity remote from the other rod.

velocity
Show
that
is
the
linear
communicated
blow
to its
centre
of inertia
one-fourth
it
greater than that which would have been communicated to
by a
In
similar
if
the rod had been free.
the
subsequent motion show that the minimum angle

is
which the rods make with one another

264.
cos" 1 ^.
AB, BC,
CD
is
are three equal uniform rods lying in a

at
straight line on a
smooth horizontal plane, and freely jointed

applied at the midpoint of BC.
and
a blow
Show
that
if co
be the
initial
angular velocity of
AB
or
CD, 6 the angle
which they make with
BC at
dd
dt
time
/,
=
l
co
V( +
sin 2 #)'
'
265.
A
is
it
lamina of any form lying on a smooth horizontal
plane
struck a horizontal blow.

will
Determine the point about

if
c, c'
which
begin to turn, and prove that
be the
dis-
tances from the centre of inertia of the lamina of this point and
of the line of action of the
blow respectively,^'
= k2
where k
is
the radius of gyration of the lamina about the vertical line
through
266.
its
centre of inertia.
circular lamina
whose surface
is
rough
is
capable of
revolution about a vertical axis through

to its plane,
its
centre perpendicular
and a
If the
particle
lamina
is
attached to
whose mass is equal to that of the the axis by an inelastic string and rests on
in its
the lamina.
lamina be struck a blow
own
plane,
determine the motion.
whose wheels are equal and body horizontal is proceeding steadily along a level rough road. Obtain equations for determining the instantaneous impulses on the machine
267.
bicycle
when
angle
the front wheel

6.
is
suddenly turned through a horizontal
228
RIGID DYNAMICS.
that the initial
Show
horizontal angular velocity
is
propor-
tional to the original velocity.
268.
The
radii of the portions of a horizontal differential axle
of weight
W are a
and
is
b,
and
W.
their lengths are b

If the
and
a.
The
reit
suspended weight
through
also
balancing power be
moved and the weight be allowed

will fall
to fall,
show that
in time
("-? wP & Z(a-bf + 2ab

269.
Show how
to
determine the angular velocities of a

of
rotating mass
by observations
its
the instantaneous
direction
cosines of points on
lar
surface referred to three fixed rectangu;
axes,
and
their time rates of increase

?
i.e.
dt
etc.
How
many such
270.
observations are necessary
sphere composed of an
is
infinite
number
of infinitely
thin concentric shells

forces.
rotating about a
common
axis
under no
Assuming
one
at
that the friction of any shell on the consecu-
tive external
any point varies as the square of the angular

of the point
2
r, co
velocity
and the distance
from the
axis,
obtain the
equation
kr
rco
for the angular velocity at
any
time of shell of radius

equation
is
and show that the solution

),
of this
t^w
=/{
where/ is an
arbitrary function.
271.
a
Qgg with its axis horizontal is rolling steadily round rough vertical cone of semi-vertical angle a. The shape,
An
weight,
moment
of inertia, etc., of the
egg being known,
find
the friction acting, and the time of completing a circuit.

272.
A vertical, double,
a.
elastic,
wire helix
is
is
rigidlv attached at
0 retain
one end to a horizontal bar, mass J I, and

the
constrained
same radius
\m additional
c.
When in equilibrium the tangent angle is a. weight Mgd or a torsion couple MgaO, can alter
t
into a
0.
If
the bar be depressed, and consequently turned
through an angle, show that the time of a small oscillation
be 2t7\
N
{
229
will
(cos a
+ sin a)
3
>
)
where
m
and
na are the lengths
of
the helix and the bar respectively.

275.
Four
equal, smooth, inelastic, circular discs of radius a
are placed in one plane with their centres at the four corners
of a square of
which each side
= 2 a.
They
attract
is
one another
with a force varying as the distance.

of
A blow
given to one
them
in
the line of one of the diagonals of the square.
Investigate the whole of the subsequent motion.

274.
and
are two points in a uniform rod equidistant
from
its
centre.
is
The hinge
line.
The rod can move freely about a hinge at P. constrained to move up and down in a vertical
If the
motion be such that
Q moves
in a horizontal line,
determine the velocity when the rod has any given inclination,
the rod being supposed to start from rest in a horizontal position.
In the case in which the whole length of the rod
=PQs/$
.
show that the time

275.
of a complete oscillation
is
(2 of
-2 7r)f (T^)
circular
and a semicircular lamina

material,
equal radii a
are
made
of the
same
is
which
is
perfectly rough.
Their
centres are joined by a tight inelastic cord; also the centre of

the circular lamina
circular lamina
joined to the highest point of the semistring of length
by a
aV$.
The
semicircular
lamina stands with
its
base on a perfectly rough, inelastic plane.
The
and
circular lamina rests

in
on the top of the semicircular lamina

it.
the same vertical plane with
It is
disturbed from
it
its
position of equilibrium.
Prove that just after
has struck the
plane
its
angular velocity
= "Vl^-
)-
2/6.
ity,
A uniform rod,
capable of free motion about one extremit
has a particle attached to
at the other extremity

is
by means
to
of a string of length /
and the system

the rod
is
abandoned freely
the action of gravity
when
inclined at an angle to
230
RIGID DYNAMICS.
is
the horizon and the string
vertical.
Prove that the radius of

is
curvature of the particle's
initial
*
path
9/
;;/ -
1.
+2p
cos 3 -a
.
sin(2
3 sin2 a)'
is
m and/
277.
being the masses of the rod and particle respectively.

a
To
c,
smooth horizontal plane

is
fastened a hoop of
friction.
radius
which
rough
inside,
/x
being the coefficient of

is
In contact with this a disc of radius a

lar velocity
spun with
initial
angu-
n and
its
centre
is
projected with velocity v in such
a direction as to be most retarded a time

fj,
by
friction.
Show
that after
-=
"^ the disc will roll on the inside of
arvanfc*
the hoop.
278.
An
elephant
rolls a
inches and mass

/3
directly
homogeneous sphere of diameter a up a perfectly rough plane inclined

at a point distant
to the horizon,
by balancing himself
from
the sphere's highest point at each instant.
Show
that, the
elephant being conceived as without magnitude but of mass E,
he
will
move
the sphere through a space

f~2
'
g
a
'
ifsin a (E+S)s'ml3
Ecos(a + /3)+E+^S'
commencement
of the
where
motion.
279.
is
the time elapsed since the
circular disc of
mass
M and
radius r can
move about
fine
a fixed point
is
in its circumference,
it
and an endless
;;/,
string
wound round
carrying a particle of mass
which
is initially
projected from the disc at the other end of the diameter through
A, with a velocity v normally to the
disc,
which
is
then at
rest.
Show
that the angular velocity of the string will vanish
when
the length of the string
unwound
(3
is
that which initially sub-
tended
at the point
an angle

3
(/3tan/3+i)cos2 /3+
= m
o,
and that the angular velocity of the
disc
is
then --(2+/3 tan/S)
'-
280.
231
uniform rod
the
which
is fixed,
AB can turn freely about the end A, end B being attached to the point C, distant c
elastic string
vertically
to
above A, by an
its
which would be stretched
double
length by a tension equal to the weight of the rod.

in equilibrium
If the rod
be
when
horizontal and be slightly

its
displaced in a vertical plane, prove that the period of

oscillations
is
small
v(
b, is
)>
where p
is
the stretched length of the
string in equilibrium.
281.
A
it
hollow cylinder, of which the exterior and interior
radii are a
and
perfectly rough inside

c.
and
outside,
and has
inside
in
a rough solid cylinder of radius
When
table,
the two are
motion on a perfectly rough horizontal
prove that
where
M and
are the masses of the hollow and the solid
cylinder respectively,
the
angle the
hollow cylinder
has
turned through, and 6 the angle which the plane containing

their axes
makes with the

string of length
vertical after the time

c,
/.
282.
fixed at
one end,
is
tied to a
uniform
lamina at a point distant b from the centre of

centre of inertia
is
inertia.
The
plane
initially at
the greatest possible distance

to
it
from the
fixed point
and has a velocity v given

to the string.
is
in the
of the lamina
and perpendicular
Prove that when

a
the angle between the string and line b
maximum, the
angular velocity of the lamina

string
is
is
and the tension of the

JrC
2
775
mv2c
K-775
2c(b+c)
.,
,
MK
being the greatest
moment
of inertia of the lamina at the centre of inertia.
283.
In a circular lamina which rests on a smooth horizontal

its
t.ble
and which can turn freely about

is cut.
centre,
which
is fixed,
a circular groove
If a
heavy
particle
be projected along
the groove, supposed rough, with given velocity, find the time
ii
which the
(ii)
particle will
make
a complete revolution
(i)
in
space,
relatively in the groove.
232
284.
RIGID DYNAMICS.
Four equal
rods,
each of mass
and length
/,
are con-
nected by smooth joints at their extremities so as to form a
rhombus.
constant force tnf
is
applied to each rod at

length,
its
middle point, and perpendicular to

ing outwards.
If
its
each force tend-
the equilibrium of the system be slightly
disturbed by pressing two opposite corners towards each other,
and the system be then abandoned
to the action of the forces,
show
that the time of a small oscillation in the

is
form
of the
system
285.
2it\\[
-J.
spherical shell of radius a and mass
m
of
rolls
along a
rough horizontal plane, whilst a smooth particle

lates within the shell in the vertical
plane in
mass P oscilwhich the centre

from the
be the
)
of the shell moves, the particle never being very far
lowest point.
Show
\,
that the time of
its oscillation will

2
same
\(m
as that of a simple
+ P)a2 + mk2
pendulum of length = ma {a + k2 -=where k is the radius of gyration of the
shell about a diameter.
286.
solid cylinder with projecting screw-thread is freely

its
movable about
with
a
axis
fixed vertically,
and a hollow cylinder

it
corresponding groove works freely about
without
friction.
Find the moment of the couple which must act on

its
the solid cylinder in a plane perpendicular to

that the hollow cylinder
287.
axis in order
may have no
from
rest
vertical motion.
/ of
sphere
rolls
down a given length
rough inclined plane, and then traverses a smooth part of the

plane of length
;///.
Find the impulse which the sphere sustains
when
perfect rolling again commences, and

is
show
that the subif
sequent velocity
less
than
it
would have been
the whole
;//
plane had been rough.
In the particular case when

less
120,
show
in
that the velocity
is
than
it
would otherwise have been
the ratio of 67 to 77.

288.
A rough
sphere
is
placed upon a rough horizontal plane
which revolves uniformly about a vertical axis; the centre of
the sphere the
is
233
attracted to a point in the axis of rotation,
and
in
same
horizontal plane with itself by a force varying as the
distance.

heavy uniform beam
289.
vertical
AB
is
capable of rotating in a
its
plane about a fixed axis passing through

is
middle
If
point C, and
inclined to the vertical at an angle of 6o.
a perfectly elastic ball fall
upon
it
from a given height,
find
how long
again.
290.
a time will elapse before the ball strikes the
beam
sphere rests on a rough horizontal plane, half

elastic
its
weight being supported by an

highest point of the sphere
is
;
string attached to the
the natural length of the string
equal to the radius and the stretched length to the diameter

If the
of the sphere.
vertical plane,
sphere be slightly displaced parallel to a

of an oscillation
is
show that the time
""vf-^ )
291.
uniform heavy rod, movable about
its
middle points,
elastic strings,
has
its
extremities connected with a point

is
by
the natural length of each of which
equal to the length
AB.
Find the period

292.
of its small oscillations.

is in
is
squirrel
a cylindrical cage and oscillating with

horizontal.
it
about
its axis,
which
At
the instant
when he
is
at
the highest point of the oscillation, he leaps to the opposite
extremity of the diameter and arrives there at the same instant

as the point which he
293.
left.
Determine
his leap completely.
perfectly rough sphere rolls on the internal surface
of a fixed cone,
whose
axis
is
vertical
and vertex downwards.

its
Prove that the angular velocity about
vertical diameter
is
always the same and that the projection on a horizontal plane

of the radius vector of
its
centre,
measured from the
axis,
sweeps
out areas proportional to the times.
Show
also that the polar
equation to the projection on a horizontal plane of the path of

the centre
is
/
(fi/i
5^ sin
cos
2 cy cos
234
RIGID DYNAMICS.
is
where
the semi-vertical
angle, 7
the
constant angular
is
velocity about the vertical diameter,
and h
half the area
swept out by the radius vector

294.
table,
its
in a unit of time.
A thin
circular disc
is
set rotating
its
on a smooth horizontal
about a vertical axis through

<o
plane, with angular velocity

v.
in a
wind blowing with uniform

frictional resistance
;;/
horizontal velocity
Supposing the
on a
small surface a at rest to be cvma, where

of
is
the mass of a unit

in
area,
ct
show that the angle turned through

),
any time
is
(1 e~
c
-i't
and that the centre

ct
of gravity
moves through
a space
-{\c~
c
).
Determine the same quantities for a
frictional
resistance
295.
ring, its
= cifima.
of length 2 a passes through a small fixed
to
A uniform rod
Show
upper end being constrained

that
if
move
in a horizontal
straight groove.
the rod be slightly displaced from
the position of equilibrium, the length of the isochronous simple
pendulum
will
be
',
where
is
the distance of th e ring
from the groove.

296.
homogeneous
its
solid
of
revolution spins with great

is
rapidity about
axis of figure,
which
constrained to
move
in
the meridian.
Prove that the axis

its
will oscillate isochronouslv,
and determine
297.
positions of stable and unstable equilibrium.
wire in the form of the portion of the curve
ra{ +cos
1
0),
cut off by the

velocity
a>.
initial line,
rotates about the origin with angular
Show
that the tendency to break at a point
B=
is
measured by
length.
298.
^V^'Wô)2
where
>ti
is
the mass of a unit of
Show
is
that in every centrobaric
body the central
ellipsoid
?
of inertia
a sphere.
Is the converse of this proposition true
299.
235
uniform sphere
is
placed in contact with the exterior

Its centre is
surface of a perfectly rough cone.
acted on by a
force the direction of which always meets the axis of the cone
at right angles
and the intensity
of
which varies inversely as the

Prove that
its
if
cube of the distance from that
axis.
the sphere
be properly started the path described by
centre will meet

at the
every generating line of the cone on which

1 ansde.
it lies
same
300.
sphere of radius a
/
is
suspended from a fixed point by

to rotate
if
a string of length
and
is
co.
made
about a vertical axis

the string
with an angular velocity

oscillations about its
Prove that
position, the
make
small
mean
motion of the centre of
gravity will be represented by a series of terms of the form
Xcos
{kt
+ M),
{!k 2
where the several values
of
k are the roots
of the
equation
301.
g) (k 2 wk
\=
string of
body is attached to a fixed point by a weightless length /, which is connected with the body by a socket
rigid
(permitting the body to rotate freely without twisting the string)

at a point
inertia,
on
its
surface where an axis through

is
its
centre of
or a
about which the radius of gyration
maximum
minimum,
velocity
tight,
co
= k,
meets
it.
The body
is
set rotating with angular

is
about such axis placed vertically (the string, which
go,
making an angle a with the vertical), and being then let show that it will ultimately revolve with uniform angular
velocity
302.
Three equal uniform rods placed

If
in a straight line are
jointed to one another
by hinges, and move with a velocity v

the middle point of the
that the extremities of
fixed,
perpendicular to their lengths.
middle rod become suddenly
show
}
7r the other two will meet in time ^
a being the length of each
rod.
236
303.
RIGID DYNAMICS.
A
its
top in the form of a surface of revolution, with a

is
cir-
cular plane end,
set spinning
on a smooth horizontal plane

inclined at an angle a to the
about
axis of figure,
It is
which
is
vertical.
required to determine the motion and to show that

fall
the axis will begin to
or to rise according as
tan a
>
or
<
-,
where b
end.
304.
is
the radius of the circular plane end perpendicular to

is
the axis, and a
the distance of the centre of inertia from this
heavy uniform beam

fixed point
AB
of length a
is
is
;
capable of
freely turning about the point A,
which
fixed
the end
is
suspended from a
length
c.
C by
a fine inextensible chain of

is
The system being
at rest
slightly disturbed.
Find
the time of a small oscillation, the weight of the chain being

neglected.
Examine the case

305.
in
which the
line
AC is
vertical.
perfectly rough sphere of radius a
moves on the con-
cave surface of a vertical cylinder of radius a
b,
and the centre

position after
of the sphere initially has a velocity v in a horizontal direction.
Show
a time
that the depth of

/ is
?_/>_ /)2/ t -^-#Yi
its
centre below the

-Vir>T-.^ where
j;~ n-
initial
u/\ cos;//),
r>rvc
=
2 7b
1- 2
Show
also that in order that perfect rolling
may
be main\2b1r
tained the coefficient of friction must not be less than

306.
heavy particle
is
slides clown the tube of
an Archi-
median screw, which

its
vertical
and capable of turning about
axis.
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THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA

DEMONSTRATOR IN PHYSICS IN THE UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

up and electrotypcd January,

ini ""l Uasfl. CJ.S.A

on Rigid Dynamics has arisen

out of a course of lectures delivered by me, during the past

intended as a text-book for those who, having already

mastered the elements of

and acquired some

become acquainted with the

principles underlying the equations

works of Routh and

suggestions and problems,

believe that the

that they will not only aid beginners in appreciating

they must travel

order to become intimate with those higher

thanks are due Mr.

Glashan of Ottawa, who has

kindly read the

collection of miscellaneous problems.

University of Toronto, Aug.

Equations of Motion referred to Axes fixed

Angular Coordinates of the Body

Motion about a Fixed Point.

prove the Rotation of the Earth upon

Hopkins' Electrical Gyroscope

Gyroscope of Gustav Magnus

Note on the Pendulum and the Top

In attempting to solve the equations of motion of a Rigid

employed for a single

depend on the extent and shape

of the body, on its density,

particular line or system of coordinate axes.

elements of the body by the squares of their perpendicular

expressed in the form

the mass of the body,

called the radius of gyration.

referred to three coordinate rectangular axes, the

of inertia about the three axes will evidently be

being the mass of any element at the point

summation being taken throughout the body.

defined with reference to two planes

one another and

found by multiplying the

elements by the products of their distances from these coordi-

nate planes, and

summing them throughout

for three rectangular axes

when the law

shape of the body

given, the finding of a

known and the moment or of a

product of inertia involves an integration

and the following

show how the process

be used for this purpose.

Further on, several propositions

be given by which the method

uniform rod of small cross-section about a line perpenit

the length of the rod be 2