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Synopsis The FSAE racecar project was run at the University of Western Australia by the Department of Mechanical and
Materials Engineering for the first time in the year 2001. In the first year of the project running, I took part in the project as Area Manager for the Braking design and construction component of the vehicle. This report can be split into two sections. The first section discusses the design and construction of a braking system for a formula SAE racecar and the second discusses experimentation and performance evaluation of differently ventilated braking rotors.
In the first section I look at various components designed or procured, manufactured and assembled on the FSAE racecar. These components include the pedal box, three brake rotors and calipers and the cars hydraulic system, which includes various parts such as the master cylinders. The results from this section outline the successful implementation of a braking system that fulfills the requirements of cost, safety, performance and weight. In the second section of the report I discuss design and construction of a test rig for evaluation of various brake rotors. I then discuss some experimental work done on the rotors using the constructed test rig and move onto discussion of the results of these rotors. The results from this section outline first that the ventilated rotor did not outperform a standard rotor under the same testing conditions, and secondly that temperature is directly linked with braking performance.
Nomenclature qin M Gr g R Nu h k Re A qconv Vo Vi Vv Ri P P Qc Ac Cp Pr m n C D Gravitational Acceleration Radius of rotor PI Temperature Kinematic Viscosity Nusselt Number Convective coefficient of Heat transfer Thermal Conductivity Reynolds Number Surface area of rotor Wall and fluid temperature difference Heat out due to free convection Velocity of air at R Velocity of air at Ri Velocity of air inside vane Inner radius of rotor Density of fluid Pressure Change in pressure Volumetric flow-rate through vane Cross sectional area of Cylinder Viscosity of air Specific heat of air Prandtl Number Indicy used to raise Reynolds Number to a power Indicy used to raise Prandtl Number to a power Flow constant through tube Hydraullic Diameter ii Total power into rotor Frictional Torque Angular Velocity Grashoff Number
K lm mdisk Cpdisk
Wong Heat flow model Parameter Logarithmic mean temperature difference Mass of rotor Specific heat of rotor
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Table of Contents 1.0 Introduction ____________________________________________________________ 1 2.0 Part 1: FSAE Racecar Braking System Design __________________________________ 1
2.1 Current Racecar Braking System Design _______________________________________ 1 2.2 Analysis of the Task ________________________________________________________ 3 2.3 Constraints _______________________________________________________________ 4
2.3.1 Weight of the Braking System _____________________________________________________ 4 2.3.2 Cost of the Braking System _______________________________________________________ 5 2.3.3 Safety of the Braking System _____________________________________________________ 5 2.3.4 Performance __________________________________________________________________ 5
2.4 Design, Manufacture and Procurement of Braking System Parts ___________________ 6

2.4.1 Overview _____________________________________________________________________ 6 2.4.2 Calipers ______________________________________________________________________ 8 2.4.3 Rotors _______________________________________________________________________ 9 2.4.4 Pedal Box ___________________________________________________________________ 11 2.4.5 Hydraulics ___________________________________________________________________ 12 2.4.6 Electrics_____________________________________________________________________ 14 2.4.7 Other _______________________________________________________________________ 14
2.5 Assembly ________________________________________________________________ 15

2.5.1 Rotors ______________________________________________________________________ 15 2.5.2 Calipers _____________________________________________________________________ 15 2.5.3 Pedal Box ___________________________________________________________________ 15 2.5.4 Hydraulics ___________________________________________________________________ 16 2.5.5 Electrics_____________________________________________________________________ 16
2.6 Results and Conclusion on Braking System Design, Manufacture and Implementation 16
3.0 Part 2: Experimental Exploration of the Effect of Brake Rotor Ventilation on Disk Brake Performance _______________________________________________________________ 18
3.1 Introduction _____________________________________________________________ 18 3.2 Ventilated Rotors _________________________________________________________ 19
3.2.1 Objective ____________________________________________________________________ 19 3.2.2 Overview of Current Rotor Design ________________________________________________ 20 3.2.3 Rotor Design _________________________________________________________________ 21 3.2.4 Rotor Material ________________________________________________________________ 24
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3.3 Test Rig _________________________________________________________________ 24

3.3.1 Design Iterations ______________________________________________________________ 25 3.3.2 Components__________________________________________________________________ 26
3.4 Testing Instrumentation____________________________________________________ 30

3.4.1 Strain Gauges on the Sensitive Arm Holding the Caliper _______________________________ 30 3.4.2 Temperature Measurement ______________________________________________________ 30 3.4.3 Tachometer __________________________________________________________________ 34
3.5 Experimentation __________________________________________________________ 34

3.5.1 Experiment 1- Mapping Coefficient of friction Vs Time ________________________________ 35 3.5.2 Experiment 2 Temperature Vs Time for unloaded spinning rotor as it cools from 440DegC ___ 36 3.5.3 Experiment 3 Finding the steady state temperature for a certain constant braking power ______ 36 3.5.4 Experiment 4 (Essentially the same as Experiment 1 but now with a successful temperature measurement approach) _____________________________________________________________ 37 3.5.5 Description of Experiment- What We planned _______________________________________ 37 3.5.6 Problems Encountered- What We Didnt Plan________________________________________ 38
3.6 Statement of Results _______________________________________________________ 40

3.6.1 Outline of results ______________________________________________________________ 40 3.6.2 Experiment 1 _________________________________________________________________ 41 3.6.3 Experiment 2 _________________________________________________________________ 41 3.6.4 Experiment 3 _________________________________________________________________ 41 3.6.5 Experiment 4 _________________________________________________________________ 42
3.7 Discussion of Results ______________________________________________________ 44

3.7.1 Discussion of Experiment 1 ______________________________________________________ 45 3.7.2 Discussion of Experiment 2 ______________________________________________________ 45 3.7.3 Discussion of Experiment 3 ______________________________________________________ 45 3.7.4 Discussion of Experiment 2 ______________________________________________________ 51 3.7.5 Discussion of Experiment 4 Discussion_____________________________________________ 52 3.7.6 Sources of Error and Improvements _______________________________________________ 53 3.7.7 Rig Design changes ____________________________________________________________ 54
4.0 Conclusion______________________________________________________________ 55 5.0 References ______________________________________________________________ 56
Table of Tables
Table 1: Data required for calculation of Equation (8) __________________________________________ 47
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Table of Figures
Figure 1: Physical Location of Pedals and Brakes on Car ________________________________________ 7 Figure 2: AP Racing Caliper, 2 used at front wheels _____________________________________________ 9 Figure 3: Nissin Caliper acquired from wrecked motorcycle. Used one on rear disk brake. _______________ 9 Figure 4: Rear Brake Rotor _______________________________________________________________ 10 Figure 5: Front Brake Rotor ______________________________________________________________ 10 Figure 6: Pedal Box in Location ___________________________________________________________ 12 Figure 7: Cars Hydraulic System Schematic _________________________________________________ 13 Figure 8: How the Bias Bar Works _________________________________________________________ 14 Figure 9: Ventilated Rotor Manufacturing Process _____________________________________________ 22 Figure 10: Picture of solid rotor after use. No slots were required for this rotor. ______________________ 22 Figure 11: Solid Edge drawing of straight vane rotor. __________________________________________ 23 Figure 12: SolidEdge Drawing of Curved Vane Rotor. __________________________________________ 24 Figure 13: Counter-Balance Mechanism with Spring Balance ____________________________________ 25 Figure 14: Sliding Sheath Proposal _________________________________________________________ 26 Figure 15: Test Rig _____________________________________________________________________ 27 Figure 16: Sensitive Arm _________________________________________________________________ 27 Figure 17: Showing Bend in Sensitive Arm ___________________________________________________ 28 Figure 18: Master Cylinder & Lever ________________________________________________________ 29 Figure 19: Hub with rotor ready to install in lathe chuck ________________________________________ 30 Figure 20: Resistors for Temperature Reference in IR Photography ________________________________ 32 Figure 21: Infrared Thermometer __________________________________________________________ 33 Figure 22: Thermocouples Imbedded in Brake Pad _____________________________________________ 33 Figure 23: Sketch of cross-section with temp gradients __________________________________________ 34 Figure 24: Buckled Brake Rotor ___________________________________________________________ 38 Figure 25: Proposed Temperature and Stress Of the Rotor Whilst Passing through Pads________________ 39 Figure 26: Pressure Gauge _______________________________________________________________ 40 Figure 27: Rotor Temperature without Loading, Cooling from 440oC_______________________________ 41 Figure 28: Temperature of Rotors under Constant Frictional Force Load ___________________________ 42 Figure 29: Temperature & Coefficient of Friction Vs Time with Small Normal Force through Caliper (Solid rotor) ________________________________________________________________________________ 43 Figure 30: Temperature & Coefficient of Friction with Medium Normal Force through Caliper (Solid rotor) _____________________________________________________________________________________ 43 Figure 31: Temperature & Coefficient Of Friction with High Normal force through Caliper (Solid rotor)___ 44 Figure 32: Vane Modeled as a Series of Cylindrical Tubes _______________________________________ 48 Figure 33: AirFlow Velocity through Vane ___________________________________________________ 48 Figure 34: Theoretical Cooling Curve of a Solid Rotor and the Observed Cooling Curve for a Solid Rotor. _ 52
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Experimental Exploration of the Effect of Brake Rotor Ventilation on Disk Brake Performance
Isaac Thyer
1.0
INTRODUCTION
This work can be seen as consisting of two main parts. The first part discusses the design and construction of a Formula SAE open-wheeler racecar. The second part discusses experimental work carried out on the relative braking performance of ventilated and with standard solid rotors. In the first section of the report, chapter 2, I discuss the steps taken in design of the braking system. These include an analysis of the task of the braking system, the constraints placed upon the braking system including cost, weight, performance and safety, design and manufacture of the individual parts required for a braking system and the assembly of the final product. In the second section of the report I discuss ventilated rotor technology to date. I also discuss the design and construction of the rotors to be examined, the design and construction of the rig used for testing the rotors, the results of the experiments and suggestions of improvements to the experiment along with areas in which our knowledge of ventilated rotors can be extended through further research using the test rig. 2.0 PART 1: FSAE RACECAR BRAKING SYSTEM DESIGN 2.1 Current Racecar Braking System Design The braking system on a racecar has many design attributes that a standard braking system does not have. As in all component designs for cars there is a tradeoff between weight and cost in racecar braking systems. As weight generally equates with higher speeds it becomes more important for racecars designs to settle with design priorities focussed on weight. However, in standard car brake designs, it is more likely that cost will be the main priority. The performance of a racecar relies heavily on the performance of the braking system. This is due to the fact that a more powerful braking potential will allow the driver of the vehicle to start braking later than would normally be required. The use of the braking system is this way will cause the braking components to experience large heat inputs and consequently the braking systems in racecars is designed for higher rates of heat dissipation. In this design review I will first discuss the current designs of racecar braking systems that improve performance of the braking systems in terms of higher frictional force capacity, and secondly I will discuss the technology of heat dissipation and thirdly some other aspects of braking control and safety. The disk brake. The advantages that the disk brake had over the then current drum brake design were its light-weightiness, its relative ease of manufacture, its cost of 1
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manufacture, simplicity of design, ease of service and overall better performance. The disk brake system has been used on many racecars since its invention and the racecar has capitalized on the disk brakes relative light-weightiness whilst enjoying improved performance. The caliper is the part of the disk brake that exerts a normal force on the rotor. Advances in moulding technologies have allowed more complex and highly refined calipers. One of the advances has been to increase the number of pistons acting in a caliper. The advantage that this has over the standard single piston caliper is to apply a spread of force over the area of the brake pad and to concentrate larger forces at the leading edge of the pad. As the leading edge of the pad does substantially more work than the rear of the pad, a larger force over this area will mean work is situated where it is needed. The rotor material is obviously important in determination of the friction coefficient between rotor and pad.
Figure 1: A Typical ventilated Rotor
The ventilated rotor became common in the period 1970 to 1980. This rotor aims to dissipate heat to its surrounding air using convective heat transfer. This rotor is less common today in high performance racecars due to advanced composite materials technology, but is still relatively common on streetcars. The value of the ventilated rotor in terms of its ability to dissipate heat is discussed in the second part of this thesis. 2
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The cross-drilled rotor has many advantages over a standard solid rotor. These include its increased friction coefficient, decreased weight and increased surface area for heat dissipation. The cross-drilled rotor is used on more on off-road motorcycles. This is thought to be due to both aesthetic reasons (as the rotors on the motorcycle are clearly visible to the eye) and its ability to clean dirt from the rotor face. The increased coefficient of friction of the crossdrilled rotor is because there are irregularities in the rotor face that cause higher levels of interaction between the pad and the rotor face. It is also thought that under sustained braking conditions the cross drilled rotor is able to withstand brake fade more effectively as the lubricating affect is lost in the drill holes on the rotor face. This is also examined in part 2 of this thesis. The cross drilling of the rotor introduces significant stress risers to the rotor and these rotors have been known to fail in fatigue. The alternative to the cross drilling is machining of cleaning grooves on the surface of a standard solid rotor. All the advantages of the cross-drilled rotor are found in this rotor but are not as pronounced. Ram air ventilation is a method used by many racing teams for cooling of the braking systems. This method of heat transfer we see in such a situation is known as forced convection. This method of heat transfer is often more effective than natural convection as in natural convection, the movement of the air is slow. In ram air ventilation a pipe runs from the front scoop of the car and directs the flow of air onto the braking system. The pressure gradient along the pipe is proportional to the square of velocity.
2.2 Analysis of the Task

The task for the FSAE team was to make a racecar that would be the fastest on the track. And all of the team involved has striven to achieve this goal. However, somebody did mention to me in jest that I was the only member of the team that was working to hinder the achievement of this goal by making the car slow down. This struck me as an odd thought at first, but the truth of the matter is that a well designed braking system is important in achieving higher speeds. This is because the driver can have confidence in his/her braking system to stop them from higher speeds if they know that the braking system will not fail them. This raises the point of safety. The brakes rank as the most important safety part on the car as poor braking performance could not only injure the driver but also other drivers. A well-constructed chassis will protect the driver in the advent of a crash, but a well-designed and flexible braking system will avoid a crash. 3
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The braking system consists of a chain of parts all connected in special ways, the weakest of which will limit the overall strength of the braking system As such, my designs have been focused on the typical problem areas of poor braking performance. Each specific part to the braking system will be described in terms of its design and manufacture to fit the many constraints placed upon the braking system. As the FSAE project had never been undertaken by UWA before, it was difficult to know exactly what was required for the braking system. This meant that the braking system would have to be flexible enough to adapt to the demands placed upon it. This theme of my design can be seen in all part areas, but especially in the pedal box design. Flexible designs were also important for compatibility with other groups within the team, as it was inevitable that miscommunication would pose some problems for the team, and certain parts would have to be modified after their manufacture because of this problem. A judging criterion for the competition is the ability for the car to stop in the shortest time possible, which means that the car braking system should be designed to give good braking performance at high speeds. The FSAE rules also specify that the car must be able to lock all four brakes at high speed (100km/h) to be allowed to compete in the competition. These criteria mean that the car braking system must not only have the ability to perform these tasks, but also have the repeatability to perform these tasks indefinitely. The criteria in essence specified the task required for the design and implementation of the braking system. With the copious supply of motorcycle braking parts at hand, I decided to use these parts in all the areas that I could, so as to keep the cost to a minimum. However, it was not always possible to implement these parts, as will be explained later. It was therefore necessary to find other sources for the required parts. 2.3 Constraints The design constraints placed upon the braking system are outlined below. 2.3.1 Weight of the Braking System As the aim of the project was to have the fastest car on the track, it was required that we try to increase our power/weight ratio of the car. To do this requires an increase in power, a decrease in weight or both. Rather than concentrate specifically on one task, it was decided to do moderate amounts of each. As the engine and drive train design groups primarily govern the power, the only way in which this project could assist in the matter was in designing parts with less material whilst retaining strength. Another issue that had to be addressed in relation to this design constraint was the rotational inertia of the braking rotors. 4
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It can be shown that un-sprung weight (that weight that is situated on the end of the suspension; including wheels, tires, hubs and brake rotors) requires 4 times as much energy for lateral movement than does the main car mass. This is due to the rotational inertia that these parts require for the cars movement along the ground. And here there is a trade-off: by decreasing the rotational inertia and making either the disks a smaller radius or thinner, the braking power (all things equal), would decrease, or the heat absorption capacity of the disks would also decrease. It was therefore necessary to find a compromise between increased car performance and increased braking performance. The other main area within the braking system that could be designed to reduce weight was the pedal box. 2.3.2 Cost of the Braking System The rules [See Appendix H] specify that for a car to be legitimate to compete, it must be able to be manufactured for under US$49 000 dollars. To the common person, this figure seems astronomically high, especially seeing that a standard commodore is around half this price. However, as any manufacturing engineer knows, the prototype car is very expensive and cost of subsequent units decrease as specialization, mass production and modular design are used. On completion of our preliminary budgets for our respective parts for the car, the braking system budget was about AUS$4000. The whole prototype braking system had to be manufactured for under AUS$4000, which included labor at AUS$69 per hour. 2.3.3 Safety of the Braking System As mentioned above, the braking system is arguably the most important safety feature on the car. The braking system is therefore required to be reliable and have repeatability under those conditions the car is likely to face. 2.3.4 Performance The momentum of the car is important in determining the capacity of the braking system. A higher momentum, whether it is due to high speed or high mass, will shape the way the braking system is design. Our application (FSAE) was a relatively lightweight vehicle that will travel at comparatively high speeds. A braking system had to be chosen to cater for this requirement, whist not adding substantially to the weight.
Isaac Thyer
2.4 Design, Manufacture and Procurement of Braking System Parts An overview of the braking system design and manufacture can be seen below. Following this, a more detailed account of the design, manufacture/procurement and implementation of each component are written. 2.4.1 Overview The braking system design rules [See Appendix H] (Section 3.2.5) state:
The car must be equipped with a braking system that acts on all four wheels and is operated by a single control. It shall have two independent hydraulic circuits such that in the case of a leak or failure at any point in the system, effective braking control shall be maintained on at least two wheels. Each hydraulic circuit shall have its own fluid reserve, either by the use of separate reservoirs or by the use of a dammed, OEM-style reservoir. A single brake acting on a limited-slip differential is acceptable. The braking system must be protected with scatter shields from failure of the drive train of from minor collisions. Unarmored plastic brake lines are prohibited.
The decisions the team was required to make here were made for us in some circumstances; for example, we knew immediately that the brake lines required armoring. On the other hand, we had other design questions thrown at us, for example, if we were to implement the single rear disk on the car, it would require a starkly different approach to having twin rear disks. Other attributes of the brake system also needed considerable ground thought. The type of brake to be used was discussed and many brake designs were considered including, the drum brake, the band brake and the disk brake. The disk brake arrangement had obvious advantages including their simplicity in function, their performance potential and their ability to be fit into places that the other types of brakes would not have been able to fit. The location of the brakes was also discussed. The advantage of the single disk brake on the rear axle meant that less weight would be added to the car by the braking system and that the system would be relatively cheaper than having to implement two complete braking systems in the rear wheels. The diagram below shows the location of the components.
Experimental Exploration of the Effect of Brake Rotor Ventilation on Disk Brake Performance Front Disk Brakes located inside wheels
Isaac Thyer
Rear Disk Mounted on Differential Housing. [See Appendix B6]
Pedal Box
Figure 1: Physical Location of Pedals and Brakes on Car
The rear braking system is immediately more complicated as it must be incorporated into the rear differential design. This required collaboration with the drive train group for rotor positioning on the differential and caliper positioning on the drive train assembly. The drive train incorporated a specialized Torsen differential that is driven by a sprocket. This was chosen to match the chosen engine for the car, the Honda CBR600R motorcycle engine, which is a chain drive engine. To allow for adjustment to the chain tension, the whole drive train assembly had to be designed to be able to move in the direction of the engine. If the brake rotor was to be mounted on the differential, and the caliper that had to remain in the same position relative to the rotor, then the caliper had to be mounted in such a way as to maintain location with the rotor even under chain tension adjustment. The way this was accomplished was by manufacturing mounting lugs on the differential bearing housing, so that as the bearing housing moved to adjust the chain tension, the caliper moved without relative movement to the differential. The actual positioning of the front braking was a posed difficult designs issue for a long time. The suspension design group required a smaller scrub radius for better handling of the car under cornering. This may have meant that the brakes had to be mounted on the wishbone side of the upright, which introduced a new set of restrictions on the brake size. 7
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A complete front brake system design was produced for this proposal, however, on further calculation with respect to the hubs and uprights, the front braking system was moved back to the opposite side of the front uprights. This caused there to become fewer restrictions placed upon the design of the front braking system in terms of size. An important part of the manufacture of the FSAE racecar was the procurement of various parts that were required for its assembly. Within the braking system, there were parts that could have been manufactured for the car within the workshop, however, because of the time required for their manufacture and the associated cost; these parts were bought readymade. Because a procured part is set in its geometry and mass, the self-manufactured parts that were required to locate around the procured part required flexible designs to adapt to the procured parts in the future. If such a flexible design could not be achieved for any given reason, procurement was made much harder. 2.4.2 Calipers As the caliper is a relatively sophisticated piece of equipment, it was decided early on that these parts should be purchased in a ready-made state. The calipers that were eventually decided upon for the front braking system were AP CP2505 racing calipers [See Appendix I]. These calipers are made of an aluminium alloy and are light in weight. The main constraint placed upon the caliper is the inner diameter of the wheel. The combined radius of the rotor and the extra protrusion of the caliper must not be more than the inner radius of the wheel. As such, it was important to source very small calipers, as our wheels were only 13 diameter. Before settling with the AP calipers, the possibility of using motorcycle calipers was exhausted. Motorcycle calipers were eventually discarded due to the entry angle of the hydraulic hose that fed the slave cylinder within the caliper. As a motorcycle caliper is not constrained in the same way by the inner diameter of the wheel, the entry point of this hose is of no great concern. The Leyland Mini calipers were also considered as the mini has very small wheels. As relatively few minis were made with the disk braking system, the calipers are in short supply and are subsequently very expensive (>$500 ea. secondhand). The AP racing caliper was found on the Internet and the geometry, weight, performance, hose entry point, and cost were all attributes that made this caliper attractive. [See Appendix B5 & B4]
Isaac Thyer
Figure 2: AP Racing Caliper, 2 used at front wheels
The rear caliper was acquired from a wrecked motorcycle the team had previously bought. As such, procurement was not required for this item.
Figure 3: Nissin Caliper acquired from wrecked motorcycle. Used one on rear disk brake.
2.4.3 Rotors All the rotors used on the car required alteration to their design. The rear rotor required holes to be drilled that would locate it on the differential housing. The design for the position of the holes was governed by the differential housing. The rotor that was procured by myself for this application had the flexibility to have a variable pitch radius for the holes. Eight M6 holes were drilled for location of the rotor onto the differential housing. The rear brake disk located itself onto the shoulder that was machined into the outside of the differential housing. This shoulder was made to fit the inner diameter of the rotor. However, once the differential 9
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housing was machined to fit the rotor, it was found that the rotor would not fit onto the shoulder. On closer inspection of the inner diameter of the disk, it was found that it was slightly oval shaped. This required some more machining time to restore the inner diameter to its proper dimensioning. [See Appendix B1&B2]
Holes Drilled Here
Figure 4: Rear Brake Rotor
The front rotors required more modification for the desired result. The rotors were made of cast iron and were consequently quite heavy. To reduce the weight of the rotors it was decided to them to about two thirds of their original width. This meant that the cleaning cuts on the surface of the rotors that reduce dust and gunge build-up would be removed. After the skimming of the rotor, the cleaning cuts had to be re-machined to restore the rotor to its former condition. The machining operations performed on the rotors decreased the strength of the rotors, however, the bulk of the rotor remained and safety problems were not encountered as the rotor retained the required strength for the cars required braking loads.
Figure 5: Front Brake Rotor
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The rotors also had to have a few millimeters of material taken from the radius. This was to give extra room when installing the braking system inside the wheels. This task was performed on a lathe by Michael Ward from the Mechanical Workshop. [See Appendix B1&B7] Modifications shown in Appendix. 2.4.4 Pedal Box Design and implementation of a power-assisted braking system would take considerable time and effort and would also increase the weight of the car. A system could be designed that used pure lever action to produce the required braking force of the racecar. It therefore became clear that the brake pedal must support the most load of any of the three pedals. And as such, the pedal box was designed around the brake pedal. The closest matching brake pedal for our specifications was procured from Revolution Race Gear, and was then trimmed and machined to match the required dimensions of the car and the braking system. The modifications made to the brake pedal included: shortening of the overall length, milling out much of the excess metal to save weight, drilling new support holes for mounting to our specifications and installment of aluminium checkerplate to the foot position of the pedal in order to increase the grip on the pedal. The balance bar is the part of the brake pedal that shares the force of actuation between the braking systems master cylinders; it will be discussed in the hydraulic design section. The accelerator and the clutch pedals did not require the same support for loading as the brake pedal did. These pedals are merely actuators with cables attached to them that run back to actuate different parts on the engine. It was considered important however, that the pedals be made to swing around the same axis as the brake pedal and be approximately the same height as the brake pedal. These pedals were designed with flexibility in mind, as much of the engine work had not yet been completed. In particular, the distance the cable had to travel in order to actuate the clutch and accelerator was not yet known, so the pedal design had to be flexible enough to make the travel length variable for a given pedal arc movement.
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Figure 6: Pedal Box in Location
The clutch and the accelerator pedals were a modular design so as to cut down on manufacturing time for these parts. There were various other minor parts that went into the pedal box manufacture. For example: the positive and negative stops to limit the swing of the pedal, the various spacers that allowed smooth movement of the pedals, the spacers that keep the balance bar perpendicular to the line of action of the pedal, the torsion springs that return the pedals to the desired positions, the pegs that attach the cables to the pedals, the slide rail mechanism that allows the pedal box to be moved forward or backward within the car to allow for driver leg length. 2.4.5 Hydraulics The hydraulic system consists of two master cylinders with integral reservoirs; flexible braided hose, steel pipe, line fittings and the calipers. A layout sketch below describes the actual system best.
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Figure 7: Cars Hydraulic System Schematic
The rear pipe runs all the way to the drive train chassis housing [See Appendix G1], where the pipe is replaced by flexible braided hosing to meet the caliper. The flexible hosing allows the movement of the caliper mounted on the differential that is required for chain tension adjustment. The dimensions of: the caliper slave pistons area, the force advantage of the pedal, and the desired front to rear brake bias were required for calculation of the required master cylinder diameter. The master cylinder was the final piece of for the hydraulic system, as they came in varying sizes to meet the specifications of the car. The correct master cylinder diameter will balance between a good force advantage (so that the car is not too hard to stop) and a small brake pedal arc length for actuation (so that the brakes are responsive to a quick, short plunge). As highlighted earlier in section 3.2.5 of the braking design rules, the hydraulic system for front and rear braking systems must be completely separate from each other to avoid failure to all brakes. This rule is consistent with popular design of a front and rear braking bias system that allows alteration between the front and the rear braking potential. The principle behind this front/rear braking bias system can be modeled using a beam with a point load that can be moved laterally along the length of the beam. This is shown in the sketch and photo below.
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Figure 8: How the Bias Bar Works
[See Appendix G2] 2.4.6 Electrics The braking system has various requirements for electrical engineering input. As such, I relied on the electrical engineers involved in the project to help me in designing and implementing these various parts. The first was the brake over travel switch outlined in the competition rules section 3.2.5.1:
A brake over travel switch must be installed on all cars. This switch shall be installed so that in the event of brake systems failure such that the brake pedal over travels, a switch must be activated which will stop the engine from running. This switch must kill the ignition and cut the power to any electric fuel pumps. The switch must be arranged so that if the brake pedal is released or depressed a second time, the engine will not restart.
[See Appendix H] This switch is installed on the bracket that holds the master cylinders to the brake pedal box. Enrico Palermo completed the electrical circuit design; the installation work was done by myself. The second electrical devise required by the competition rules is the brake light. The brake light is to be situated at the rear of the car and clearly visible by a trailing car. The electrical engineering for the brake light was again done by Enrico Palermo, whilst the installation of the switch on the brake pedal, and the installation of the actual light was performed by myself. 2.4.7 Other There were many other smaller parts that had to be designed for installation of the braking system. One of these was the floating lug that located the front disk onto the hub 14
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flange. There were twelve of these lugs required, as there were six mounting points for each of the front rotors. These lugs were design to be approximately 1.0mm wider than the thickness of the rotor at the point at which the lugs protruded through the rotor. Some experienced drivers believe that the floating rotor gives better braking performance and this design was implemented as a result of this advice. A Bill of Materials along with the full cost report for the braking section was constructed. [See Appendix E] 2.5 Assembly Assembly of the various parts required for the manufacture of the car required planning and careful consideration to ensure that a particular design group would not inhibit assembly of other parts on the car. The braking system had to be designed, assembled and manufactured for integration into the car before the drive-train was ready to install, as the braking system was an integral part of the differential. The installation and assembly of the various braking components are outlined below. 2.5.1 Rotors The rotors were the first part of the braking system to be installed on the car. The front rotors were designed to bolt onto flanges machined onto the hubs. The rear rotor bolted onto the housing of the differential before its installation. The fasteners for bolting these parts were shortened so that no more than one thread protruded past the extent of the holes. 2.5.2 Calipers The brake pads were installed inside the calipers before the calipers were installed over the rotors. Clearance problems were encountered with the brake pads and the hub flange; the brake pads were trimmed by a couple of millimeters to give better clearance. 2.5.3 Pedal Box Before the pedal box sub assembly was installed, the floor pan was cut and bent to shape by myself. The pedal box was required to have an element of adjustability, and this was achieved by drilling a series of holes in the floor pan so that the pedal box could slide in the forward direction to meet this requirement. The floor pan was then fastened using a series of rivets into the chassis, once this was complete; the pedal box was simply bolted into place. Mike Ward from the workshop completed the assembly of the pedal box. There were various stages in the assembly of the pedal box. First, the brake pedal was bolted to the base plate. Secondly, the clutch and the accelerator pedals were installed on the shaft that ran past the 15
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brake pedal and then bolted to brackets that protruded from the base plate. Thirdly, return springs, positive and negative stops were installed on both the clutch and accelerator pedals. Fourthly, the brackets to hold the brake switch, over-travel switch and clutch switches were installed. 2.5.4 Hydraulics The master cylinders along with the push rods and reservoirs were assembled onto the flange at the rear of the brake pedal. For installation of the hydraulic brake lines a professional hydraulic hose fitter was employed. A simple assembly was used whereby a line splitter at the front hydraulic system master cylinder ran out to each of the two front calipers, and a single line ran from the rear hydraulic system master cylinder to the rear caliper. The lines were fastened to the chassis using cable ties. [See Appendix G2] 2.5.5 Electrics The electrical switches in the braking system were simply bolted to the brackets on the pedal box and connected to the relevant wiring harness connections. 2.6 Results and Conclusion on Braking System Design, Manufacture and Implementation The braking system design was tested in trials performed with the car and has shown to be effective in serving the requirements of the car. The braking system was designed with many constraints in mind: weight, cost, safety and performance. The braking system is relatively low in weight for the budgeted expenditure, however, using lighter, but more expensive, materials could have reduced the weight further. The braking system was the only design area to be delivered to the FSAE team under budget. The safety of the braking system is yet to be proved through repeatability tests, which can only be conclusive through time. The responsiveness of the braking system at the current moment is hopefully reflective of the braking systems design for future safety. One Safety feature that has been built into the braking system includes fully braided hoses to improve the life of the hose through wear against other parts. Another large safety feature is the split hydraulic systems for front and rear braking systems. This safety feature ensures braking on at least two wheels in the event that any component on the other hydraulic system fails. The performance of the braking system is excellent in terms of time taken to bite (responsiveness) and its ability to stop the car at the maximum possible deceleration. A critical factor in any brake system is the requirement for the front wheels of the car to lock before the rear wheels lock. A situation in which the rear wheels lock first will cause the
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yaw of the car to become unstable. This requirement was met in repeat testing of the brake system where the front to rear braking bias was adjusted to meet this requirement. The design of the braking system was a long process of cooperation with other design groups that came into contact with the braking system. There were many design iterations made to the braking system as other design groups progressed, this ensured that the final assembled result would work harmoniously together. This iteration did however result in a relatively short period of time allowed for manufacture of the parts. A shorter design period in which flexibility of design to allow later changes, as the emphasis would have allowed longer manufacturing periods. This may have achieved an overall higher quality result. This is one of the valuable lessons that each member of the FSAE team has taken away with them upon completion of the project. Regardless of the design group in which one situated, the FSAE racecar project is a yearlong commitment to design, manufacture, communication and hard work. It is also an opportunity to gain experience in group and/or project work, and has highlighted the trials and rewards that such group work can bring.
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3.0 PART 2: EXPERIMENTAL EXPLORATION OF THE EFFECT OF BRAKE ROTOR VENTILATION ON DISK BRAKE PERFORMANCE
3.1 Introduction This section of the report discusses the effect of ventilation of a braking rotor on the performance of a braking system. Prof. Stone mentioned the fact that he had attempted to measure torsional vibration of a disk braking setup and had experienced problems with control of the normal force on the rotors. The reason for this was in the way the normal force was being administered through a screw mechanism, as the pads heated and expanded the normal force increased on the rotor. This made torsional vibration testing difficult due to the fact that he could not accurately control the frictional force on the rotor. I was able to overcome this problem by utilizing a mass at the end of a lever to control the normal force. This will be discussed in a later section. It was after these talks with Prof. Stone that I decided to investigate exactly what parameter is most responsible for causing brake fade. We did suspect that temperature was largely responsible for the phenomenon and as such we concentrated our efforts on ways of cooling the brake disk. Ventilation of the brake disk seemed to be the most obvious choice as it was thought that this would allow greater heat flow from the disk and would therefore act to keep the temperature of the disk to a minimum. I considered running a standard disk and having some sort of external mechanism that would change the airflow around the disk, for example: a cowling around the disk with a variable fan speed at the other end. The other idea that I had was to make a variety of internally ventilated disks and to make comparisons between them. This had a number of advantages over the first idea in that it had real life applications for car brake design. For example, ram air tubes utilizing the car's velocity, which ran from the front of the car to the brakes In order to test the ability of each of the different types of disks, it was necessary to build a test rig to simulate braking on a car. I considered the possibility of using a lathe to spin the disk as this would give the required moment and speed. We also needed to devise a mechanism to hold the caliper in place over the disk. This mechanism was required to have sensitivity to the frictional force of the caliper on the disk, so as to measure the power input to the system. The lathe that was chosen was the Macson 17 lathe in G27 of the ground floor of the department of Mechanical & Materials Engineering. This lathe is quite big and proved to be more than adequate to supply the moment that we required to simulate braking. With the 18
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dimensions of the lathe known, my aim was to design a rig that would match the dimensions of the lathe, was simple to make, was not too heavy or expensive, and was adjustable for a range of brake disks. The design of the rig is explained in a later section. 3.2 Ventilated Rotors This section discusses the reason behind the design choices, and manufacture of the ventilated and non-ventilated rotors used in testing. 3.2.1 Objective The function of a brake rotor is to transform the kinetic energy of a moving car into heat through friction and then to dissipate this heat to the environment. The kinetic energy of the car is stored in the form of heat within both the rotor material and the pad material by increasing their temperatures, and is gradually lost to the environment (surrounding air) through conduction, convection and radiation. Any form of heat loss from the rotor is advantageous, as this allows more heat to be absorbed by the rotor when more braking force is required. Therefore heat loss from the rotor will improve the braking performance of the system. However, conduction of the heat to metal that the brake disk is attached to is not always a good thing. This is because the performance of the areas to which the brake rotors are adversely affected by heat from the rotor; these parts too need to be kept cool, for example, the bearings on which the hub rotates. The rotor of a car has the advantage that there is a natural air swirl surrounding it created by the rotation of the rotor and the motion of the car. It is thought that convection accounts for much of the heat loss from the rotor and is method of heat transfer on which this project is based. A method by which the convection of heat from rotors has been increased in many racing situations is to direct the air from the front of the car onto the rotors via strategically placed piping. When the car begins to move, the pipe experiences a pressure gradient along its length causing the air to flow toward the brake rotor. The method of ventilation that we used in our experiment was that of ventilation within the rotors themselves. The ventilated rotor became interesting to me, as it seemed to have many advantages over conventional solid rotors. These advantages included a more lightweight finished product (which is always an advantage for race cars), a better ability for the air to circulate throughout the disk and therefore promote faster cooling and more surface area for the air to come into contact with. There were two further advantages in investigation of the ventilated rotor, these being the ability to experiment with different vane patterns within the ventilated rotor design and a better control over experimental conditions than investigation of ram air ventilation would have allowed us to have. 19
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The experiments carried out on the ventilated rotors were aimed at examining which type of rotor was best at dissipating heat to the environment through convection. Two experiments were proposed to answer this question. The first was to look at the temperature of the brake rotor with a constant rotational velocity and friction force, which is essentially constant heat in. The second was to examine the coefficient of friction as a function of temperature. The parameter of normal force was held constant for this experiment and frictional force readings along with temperature were taken. 3.2.2 Overview of Current Rotor Design It was my intention to provide some data on ventilated rotors that could prove or disprove their value. Discussion of brake rotors with many people in the motoring industry has yielded both positive and negative views on the benefit that ventilated rotors can deliver. The design of a ventilated rotor is intrinsically more complex than a standard rotor. Their cost of manufacture is subsequently higher than that of a standard rotor. As I outlined earlier, the design of the rotors used in our experiment were somewhat complex, and as a result their cost was much greater than most rotors on the market, which is mostly attributable to the fact that the rotors are in themselves prototypes. This cost difference gave me the idea that it is possibly the difference in purchase price between the ventilated rotor and the standard solid rotor, which gives people the impression that the new rotor is going to give a much larger change in braking performance. In building the FSAE car braking system, I came across many people involved in the motorcycling industry. Their main reaction to the ventilated braking rotor was of bewilderment at the relatively higher price for ventilated rotors. They mainly mentioned their opinion that braking performance was not substantially increased when using ventilated rotors. Some of the problems that were mentioned in conjunction with the use of the ventilated rotor were in its proneness to rusts; a problem not well received by motorcyclists in the habit of keeping their bikes in the highest state of repair. This problem being expounded by the fact that brakes are on the outside in motorcycles, which makes them open to a higher degree of scrutiny that rotors hidden by the wheels of cars. Yamaha produced a bike with ventilated rotors not long ago (1990 Virago) and one particular motorcycle store (Two Wheel Wreckers, Russell Smith), said that one of the most common repair jobs on motorcycles such as these were exchange of the rotor to a solid rotor. Overall the reception of the ventilated rotor by the motorcycling industry has not been promising. Despite these rotors in some peoples opinions not looking as good as the solid rotors, it is my opinion that the relative price difference of the rotors (ventilated and not), was too much for too little increase in braking performance. The reason for this relatively small difference in performance of the braking rotors on motorcycles I think is due to the fact that 20
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motorcycles are by nature much lighter and smaller than automobiles relative to their respective braking powers. This brings me to my second point, in that a motorcycle has the ability to run a much larger diameter disk than a car because the rotor is generally not required to run inside the wheel as it is in a car. This has the advantage for the cycle that there is more air past the disk per minute, which will lead to faster cooling. The car however, has a smaller amount of room with which to fit the rotor, leading to less air past the rotor per minute. It is for this reason that the ventilated rotor was able to break further into the car market than it was seen to be the case for the motorcycle market. 3.2.3 Rotor Design The rotor dimensions were constrained by the maximum width the chosen caliper could accommodate. The caliper was chosen because it was from the motorcycle that the team bought for building the car. The fact that the caliper hydraulic system was complete meant that no substantial alterations were necessary. An illustration of what is meant by straight and curved vane ventilated rotors can be seen in figures 12 & 13 below. The three rotor designs that were used were the solid, straight vane and the curved vane rotors. At first, we anticipated comparing five differently ventilated rotors; the previous three plus straight and curved thin vane rotors. However, it was thought that the extra machining time and experimentation time would not contribute much to our overall aim. 3.2.3.1 Various Design and Manufacturing Considerations The fist design for manufacture of a ventilated brake disk was using the lost wax casting method. This method required a series of three casts to be made to achieve the final product. This process is illustrated below. The second proposed design of the disks was a machining process by which a series of holes could be drilled into the disk in a radial direction. This type of disk ventilation had the advantage that it was relatively simple manufacturing process that would take about half the time and half the cost of the manufacture of the lost wax processing method. However, it did not allow for much variation in the ventilation of the brake disk. The third proposal (and the one that was used) was a process by which the rotor would be made in two halves with the half vanes milled on both sides of the disk, then the disk could be reconstituted to form a complete disk. The process of manufacture is shown in the step by step sequence below.
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1
1. 2. 3.
2
Basic _ rotor disk shape is used as stock
Middle of _ rotor is cutout to allow location on the hub. Holes are drilled for fastening to the hub Curved/Straight slots are milled on both _ rotor faces Both _ rotors have countersunk holes drilled to allow fastening together Full rotor is assembled with fasteners
4. 5.
Figure 9: Ventilated Rotor Manufacturing Process
3.2.3.2 Solid Rotor This first rotor design was aimed at giving results with which the ventilated rotors could be compared. This rotor was the solid rotor design and was not ventilated. The dimensions of this rotor were identical to the rotor for which the caliper was designed. There were no surface effects designed into the rotor such as cleaning grooves or holes.
Figure 10: Picture of solid rotor after use. No slots were required for this rotor.
Manufacturing this rotor was relatively simple in comparison with the ventilated rotor manufacture in that it was not required that the rotor be made in two halves. This rotor could be machined as a whole part and the time taken to machine was around a third of the time taken for the other rotors. This rotor had the same outer dimensions as the others and because it was solid, it weighed more than the other rotors. 22
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The rotor was drawn on SolidEdge [See Appendix A] and then the manufacturing process was designed using the software-machining package GibbsCAM. The GibbsCAM file generates NC code to control the milling machine that machines the final part. 3.2.3.3 Straight Vane Rotor The second rotor was a ventilated rotor with straight vanes. This rotor design was intended to enable comparison between different vanes for the purpose of losing heat to airflow through the vane.
Figure 11: Solid Edge drawing of straight vane rotor.
The manufacture of this rotor was such that the rotor was made in two halves and then assembled using a series of countersunk gusset screws. Once the two halves of the disk are screwed together, the screws protrude through the other side of the disk. The other half disk also has a countersunk bore and the protruding screw tip was used as a rivet and was pushed (cold worked) down into the countersunk bore. In this way, the disk halves were held together using the threads of the screw plus a riveting effect. It was important that all the disks had the same surface finish because a different surface finish on one disk would cause a different coefficient of friction that was not due to temperature effects on the brake pads. This required that the screws on the face of the disk be ground down to the level of the disk an then a fine skim was performed on the lathe to ensure the screws did not alter the surface finish of the disk. The screw outlines can be seen with careful examination but cannot be felt with the hand. 23
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3.2.3.4 Curved Vane Rotor This rotor was designed as the rotor that I thought would give the best airflow effects of all three disks, and therefore the best cooling effect. The curved vanes of the rotor were intended to give a more gradual change of direction of the airflow in comparison with the straight vane rotor.
Figure 12: SolidEdge Drawing of Curved Vane Rotor.
Manufacture of this rotor was performed in the same manner as the straight vane rotor with the exception that now the vanes were curved. 3.2.4 Rotor Material The material chosen for the manufacture of the rotors was mild steel. This material is tougher than aluminium and is relatively cheap. The three rotors were all made from the same piece of steel stock. 3.3 Test Rig The test rig is the name given to all pieces of equipment associated with handling and data gathering for the experiments. The design of the test rig took much iteration to attain reliability in the data produced. The steps in its design, manufacture and use are outlined in this section.
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3.3.1 Design Iterations Many alternative approaches were considered for simulation of braking system. The basis, which all shared, was the use of a lathe on which the rotor would spin. The various designs of the components to hold the caliper, hydraulic system and testing instrumentation are outlined below. The first design was to use a counter balance mechanism where a long beam could be rotated about a fixed point. On one end of the beam would be the caliper situated over the rotor, and on the other would be a hanging weight that could be changed to suit the frictional force of the caliper on the rotor. A spring balance to a fixed point soon replaced the weights; the frictional force could then be calculated by simply reading the measurement of the spring balance. See figure 14
Figure 13: Counter-Balance Mechanism with Spring Balance
The second design iteration involved the use of a sliding sheath on which the caliper would be mounted. The sheath would be attached to a spring, the deflection of which would allow us to calculate the frictional force of the caliper on the rotor. See Figure 15.
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Figure 14: Sliding Sheath Proposal
After much iteration along the same lines as those proposed above, the final design for the test bed was reached. The most dramatic advantage of this design over the others was that it did not have any parts that moved substantially. The sensitive arm that held the caliper was essentially a very stiff spring and likewise the instrumentation that we used to measure deflections in the arm had to also be sensitive. The advantage of this system was its ability to satisfy the need for minimal movement of the caliper with respect to middle of the rotor. A diagram with all components labeled is shown in the next section.
3.3.2 Components The various components to the test rig are outlined below. 3.3.2.1 Main Structure The test bed is the part of the rig that holds all the other parts in place. Accommodation had to be provided for the sensitive arm, which held the caliper, the hydraulic master cylinder and reservoir. It also had the design constraint of keeping clear of the disk, as we needed a clear view of the disk for the infrared photography to be effective. The lathe bed has two rails on which the tailstock is allowed to slide to and from the headstock. The shape of these rails provided a base to which the test bed could be located without lateral movement of the bed. This was done by shaping grooves in the base of the test bed that matched the shape of the rails.
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The test bed was held down by two pieces of U shaped steel with protruding bolts that located into the test bed and were tightened from above with nuts on the top of the test bed.
Rotor mounted on hub held in lathe chuck
Exhaust fan
Brake Caliper
Master cylinder
Main structure
Sensitive arm Hydraulic Hose running from master cylinder to brake caliper
Figure 15: Test Rig
3.3.2.2 Sensitive Arm
The arm had the main function of holding the caliper in place on the disk whilst being attached to the test bed. As mentioned above the arm had to be sensitive to the force placed on it by the disk so as to measure the power absorption of the brake setup The cantilevered beam would have a cutaway section on it that would allow concentration of the bending stress into one area on the beam. This concentration would give a stronger signal to the strain gauges that were to be mounted there. See Figure 17.
Brake Caliper Brake Fluid reservoir Sensitive arm
Bolts to hold sensitive arm to main
Strain gauges
Thermocouple wires running to brake pads
Main structure
Figure 16: Sensitive Arm
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The arm had to be made in such a way as to reject all forces experienced by the strain gauges other than those we were interested in measuring [See figure 18]. In particular, the torsional forces present due to the location of the arm on the caliper with respect to the line of action of the disk through the caliper. This was done by making the section of the arm where the cutaway was to be situated coincide with the line of action of the disk in the caliper. The arm also had to have the ability to slide in the direction of the disk to allow testing of more than one disk radii. This was accomplished by slotting the holes that attached the arm to the test bed in the direction of movement.
Brake pads with thermocouples embedded Brake caliper
Thermocouple wiring
Strain gauges in sensitive arm cutout Bend in
Hydraulic hose
sensitive arm to reject all but bending forces to strain
Main structure
gauges
Figure 17: Showing Bend in Sensitive Arm
3.3.2.3 Hydraulic System The hydraulic system that we decided to use was from the rear of a CBR600 motorcycle. The hydraulic system included the single piston caliper, hoses and master cylinder as a complete unit.
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Main Structure
Master Cylinder
Bolt Holding Hydraulic system to main structure Push rod
Lever to control brake fluid pressure
Figure 18: Master Cylinder & Lever
The master cylinder actuator required some modification to allow a known force to be applied to the master cylinder. See figure 19. With a known length of rod as the actuator and a known weight hung from the end of the rod, the applied force in the master cylinder could be calculated. The measurement of the diameter of the master piston would allow the pressure in the fluid to be accurately determined. This design approach was found to be flawed and a pressure gauge was installed to measure the pressure of a when controlled manually. 3.3.2.4 Hub The hub is the part that was designed to hold the disk to the chuck of the lathe. The lathe had the option of either a three-jaw or four-jaw chuck. It was decided to use the threepronged chuck because its operation was easier than the four-jaw chuck. This decision meant that a hexagonal shaped shaft was required for the hub. See figure 20.
Hub Shaft to locate in lathe chuck Butt Welded flange to shaft Bolt goes through rotor into hub flange Rotor Bolted to flange Hub Flange
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Figure 19: Hub with rotor ready to install in lathe chuck
The required size of the hexagonal shaft was calculated to be approximately 20mm, however for safetys sake, the outer diameter of the shaft was chosen to be 50mm. The flange at the end of the shaft was required to fit the dimensions of the chosen disks. For ease of manufacture the flange was made separately to the shaft and then simply butt welded to the shaft. This required extra time to ensure that the flange ran true with respect to the shaft. 3.4 Testing Instrumentation 3.4.1 Strain Gauges on the Sensitive Arm Holding the Caliper The sensitive arm gets its name because it is sensitive to the frictional force of the caliper on the spinning disk. The most accurate way the force could be measured at relatively small cost was by the use of strain gauges. The strain gauges were placed in the upper and lower sections of the beam with the reduced moment of area. A total of four strain gauges were placed in the cutaway section of the arm: two on the top (the tension side), and two on the bottom (the compression side). The strain gauges were calibrated using a known mass placed over the line of action of the friction force of the caliper on the rotor. See figure 17. 3.4.2 Temperature Measurement The way in which temperature of the rotors was measured during experiments is now explained. Many proposals for this task were considered and are also discussed below. Temperature measurement was thought to be important because if it was seen that the ventilated disk showed higher and prolonged coefficients of friction, then it could be said that the ventilated rotor design is advantageous in keeping the temperature of the rotor down. Measuring the surface temperature at the point of contact with the brake pads was not an easy task. This was primarily because access to this point on the disk is made difficult by the positioning of the caliper over the disk. It was settled that finding the actual temperature at this point on the disk would have to be approximated from temperatures as close as possible to that point: that is, the disk temperature just upon exit from the caliper. 3.4.2.1 Thermocouples inside the rotor itself The first design was for integration of thermocouples into the vanes of the disk itself. This method would allow direct and constant measurement of the temperature of the disk. However, the disadvantage associated with this approach was that transmitting the signal back to a 30
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display was made difficult by the fact that the disk was constantly spinning. However, some possible methods of data transmittal discussed included: Slip Rings Telemetry, e.g. radio or IR beam Tiny data acquisition module inside the shaft These ideas seemed a costly and prolonged exercise where other methods had not yet been explored to their full extent. 3.4.2.2 Infrared Photography Used in Experiment 1 The next method that was explored was the use of thermal imaging photography. If a camera with special infrared sensitive film could be installed in front of the disk whilst it underwent the braking cycle and take a thermal image of the disk every five seconds, then the temperature of the disk could be plotted with time. This avenue was researched and it was found that this method could be undertaken relatively cheaply and under strict conditions could give reasonably accurate temperature results. Particular grey values that showed up on the image would correspond to particular temperatures. In this way we could match a grey value on the disk to a reference grey value that had a predetermined temperature. It was first thought that an object could be placed within and the object would be at a known temperature and that temperature could be matched to the colour that was found on the thermal image. This idea had the possible problem of grey values found to correspond to a particular temperature one day would not correspond to the same temperature the following day as infrared photographs will reflect ambient temperature. I decided to look for a reference frame that could be placed alongside the disk in action. This would alleviate any problems that may have been faced by differing environmental conditions from day to day ambient temperatures. Many different and plausible alternative methods of accomplishing such a reference frame were considered. For example: heating water to the boil would certainly yield a temperature of 100DegC, and so on. Peter Edmonds, a Mechanical Engineering electrical technician, suggested the method of high ohm resistors placed in series along a board with a constant current being passed through each of them. If resistors of varying resistance were used, then the power loss due to heat=I2R (which is what we want), would be different for each resistor. This would mean that we would have a temperature range across the resistors. If the temperature of the resistors was known, then the grey value that they turned in the thermal image could be compared to the grey value of the disk and we would subsequently know the temperature range of different parts of the disk. Thermocouples were imbedded in each resistor for temperature measurement.
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Resistors for temperature reference
Figure 20: Resistors for Temperature Reference in IR Photography
The IR film and the IR filter required for taking thermal images in daylight were procured, however the filter did not arrive with the film and rather than delay it was decided to run the experiments at nighttime in order to cut most of the visible light in G27. Great ranges of exposure times were tried, from 1/16th to 16 seconds, but upon development of the film none of the photos had turned out. This suggested that much longer exposure time was needed; perhaps minutes. 3.4.2.3 Infrared Thermometer Used in Experiment 2 The idea of using an infrared thermometer had previously been explored and considered as an accurate means of finding the temperature relatively easily. However, there were two problems that this method faced. The first was the expense of the infrared thermometer. A good quality thermometer could be purchased for around $1000, which is expensive. Secondly, the temperature range of these thermometers is typically 50DegC to 500DegC. It was estimated from metallurgical charts on the type of metal used to make our disks that the cherry red colour that we were reaching corresponded to around 650DegC, well above the temperature range of available IR thermometers. However, for another $500, a thermometer could be purchased that could measure temperatures around 1000DegC. This was considered too expensive. When the issue was raised with the HOD it was found that there was already an infrared thermometer in the department. We quickly located the thermometer and used it in our next experiment. The results were promising until around half way through the experiment when unusual figures began to be returned from the thermometer. It is not known for sure why this happened.
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This method of temperature measurement was used for experiment 2, which will be explained later, where the temperatures only reached around 400DegC. For this experiment, the infra red thermometer returned accurate and smooth temperature decay data. It was this method of temperature measurement that was used to verify methods used to measure temperature in other experiments. See figure 22.
Solid Rotors temperature being taken
Infrared Thermometer
Tripod Stand
Figure 21: Infrared Thermometer
3.4.2.4 Thermocouples Imbedded in Brake Pads Used in experiment 3 and 4 Following this phase of testing an idea was raised concerning the use of a thermocouple planted inside the brake pad itself. See figure 23. This region may not have the same temperature as the contact area of the disk but would be reflective of the contact temperature, as there is only a thin layer of the brake pad separating the thermocouple from the disk.
Sensitive Arm
Bleeder screw
Brake Pads
Slave Cylinder
Embedded Thermocoup les in brake pads
Brake Caliper
Figure 22: Thermocouples Imbedded in Brake Pad
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During experiment 3 it was observed that, for temperature less than 400DegC, the thermocouples returned temperatures very close to the temperatures observed using the IR thermometer. This was encouraging because this showed accuracy of both temperature sensing devices. It also showed that temperature gradients near the contact were not as severe, i.e. the thermocouples were measuring a temperature quite similar to the contact temperature. See figure 24.
Figure 23: Sketch of cross-section with temp gradients
3.4.3 Tachometer To be able to measure the power being absorbed by the rotor during braking force, the rotational speed of the disk had to be known. The spindle of the Macson lathe could run at speeds indicated on the side of the lathe, but these speeds are relatively inaccurate. A digital tachometer was used to gain a more accurate measure of rotational speed. The digital tachometer was activated by pointing it at a reflective piece of paper that was stuck to the chuck of the lathe, which made experimentation easier. 3.5 Experimentation The aim of the experiment was to firstly, obtain some sort of generic difference between ventilated and non-ventilated rotors in their ability to lose heat to their surroundings. The second aim of the experiment was to establish the mechanism of the phenomenon of brake fade. In order to obtain the information that could highlight the whether or not any specific rotor was able to lose heat to the environment at a faster rate than another; we had to devise an experiment that would allow us to examine the capacity of a rotor to lose heat. 34
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To simplify the investigation, most experimental variables were made constant among all tests. It was decided to keep the parameters of angular velocity constant during the first experimental run, simply because it is not possible to change this speed on the lathe as the experiment is running without stopping the lathe. It was also decided that the frictional force applied through the caliper onto the rotor should be kept constant so that the temperature of the disk was affected by a constant heat into the disk. However, during the third experiment the normal force on the disk was held constant so that the coefficient of friction of the brake pads on the rotor could be examined against temperature of the rotor. During the experiment examining coefficient of friction Vs temperature, the force induced by the braking load on the caliper was also taken every five seconds. This was done by means of the strain gauges mounted in the cutout of the arm that held the caliper in place over the disk. The speed of the machine was taken twice throughout the experimental run to show that the torque induced by the caliper did not appreciably slow the lathe. The speeds of the lathe spindle were taken at both the lowest torque and the highest torque to ensure this. Measurements of the temperature of the disk were taken to ascertain whether the temperature of the disk was important in determining its coefficient of friction with the pads and also to calculate the relative capacity of each of the rotors for heat rejection to the environment. Four experiments were conducted on the differently ventilated brake rotors. The first was simply mapping coefficient of friction of the disk brake over time. Temperature measurements of this experiment were attempted with thermal imaging photography but this method did not eventuate. The second was concerned with mapping the temperature of the brake rotors without loading decreasing from a common temperature, using the IR thermometer. The third was concerned with finding the temperature of the different brake disks under a constant frictional force condition using the thermocouples embedded in the brake pads. The fourth experiment was concerned with finding the relationship between temperature and the performance of a brake disk arrangement, using again the embedded thermocouples in the brake pads. For this experiment only the solid rotor was used because the aim of the experiment was examine the effect of temperature on coefficient of friction only. 3.5.1 Experiment 1- Mapping Coefficient of friction Vs Time The experiment proceeded as follows: Install a rotor onto the hub in the chuck of the lathe e.g. solid rotor Turn on the extractor fan, as the experiment caused a lot of smoke and dust 35
Isaac Thyer
Zero the strain gauge transducer Set the lathe to spin at 380rpm clockwise Take a speed reading with the tachometer Increase the pressure of the caliper on the spinning rotor to reach a constant Normal force, start the stopwatch, Normal force maintained by assistant Take readings of frictional force and take IR photographs of rotor Run experiment until brake fade becomes evident Take speed reading to ensure constancy Release caliper pressure Leave lathe going for 10 minutes to let rotor cool in the swirling air Remove rotor Install new rotor and repeat process
3.5.2 Experiment 2 Temperature Vs Time for unloaded spinning rotor as it cools from 440DegC The experiment proceeded as follows: Install a rotor onto the hub in the chuck of the lathe e.g. solid rotor Turn on the extractor fan, as the experiment caused a lot of smoke and dust Zero the strain gauge transducer Set the lathe to spin at 380rpm clockwise Take a speed reading with the tachometer Increase the pressure of the caliper on the spinning rotor to reach 440DegC as measured by Release the frictional force of the caliper on the disk Record temperature measurements of the rotor using the infra red thermometer every 10 Remove rotor Install new rotor and repeat process
the IR thermometer
seconds until temperature fairly constant (usually time period of around 15mins)
3.5.3 Experiment 3 Finding the steady state temperature for a certain constant braking power The experiment proceeded as follows: Install a rotor onto the hub in the chuck of the lathe, e.g. solid rotor Turn on the extractor fan, as the experiment caused a lot of smoke and dust Zero the strain gauge transducer Set the lathe to spin at 380rpm clockwise 36
Isaac Thyer
Take angular velocity reading with the tachometer Increase the pressure of the caliper on the spinning rotor to reach a frictional force of 0.43kN, start the stopwatch Run experiment until the temperature reaches a plateau, recording temperature every 5 seconds Release caliper pressure Leave lathe going for 10 minutes to let rotor cool in the swirling air Remove rotor Install new rotor and repeat process, e.g. curved vane rotor
3.5.4 Experiment 4 (Essentially the same as Experiment 1 but now with a successful temperature measurement approach) The experiment proceeded as follows: Install solid rotor onto the hub in the chuck of the lathe Turn on the extractor fan, as the experiment caused a lot of smoke and dust Zero the strain gauge transducer Set the lathe to spin at 380rpm clockwise Take a speed reading with the tachometer Increase the pressure of the caliper on the spinning rotor to reach a constant Normal force, start the stopwatch, Normal force controlled by assistant Take readings of frictional force and temperature every 10 seconds Run experiment until brake fade becomes evident Take speed reading to ensure constancy Release caliper pressure Leave lathe going for 10 minutes to let rotor cool in the swirling air Remove rotor
3.5.5 Description of Experiment- what we planned The Macson lathe is a large lathe that requires the presence of an experienced user present at all times during its operation. Dr. Scott was trained in its use and therefore he was present for the experiments. The first few experiments were run in order to find the best parameters with which to conduct further experimentation. These parameters included Normal force and frictional force of the caliper on the disk, time between taking voltage readings from the strain gauges and readings of the thermocouple temperature display, operation of the infrared thermometer, and the use of the stopwatch for arranging a time frame for the duration 37
Isaac Thyer
of the experiment. The remaining experiments reasonably smoothly, however there were some unexpected results. 3.5.6 Problems Encountered- What We Didnt Plan 3.5.6.1 Buckled Rotors Under the extreme temperature, the ventilated rotors actually buckled. When this first occurred, the experiment was temporarily abandoned to reassess the option of making more rotors to replace buckled rotors. However, it was noted that if the rotor was allowed to cool slowly in the air whilst still attached to the hub, the buckling would not be as pronounced.
Straight Ruler
Vane of ventilated rotor
Figure 24: Buckled Brake Rotor
A possible explanation follows. Under braking load, the material of the rotor before entering the rotor is under compressive forces and the area behind the rotor is in tensile forces. As the temperature of the material after exit from the rotor is relatively hotter than that before entry, the tensile forces that act on the hot part of the disk have more effect (due to creep of the material) on the geometry of the rotor than do the compressive forces on the cooler part of the rotor. Therefore, if the outer rim of the rotor is being stretched in this way, the inner rim is relatively smaller than is required for a flat disk. The rotor then buckles to the conical shape that can be seen in figure 25. The sketch below represents this explanation for the buckled rotors. 38
Isaac Thyer
Figure 25: Proposed Temperature and Stress Of the Rotor Whilst Passing through Pads
3.5.6.2 Fire The extreme heat that is generated from the frictional forces between the caliper and the disk caused numerous small fires around the caliper. These fires were mostly very short and occurred for no more than a second. The fuel for the fire was usually from the paint on the new sets of brake pads, as such, fires only occurred when a set of brake pads was being used for the first time. One flare-up caused considerable concern and the experiment was halted to check the integrity of the equipment. It was not as bad as first thought and no damage could be noted. 3.5.6.3 Failed Hydraulic System Under the extreme heat of some braking experiments, there was leakage from the bleeder screw [see figure 23] on the caliper. This caused the experiment to cease on two occasions. The high pressures of the fluid caused by the constant heat input and the attributed pressure from the master cylinder caused the braked fluid to escape. However, this was fixed by tightening the bleeder screw somewhat and did not recur. 3.5.6.4 Highly Oscillating Pressure Reading One of our main concerns about the experimental setup, and in particular the hydraulic system, was about its ability to apply a constant normal force to the spinning rotor. As the experiment was in progress, the oscillation of the brake fluid pressure gauge needle was substantial. This problem will be discussed later in the discussion of results.
39
Isaac Thyer
Sensitive arm
Brake Fluid Pressure Gauge
Brake Fluid Hydraulic hose Master cylinder
Strain gauge voltage regulator
Figure 26: Pressure Gauge
The problem was handled by aiming to keep the average of the range of motion of the needle over the desired normal pressure. This problem occurred only with the ventilated rotors, which lead me to believe that the problem was not with the hydraulic system, but with the disks themselves. If the disks were not running true, a slight deviation from the centerline of the disk thickness would cause fluctuations of fluid pressure. 3.5.6.5 Deflection of Arm onto the disk The function of the sensitive arm was to deflect with the force placed upon it, whereby the strain could be measured through the strain gauges. Under higher braking loads the arm did actually deflect enough to cause the caliper to slightly rub on the outer edge of the rotor. This was remedied by slotting the holes through which the bolts that attached to the arm to the main structure were located. The arm could then slide away from the rotor slightly and stop this problem from recurring. This feature of the brake test rig means that it could be adapted for larger diameter disks if it were required. 3.6 Statement of Results Data for experiments 1 through 4 can be found in Appendix D. 3.6.1 Outline of results Four experiments were conducted on the differently ventilated brake rotors. The first was simply mapping coefficient of friction of the disk brake over time. Temp measurement failed. The second was mapping the temperature of the brake rotors without loading decreasing from a common temperature. 40
Isaac Thyer
The third was finding the temperature of the different brake disks under a constant frictional force condition. The fourth experiment was finding the relationship between temperature and the performance of a disk brake. Only the solid rotor was used for this experiment.
3.6.2 Experiment 1 The results of the first experiment can be found in the appendix D1. 3.6.3 Experiment 2 Figure 28 shows the results of the second experiment: Temperature v Time (Unloaded).
Rotor Temperature Without Load Cooling From 440DegC

500 450 400
350
Temperture (DegC)
300 250 200 150
Solid Rotor Straight Vane Curved Vane (2) Curved Vane (1)
100 50 0
20
80 10 0
40
30
32
34
36
Time (s)
Figure 27: Rotor Temperature without Loading, Cooling from 440oC
3.6.4 Experiment 3
38
0 40 0 42 0 44 0 46 0
60
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
41
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Figure 29 shows the results of experiment 3: Temperature v Time (Loaded).
Temperature Under Load

450
400
350
300 Solid Rotor Straight Vane 200 Curved vane (2) Curved Vane (1)
250
150
100
50
Time (s)
Figure 28: Temperature of Rotors under Constant Frictional Force Load
3.6.5 Experiment 4 Figures 30 to 32 show the results of the fourth experiment: Coefficient of friction & Temperature Vs Time.
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Temperature & Coefficient of Friction with Small Normal Force through Caliper
500 450 400 350 0.96 300 0.94 250 0.92 200 temp 150 100 50 0 Coefficient of Friction 0.88 0.9 1.02
0.98
0.86
0.84
Time (s)
Figure 29: Temperature & Coefficient of Friction Vs Time with Small Normal Force through Caliper (Solid rotor)
Temperature & Coefficient of Friction with Medium Normal Force through Caliper
560 0.9
540 0.85 520
500
0.8
480 0.75
460
440
Temperature Coefficient Of Friction 0.7
420
400
0.65
Time (s)
Figure 30: Temperature & Coefficient of Friction with Medium Normal Force through Caliper (Solid rotor)
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Temperature & Coefficient Of Friction with High Normal force through Caliper
600 0.74
590
0.72
580
0.7
570
0.68
560
0.66
550
0.64
540 Temperature Coefficient of Friction
0.62
530 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 time (s) 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160
0.6
Figure 31: Temperature & Coefficient Of Friction with High Normal force through Caliper (Solid rotor)
3.7 Discussion of Results For experimental results to have any real significance requires that the conditions under which the results were obtained be reliable and repeatable. An experiment conducted in conditions contrary to these contributes relatively little in comparison with experiments that have been conducted in this manner. The words reliable and repeatable are important for their own reasons. Reliability of data gathering equipment is paramount in determining whether or not the data is accurate to reflect what is going on in the experiment. Repeatability is also important for results to be proved as being correct, the experiment must be able to be repeated to ensure the integrity of the data. The experiments performed on the brake disks were a result of many trial runs with the equipment, and through these trial runs we were able to see first hand the reliability of the equipment to perform in exactly the same manner from one experiment to the next. One example of this was the use of more than one method of temperature data collection; that of an infra red thermometer and that of thermocouples embedded into the brake pads. 44
Coefficient of Friction
Temperature (DegC)
Isaac Thyer
3.7.1 Discussion of Experiment 1 Experiment 1 is a group of experiments that were conducted whilst waiting for other features of the test rig to arrive or to get built. These experiments helped us to become familiar with and worked to iron out large imperfections in the rig. 3.7.2 Discussion of Experiment 2 Experiment 2 is used as a verification tool for discussion of experiment 3. Discussion of experiment 2 can be found after discussion of experiment 3. 3.7.3 Discussion of Experiment 3 Part 1 The aim of experiment 1 was to examine the temperature of the various rotors under a constant frictional force. The first law of thermodynamics states that heat = work under steady state conditions. If the conditions are not steady state there will be a temperature change. Experiment 1 was aimed at reaching a steady state temperature to so that we could conclude that the work into the disk through the caliper friction force was equal to the heat dissipated through various means from the disk. The results of the first experiment show that the various rotors all tended to settle at approximately the same temperature of around 400 to 420 oC. Since the power input was the same for each disk, this result shows that there is very little difference in the ability of the rotors to lose heat to their surroundings. However, it is not clear from this experiment what proportion of heat is lost to surroundings due to each of the various methods of heat transfer and how these proportions differ between rotors. This question will now be explored using models of heat transfer. The resource and reference for these models is Wong (1977). First, we shall look at the simple case of the solid spinning disk in air and estimate the heat transfer due to free convection around the spinning disk. We will then look at the more complex case of the ventilated rotor and try to estimate the extra heat loss due to forced conduction of air through the vents. Under steady state conditions we expect: Work in = Heat out for the disks. qin = M. Where: M is the friction moment is the angular velocity 45
Isaac Thyer
= 41Nm x 40 rads/s = 1640 W One can estimate the heat loss due to free convection around a spinning solid disk through some calculation to follow. Grashoff Equation: Gr=
gR 3 3 / 2 2
(1)
Nusselt Equation: Nu=
hR = 0.4 Re 2 + Gr k
1/ 4
(2)
(Wong, 1977)
Reynolds Equation: Re=
R 2
(3)
(Wong, 1977)
Free Convection Heat Transfer Equation: q= hA Rearranging 2: (4) (Wong, 1977)
0.4 Re 2 + Gr h= R
Rearranging h=
1/ 4
(5)
(Wong, 1977)
(4): (6)
q A
Equating
(5) and (6):
q = A
0.4 Re 2 + Gr R
1/ 4
(7)
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Rearranging (7):
0.4 Ak g 3 / 2 ( ) 4 q= 1 / 2 2 ( ) + R
1/ 4
(8)
By utilizing the data in Experiment 3, it is possible to estimate the rate of heat loss due to convection from a spinning solid disk from the above equation. Symbol A k R g Value 0.077752 49.7E3 60.21E6 40 370 0.002165 0.11 9.81 3.14159 Units m2 W/m.K m2/s rads/s K K-1 m m/s
2
Description Area of the rotor - calculated Fluid thermal conductivity (Janna, 1988) Kinematic viscosity (Janna, 1988) Angular velocity - constant Steady state temperature of rotor Coefficient of volumetric expansion (Janna, 1988) Radius of rotor Gravitational acceleration PI
Table 1: Data required for calculation of Equation (8)
Therefore the heat lost through convection around the solid rotor is: qconv 490W Which accounts for approximately 30% of all heat loss from the rotor. The remaining heat loss can be attributed to the heat transfer methods of conduction and radiation, which accounts for approximately 70% of heat loss from the rotor. It seems that that the proportion of heat loss due to convection is significant, but relatively small in compared with the total heat loss. Part 2 We can use a model of the actual situation to find approximate heat loss rates for the vents in the ventilated disks. This is done by assuming that a vent in the disk is a series of cylindrical tubes through which air is forced through due to the spinning of the disk. 47
Isaac Thyer
Figure 32: Vane Modeled as a Series of Cylindrical Tubes
This model requires estimation of the rates of airflow through the disk as it spins. The rate of airflow can be estimated using the model of a simple rectangular tube with differing pressures at either end. The pressures can be calculated by finding the relative speeds of the inner and outer diameters of the disk.
Figure 33: AirFlow Velocity through Vane
Airflow rate through the vanes of the ventilated disk can be calculated as follows: Velocities of inner and outer diameter, Vo and Vi: Vo = R = 39.79rads/s . 0.11m = 4.38m/s Vi = Ri = 39.79rads/s . 0.06m = 2.39m/s
48
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The different velocities between the inner and the outer vane ends causes a pressure difference equal to that as follows: P = 1 / 2 Vo Vi = 6.73615 Pa The mean radial air velocity is then: Rearranging (9): Vv =
(9)
(Fox, 1998)
P = 0.5 . 1 . (4.382 2.392)
2P
(10)
= 3.67m/s Air Flow Rate through Rectangular Tube: Volumetric flowrate = Velocity of flow x Cross sectional Area Qc = V v . A c (11) = 3.67 . 7.068E-6 = 2.6E-5 m3/s (Fox, 1998)
Now that the airflow rate is known for the ventilated disk we can estimate the heat loss due to forced convection through the vanes. The characteristic size D, is the size of the object or the ID of the object through which/ over which the fluid must travel. For a rectangular pipe the characteristic size is the smallest of the internal dimensions of the pipe. Reynolds Number: Re =
Vv D
(12)
(Wong, 1977)
= 3.67 . 0.003/ 15.68-E6 = 702 => Laminar Flow as less than 2000
Prantdl Number: Pr =
C p
k
(13)
(Wong, 1977)
= 18.45E-6 . 1005.7/ 0.02624 49
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= 0.707 Nusselt Number: Nu = C Re m Pr n K [See Appendix F] m=1/3 n=1/3 C=1.86 D=d=0.003m K = 0.363156 Nu = 5.33695 We must now estimate the logarithmic mean temperature difference. The logarithmic mean temperature difference will return a value close to the bulk temperature difference, which is the difference between wall temperature and fluid temperature; i.e. 683-300 = 383 K We can now estimate the heat loss through one cylindrical tube: q= (14) (Wong, 1977)
NukA lm D
(15)
(Wong, 1977)
q = 5.34. 26.3E-3 . 0.000007065. 383 / 0.003 = 0.125 W If we multiply the heat loss through one cylinder by 10 to get the number of cylinders in a vane, and then multiply this by 8 to get the number of vanes in a disk, we have a total heat loss due to the vanes of: 10W. Our crude model indicates that the heat loss due to the slots in the ventilated rotors is very small in comparison to the total heat loss rate of the simple solid rotor, approximately 0.6%. This suggests that the investigated forms, in the thickness of rotor tried, are essentially of no extra benefit in increasing the coefficient of heat transfer, h. Such minor heat flow could easily be affected by different testing conditions. This is shown in the results from experiment 3 where steady state temperature differences are not noted between ventilated and non-ventilated rotors. However, if the rotors were made thicker this would also allow thicker vanes in the rotor. This would allow greater airflow through the vanes of the rotor and consequently a 50
Isaac Thyer
greater heat flow into the air flowing through the vanes. For example, the effect of doubling the vane thickness would have the effect of increasing the heat flow to 32 W, which is more than three times that of the thinner vanes. 3.7.4 Discussion of Experiment 2 The second experiment was to record the temperature decay of the different rotors from a known temperature. The results of this experiment show empirically that the ability of each of the rotors to lose heat is not especially different between rotors. One aim of this experiment was to ensure the comparison made in the first experiment between the ventilated and the nonventilated rotor was not heavily influenced by experimental error of the test rig. Secondly, this experiment allows calculation of a theoretical cooling curve using the model described in the discussion of experiment 3. By calculation of this theoretical cooling curve using numerical a numerical solution, it is possible to check that the model used in the discussion of experiment 3 is accurate. The heat energy of the disk is: Edisk = mdisk . csteel . (16) (Incropera, 1990)
1/ 4
And the model used in discussion of experiment 3 was derived:
0.4 Ak 2 g 3 / 2 ( ) 4 q= 1 / 2 ( ) + R d dt
(17)
If we take the derivative of the heat energy of the disk we have: q = mdisk . csteel . (18)
Equating (8) and (9):
0.4 Ak 2 g 3 / 2 ( ) d 4 ( ) + = mdisk . csteel . R 1/ 2 dt

Rearranging (10):
1/ 4
1/ 4
(19)
d = dt
g 3 / 2 ( ) 0.4 Ak 2 4 ( ) + R 1/ 2
m disk . c steel
(20)
51
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We can solve this Differential equation using a numerical method. This can be done by assuming to be constant for one millisecond, and 2 = 1 +
d t dt
(21)
(Wong, 1977)
500 450 400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0
Temperature C
00
50
00
50
00
00
50
00
50
50
00
50
00
50
0.
0.
2.
2.
4.
1.
1.
3.
3.
4.
5.
5.
6.
6.
Time (minutes)
Theoretical Cooling Curve Actual Cooling Curve
Figure 34: Theoretical Cooling Curve of a Solid Rotor and the Observed Cooling Curve for a Solid Rotor.
The cooling curve is quite similar to that observed in experiment 2. However, the deviation of the numerical plot from the actual observed plot indicates inaccuracies in our model. A possible explanation for this deviation from the theoretical cooling curve is that the experiments were run with an exhaust fan very close to the rotor as it cooled. This was done to ensure that we breathed little brake dust during experimentation. Such external forced convection would act to cool the disk more quickly than with mere free convection. 3.7.5 Discussion of Experiment 4 Discussion The third experiment aims to establish a relationship between the temperature of the rotor and ability of the brake system to continue to absorb energy. Figures 30 to 32 show that the higher the temperatures of the rotor, the lower the power absorption rate. The reason for this phenomenon, which is sometimes referred to as brake fade, may be explained by the thermodynamics of the contact area between the brake pads and the rotor. The temperature of the rotor at which considerable fade begins to occur can be seen from the graph of the highest normal force placed upon the rotor and is around 590C. 52
7.
00
Isaac Thyer
It is commonly held in industry that the phenomenon of brake fade is a result of a lubricating layer of gas that builds up between the pad and the disk as the temperature reaches a point where the pad material begins to degrade at a rapid rate. Such rapid degradation of the brake pads was actually documented in our preliminary experiments when the experimental parameters where being set. When the rotor had been run at very high temperature for extended periods of time, a build up of sticky gunge was seen on the leading edge of the brake pad and on the full contact surface of the rotor. It was also noted that this buildup of gunge did not occur when the brake system was run at lower temperatures. It is possible that this sticky gunge, as we call it, is the cause of the lubricating effect when the disk reaches relatively higher temperatures. However, this is not known for sure. Despite seeing this effect in preliminary experiments, its effect was not as highly evident in later experiments when different brake pads were used, which was due to a supply shortage in the original pads. The original pads were advertised as being sintered, which is a process where the brake material is bonded using high-density oil. The subsequent brake pads, which are not sintered, did not display this same gunging characteristic. Both sets of pads were able to produce the same high coefficients of friction at the lower temperatures, however, at the higher temperatures; the sintered pads tended to display much higher rates of brake fade. These are merely empirical observations from the experimental data only.
3.7.6 Sources of Error and Improvements The most obvious source of error is in the model used for the heat flow due to free convection from the rotor. The method of data acquisition was not advanced and was compromised of simply writing down figures from the gauges on a regular time interval. An improvement that could be made is to integrate a data acquisition module into the test rig. Such a module could take many more readings and increase the reliability of readings by removing human error. Person controlled frictional force. As the frictional force was controlled manually by observing the voltage readout from the strain gauges and adjusting accordingly, an improvement would be to have some sort of feedback controller which could cause an actuator to adjust the frictional force more accurately. Pressure regulator. Similar to the case above: implementation of a feedback controller would substantially increase the reliability of results. Approximations in Heat flow from vanes. The heat flow calculations are approximations of the real situation, as such it is possible that the heat lost through the vanes could be either more of 53
Isaac Thyer
less substantial than calculated. Nevertheless, it is expected that the heat flow calculated is of the correct order of magnitude. Calibration of strain gauges. The calibration of the strain gauges was done using a fairly crude weight. This may alter calculated values from the test rig, however comparisons made between the rotors would not be affected as one of the rotors would be affected in the same manner as another. Likelihood of frictional force in caliper piston sleeve. It was observed through our initial data that the coefficient of friction was not repeatable from one experiment to another. It is possible that the hydraulic system was sensitive to changes in the applied master cylinder force and one applied force did not always cause the same pressure being applied to the rotor. This may have been due to internal friction within the sleeve of the slave piston. 3.7.7 Rig Design changes The test rig performed well throughout the entirety of the experiments and returned reliable data for analysis. The large forces placed upon the experimental rig did not distort or fracture the rig in any way. There were very few times when chatter was evident, however, his did not affect the integrity of the experimental rig. Despite the rigs excellent performance in many aspects, there are some changes that would facilitate easier data acquisition from the test rig. Larger fastening holes drilled in brake rotors. As the brake disk reaches very high temperatures, the metal expends and makes removal of the rotors whilst still at high temperatures difficult. Removal of the rotor at high temperatures is made difficult through the possibility of burns to the skin etc, however, faster removal could be achieved with larger diameter holes in the rotors. Hydraulic pressure feedback controller. The pressure was manually controlled with the hand with feedback from the pressure gauge. It would be possible to design a feedback controller to regulate the hydraulic pressure and therefore attain higher degrees of accuracy in the data. Data acquisition module. NS developed a data acquisition module later in the year and unfortunately was not available for my experiments. This module would give use more data per unit of time. It would also eliminate human error involved in manually writing data on a page then transferring to a spreadsheet by having the direct download facility to a computer which could generate graphs immediately. The data acquisition module would save time and allow further experimentation, which would mean more reliable and repeatable results. 54
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Floating caliper. The caliper that was used in the test rig was not a floating caliper and did not have the ability for self-adjustment. After each experiment, the rotor would have to be moved in the chuck so that that it aligned with stationary brake pad to counteract the wear of the brake pads. A solution to this problem would be to install a floating caliper in place of the existing one so that the caliper would be self-aligning. If such a caliper were to be installed, a caliper with a larger disk width tolerance should be used. This would allow testing of larger rotors where ventilation may an appreciable difference to temperature of the rotor.
4.0 CONCLUSION The first half of the report discussed the design and implementation of a braking system for a Formula SAE racecar. The individual component design was discussed in detail and supporting documentation has been provided for the design process of these various parts that contribute to the final assembly of the braking system. The braking system was designed in accordance to the various restrictions placed upon it, including, weight, cost, safety and performance. The braking system performed well in trial testing and has met all the requirements placed upon the system. The second half of the report discussed experiments carried out on how ventilated and non-ventilated rotors compared in performance. The performance of a disk braking system was thought to be substantially influenced by the rotor's ability to lose heat to the surrounding environment. However, it was found that the type of rotor, whether ventilated or not, did not significantly alter the ability of the rotor to lose heat to the environment. This was attributed to the small size of the ventilation slots in this experiment. Ventilation may still be a valuable design feature, but further experiments with thicker disks are needed.
55
Isaac Thyer
5.0 REFERENCES 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. Callister, W.D., 1997, Material Science and Engineering: An Introduction, 4th Ed., John Wiley and Sons Inc, Toronto. Newcomb, 1975, T.P., Automobile brakes and braking systems, 2nd Ed., Chapman and Hall, London. Kalpakjian, 1995, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology, 3rd Ed., Addison-Wesley Publishing Company Inc., USA. Wong, H.Y., 1977, Handbook of essential formulae and data on heat transfer for engineers, Longman, London. Incropera, F.P., 1990, Introduction to heat transfer, 2nd Ed., John Wiley & Sons Inc., Canada. Limpert, R., 1999, Brake design and safety, 2nd Ed., Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale. Janna, W.S., 1988, Engineering heat transfer, Van Nostrand Reinhold, Hong Kong. Wright, D., 1999, Design and Analysis of Machine Elements, Department of Mechanical and Materials Engineering, University of Western Australia. Smith, C., 1984, Engineer to Win, Motorbooks International, Osceola, Wis., USA Engineering Brake Design Fox, Robert W., 1998-, An Introduction to Fluid Mechanics, 5th Ed., John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, New York. Society of Automotive Engineers Inc., 2000, 2001 FSAE RuleBook, Society of Automotive Engineers Inc., USA. ACI Homepage, [Homepage of Advanced Cooling Technologies], [Online]. Last Update: Unknown. Available at: http://www.advancedcooling.com/ [Access Date: 9, 2001] 14. Hamilton, F., [Homepage of CH Topping & Co.] , [Online]. Last Update: Unknown. Available at: http://www.chtopping.com/sportcar/ [Access Date: 9, 2001] 15. Rogers, G., 1996, Engineering thermodynamics: work and heat transfer solutions manual, Addison Wesley Publishing Company Inc., USA. 56

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Synopsis The FSAE racecar project was run at the University of Western Australia by the Department of Mechanical and

2.4 Design, Manufacture and Procurement of Braking System Parts ___________________ 6

2.5 Assembly ________________________________________________________________ 15

3.3 Test Rig _________________________________________________________________ 24

3.4 Testing Instrumentation____________________________________________________ 30

3.5 Experimentation __________________________________________________________ 34

3.6 Statement of Results _______________________________________________________ 40

3.7 Discussion of Results ______________________________________________________ 44

4.0 Conclusion______________________________________________________________ 55 5.0 References ______________________________________________________________ 56

Figure 1: A Typical ventilated Rotor

2.2 Analysis of the Task

Rear Disk Mounted on Differential Housing. [See Appendix B6]

Figure 1: Physical Location of Pedals and Brakes on Car

Figure 2: AP Racing Caliper, 2 used at front wheels

Holes Drilled Here

Figure 4: Rear Brake Rotor

Figure 5: Front Brake Rotor

Figure 6: Pedal Box in Location

Figure 7: Cars Hydraulic System Schematic

Figure 8: How the Bias Bar Works

Figure 9: Ventilated Rotor Manufacturing Process

Figure 11: Solid Edge drawing of straight vane rotor.

Figure 12: SolidEdge Drawing of Curved Vane Rotor.

Figure 13: Counter-Balance Mechanism with Spring Balance

Figure 14: Sliding Sheath Proposal

Rotor mounted on hub held in lathe chuck

Figure 15: Test Rig

3.3.2.2 Sensitive Arm

Brake Caliper Brake Fluid reservoir Sensitive arm

Bolts to hold sensitive arm to main

Thermocouple wires running to brake pads

Figure 16: Sensitive Arm

Brake pads with thermocouples embedded Brake caliper

Strain gauges in sensitive arm cutout Bend in

sensitive arm to reject all but bending forces to strain

Figure 17: Showing Bend in Sensitive Arm

Bolt Holding Hydraulic system to main structure Push rod

Lever to control brake fluid pressure

Figure 18: Master Cylinder & Lever

Figure 19: Hub with rotor ready to install in lathe chuck

Resistors for temperature reference

Figure 20: Resistors for Temperature Reference in IR Photography

Solid Rotors temperature being taken

Figure 21: Infrared Thermometer

Embedded Thermocoup les in brake pads

Figure 22: Thermocouples Imbedded in Brake Pad

Figure 23: Sketch of cross-section with temp gradients

Vane of ventilated rotor

Figure 24: Buckled Brake Rotor

Brake Fluid Pressure Gauge

Brake Fluid Hydraulic hose Master cylinder

Strain gauge voltage regulator

Figure 26: Pressure Gauge

Rotor Temperature Without Load Cooling From 440DegC

300 250 200 150

Figure 27: Rotor Temperature without Loading, Cooling from 440oC

Figure 29 shows the results of experiment 3: Temperature v Time (Loaded).

Temperature Under Load

Figure 28: Temperature of Rotors under Constant Frictional Force Load

540 0.85 520

Temperature Coefficient Of Friction 0.7

540 Temperature Coefficient of Friction

4.0 Conclusion 55 5.0 References 56