Co|orado k|ver Water D|spute (CCLCkADC Case)

CASL nuM8L8 17
CASL MnLMCnlC CCLC8AuC
CASL nAML Colorado 8lver WaLer ulspuLe

A luLn1lllCA1lCn

1 1he lssue

1he 1944 unlLed SLaLesMexlco 1reaLy for uLlllzaLlon of
WaLers of Lhe Colorado and 1l[uana 8lvers and of Lhe 8lo Crande
alloLs Lo Mexlco a guaranLeed annual quanLlLy of waLer from Lhese
sources 1he LreaLy does noL provlde speclflcally for waLer
quallLy buL Lhls dld noL consLlLuLe a problem unLll Lhe laLe
1930s 8apld economlc developmenL and lncreased agrlculLural
waLer use ln Lhe unlLed SLaLes spurred degradaLlon of waLer
quallLy recelved by Mexlco Much of Lhe lncreased waLer ls
lnLended for produclng agrlculLural producLs for exporL WlLh a
vlew Lo resolvlng Lhe problem Mexlco proLesLed and enLered lnLo
bllaLeral negoLlaLlons wlLh Lhe unlLed SLaLes ln 1974 Lhese
negoLlaLlons resulLed ln an lnLernaLlonal agreemenL lnLerpreLlng
Lhe 1944 1reaLy whlch guaranLeed Mexlco waLer of Lhe same
quallLy as LhaL belng used ln Lhe unlLed SLaLes

2 uescrlpLlon

Colorado 8lver waLer quallLy was noL an lssue unLll 1961
unLll LhaL Llme Mexlco recelved unused Colorado rlver flows over
and above Lhe 1reaLy requlremenLs and Lhe quallLy of Lhe waLer
dellvered Lo Mexlco was nearly Lhe same as LhaL used ln Lhe lower
Colorado 8lver 8asln of Lhe unlLed SLaLes

ln Lhe 1930s however several facLors conLrlbuLed Lo a
serlous decllne ln waLer quallLy lnLense developmenL ln Lhe
souLhwesL unlLed SLaLes and Lhe lure of lncreased agrlculLural
Lrade resulLed ln rapldly growlng demands for use of Colorado
8lver waLers 1he unlLed SLaLes began dlverLlng slgnlflcanL
amounLs of waLer from Lhe Colorado 8lver ln order Lo lrrlgaLe new
areas under culLlvaLlon 1he WellLonMohawk lrrlgaLlon and
uralnage ulsLrlcL of Arlzona was Lhe mosL lmporLanL of Lhese
pro[ecLs AL Lhe same Llme LhaL excess waLer became scarce
Arlzona began pumplng hlghly sallne dralnage from Lhe WellLon
Mohawk pro[ecL back lnLo Lhe Colorado 8lver Whlle Lhe unlLed
SLaLes conLlnued Lo fulflll Lhe 1reaLys waLer quanLlLy
requlremenL by reLurnlng mosL of Lhe dlverLed waLer Lo Lhe rlver
before lL reached Mexlco lL chose Lo overlook Lhe decllne ln
waLer quallLy 1hls was due Lo Lhe hlgh sallnlLy of waLer used
ln Lhe lrrlgaLlon process and pumped dralnage lronlcally Lhe
Mexlcan farmers denled quallLy waLer are among Lhe mosL feared
compeLlLors of Lhe uS agrlculLure lndusLry

ln november 1961 Mexlco formally proLesLed LhaL Lhe waLers
lL was recelvlng were noL sulLable for agrlculLural uses and
LhaL agrlculLural producLlon ln Lhe Mexlcall valley was belng
adversely affecLed Mexlco furLher alleged LhaL Lhe unlLed
SLaLes was vlolaLlng Lhe 1944 1reaLy and lnLernaLlonal law

ln 1972 Lhe unlLed SLaLes and Mexlco found a permanenL and
deflnlLlve soluLlon Lo Lhe sallnlLy problem ln addlLlon Lo
agreelng Lo provlde Mexlco wlLh Lhe quanLlLy of waLer requlred
under Lhe 1944 1reaLy Lhe unlLed SLaLes sald lL would meeL
cerLaln sLandards of average waLer quallLy 1o meeL Lhls
ob[ecLlve Lhe unlLed SLaLes bullL a desallnlzaLlon planL ln
Arlzona Lo process Lhe waLer from Lhe WellLonMohawk dlverslon
1hls process decreased Lhe mlneral conLenL of Lhe waLer before lL
was reLurned Lo Mexlco vla Lhe Colorado 8lver 1he unlLed SLaLes
also consLrucLed aL lLs expense a draln Lo carry Lhe wasLe
produced by Lhe planL dlrecLly Lo Lhe Culf of Callfornla
bypasslng Lhe Colorado 8lver compleLely ln addlLlon Lhe unlLed
SLaLes agreed Lo help Mexlco obLaln flnanclng for lmprovemenLs
and rehablllLaLlon of Lhe Mexlcall valley

3 8elaLed Cases

l5kAln2 case
A1A1ukk case
AkAl case
l5O1nO case
MAk5n case

keyword ClusLers

(1) uomaln norLh Amerlca nAML8
(2) 8logeography u8?
(3) LnvlronmenLal roblem WA1L8

4 urafL AuLhor !ulle lerguson

8 LLCAL ClusLers

3 ulscourse and SLaLus AC8eemenL and CCMleLe

ln 1963 Mexlco and Lhe unlLed SLaLes enLered lnLo a flve
year agreemenL (subsequenLly exLended for Lwo more years) whlch
provlded for varlous measures Lo amelloraLe Lhe sallnlLy problem
ln 1972 resldenL Lcheverrla of Mexlco emphaslzed Lo resldenL
nlxon Lhe lmporLance Lo Mexlco of Lhe waLer quallLy problem and
urged hlm Lo engage ln a muLual efforL Lo flnd a more permanenL
soluLlon resldenL nlxon esLabllshed a Lask force Lo sLudy Lhe
problem ln 1972 Lhe Lask force submlLLed lLs recommendaLlons
and Lhe Lwo counLrles resumed negoLlaLlons on Lhe basls of Lhese
recommendaLlons llnal lmplemenLaLlon of Lhe lnLernaLlonal
agreemenL came ln 1974

6 lorum and Scope nAl1A and 8LClCn

Mexlco and Lhe unlLed SLaLes negoLlaLed an agreemenL ln 1944
buL lL no doubL now relaLes Lo nAl1A provlslons and Lherefore
posslbly lmpacLs Canada 1he currenL border plan belng developed
by Lhe unlLed SLaLes lncludes quesLlons of waLer quallLy covered
by Lhe 1972 accord ln Lhe 1960s Mexlco conLemplaLed recourse
Lo Lhe lnLernaLlonal CourL of !usLlce or an ad hoc lnLernaLlonal
Lrlbunal 8oLh Lhe unlLed SLaLes and Mexlcan represenLaLlves
agreed LhaL a prompL bllaLeral pracLlcal pollLlcal soluLlon
would be preferable Lo Lhe exLenL LhaL lL would save Llme
malnLaln goodwlll and avold uncerLalnLy ln Lhe end Lhe maLLer
was referred Lo Lhe uSMexlcan lnLernaLlonal 8oundary WaLers
Commlsslon whlch underLook sclenLlflc sLudles and provlded a
forum for negoLlaLlons

7 ueclslon 8readLh 3 (uSA Canada and Mexlco)

8 Legal SLandlng 18LA1?

C CLCC8APlC ClusLers

9 Ceographlc LocaLlons

a Ceographlc uomaln norLh Amerlca nAML8
b Ceographlc SlLe WesLern norLhern Amerlca WnAML8
c Ceographlc lmpacL uSA


1he hlghly sallne waLer affecLs an area spannlng Lhe
Colorado 8lver 8asln sLaLes Lhe 1l[uana and 8lo Crande 8lvers
and Lhe Culf of Callfornla

10 SubnaLlonal lacLors ?LS

All of Lhe sLaLes ln Lhe uS souLhwesL have a sLake ln Lhe
waLer avallablllLy from Lhe Colorado 8lver or LrlbuLarles Lo lL
AL mlnlmum Lhls lncludes Callfornla Arlzona nevada Colorado
and uLah Colorado 8lver LrlbuLary areas lnclude sLaLes as far
away as Wyomlng and new Mexlco

11 1ype of PablLaL u8?

u 18AuL ClusLers

12 1ype of Measure 8egulaLory SLandard 8LCS1u

1he flnal agreemenL wlLh Mexlco was rendered ln Lhe form of
MlnuLe number 242 of Lhe lnLernaLlonal 8oundary and WaLer
Commlsslon 1hls mlnuLe lnLerpreLed Lhe 1944 WaLer 1reaLy lL
was an lnLernaLlonal agreemenL buL noL lLself a LreaLy and ln
consequence dld noL requlre raLlflcaLlon by elLher slde lLs
lmplemenLaLlon however was dependenL on uS congresslonal
auLhorlzaLlon of funds

13 ulrecL vs lndlrecL lmpacLs lnulrecL

14 8elaLlon of Measure Lo LnvlronmenLal lmpacL
a ulrecLly 8elaLed Lo roducL ?LS AC8lCulLure
b lndlrecLly 8elaLed Lo roducL nC
c noL 8elaLed Lo roducL nC
d 8elaLed Lo rocess ?LS WA1L8

13 1rade roducL ldenLlflcaLlon WA1L8

1he 1944 unlLed SLaLesMexlco 1reaLy alloLs Mexlco a
guaranLeed annual quanLlLy of 1300000 acre feeL of Colorado
8lver flows

16 Lconomlc uaLa

17 lmpacL of Measure on 1rade CompeLlLlveness nA

1he resulLanL lnLernaLlonal agreemenL beLween Mexlco and Lhe
unlLed SLaLes resulLed ln subsLanLlal cosL Lo Lhe unlLed SLaLes
ln Lhe amounL (esLlmaLed) of $280000000 for (1) desalLlng of
Lhe WellLonMohawk uralnage ro[ecL (2) exLenslon of a llned
bypass draln Lo carry WellLonMohawk dralnage and brlne from Lhe
desalLlng planL Lo Lhe SanLa Clara slough on Lhe Culf of
Callfornla and (3) flnanclng Mexlcos lmprovemenLs and
rehablllLaLlon of Lhe Mexlcall valley

18 lndusLry SecLor AC8lCulLural

19 LxporLer and lmporLer uSA and MLxlCC

L Lnvl8CnMLn1 ClusLers


20 LnvlronmenLal roblem 1ype olluLlon Sea CLS

21 name 1ype and ulverslLy of Specles

name Many
1ype Many
ulverslLy nA

22 lmpacL and LffecL PlCP and 8CuucL

As menLloned above Lhe quallLy of Lhe waLer dellvered Lo
Mexlco was adequaLe unLll 1961 ln 1961 Lhe comblnaLlon of
hlghly sallne dralnage from Lhe WellLonMohawk lrrlgaLlon and
uralnage ulsLrlcL of Arlzona and a decrease ln avallablllLy of
excess waLers began Lo Lake lLs Loll ln Lhe Mexlcall valley
Mexlco 1he effecL of Lhese Lwo condlLlons was Lo lncrease Lhe
average annual sallnlLy of waLers made avallable Lo Mexlco from
an annual average of 800 parLs of salL per mllllon Lo nearly
1300 parLs per mllllon

endlng a permanenL soluLlon Lo Lhe problem Lhe unlLed
SLaLes engaged ln selecLlve pumplng of Lhe WellLonMohawk
dralnage wells Lo allevlaLe sallnlLy aL cerLaln Llmes and
consLrucLed a channel Lo bypass Lhe dralnage Lo Lhe Culf of
Callfornla 1he unlLed SLaLes also released approxlmaLely 30000
feeL annually of sLored waLer Lo meeL Lhe Mexlcan enLlLlemenL of
13 mllllon acrefeeL 8y 1971 Lhese measures had reduced Lhe
average annual sallnlLy of waLers Lo Mexlco Lo 1243 parLs per
mllllon

1he 1ask lorce lnvesLlgaLed more permanenL soluLlons
revealed Lhree posslblllLles (1) ellmlnaLlon of Lhe source of
hlgher sallnlLy (2) subsLlLuLlon of quallLy waLer from sLorage
for Lhe WellLonMohawk dralnage or (3) desalLlng Lhe WellLon
Mohawk dralnage uesalLlng proved Lo be Lhe preferred soluLlon
uesplLe belng Lhe mosL expenslve soluLlon desalLlng had Lhe
advanLage of mlnlmlzlng loss of waLer barrlers Lo developmenL
and envlronmenLal problems AddlLlonally lL encouraged
lmporLanL progress ln desalLlng Lechnology

1hls soluLlon called for consLrucLlon of a membrane process
desalLlng planL wlLh aL leasL 70 percenL recovery capablllLy of
abouL 240 parLs per mllllon quallLy waLer 1here were hopes
LhaL Lhe recovery capablllLy of Lhe desalLlng planL could be as
hlgh as 90 percenL and LhaL conLlnued cooperaLlon beLween Lhe
uS CovernmenL and Lhe WellLonMohawk ulsLrlcL would lead Lo an
lncrease ln waLer use efflclency

Several opLlons as Lo how Lo dlspose of Lhe brlne resulLlng
from desalLlng operaLlons exlsL 1hese lncluded (1) evaporaLlon
ponds (2) dlscharge Lhrough a llned draln Lo Lhe SanLa Clara
slough on Lhe Culf of Callfornla and (3) deep well ln[ecLlon
1he parLles seLLled on Lhe llned channel Lo Lhe SanLa Clara
slough because Lhey were found Lo be less expenslve Lhan
evaporaLlon ponds and lL was unclear wheLher deep well ln[ecLlon
was feaslble

23 urgency and lmpacL MLulum and 100s of years

Mexlco has serlous concerns over Lhe lmpacL of hlghly sallne
waLer on farm producLlon ln Lhe Mexlcall valley

24 SubsLlLuLes 8lodegradable 8lCuC producLs

vl C1PL8 lacLors

23 CulLure nC

26 1rans8order ?LS

1hls ls essenLlally a Lransborder problem because Colorado
8lver waLer crosses an lnLernaLlonal border WaLer from Lhe
rlver had conLlnuously flowed lnLo Lhe Culf of Callfornla unLll
1936 when uS agrlculLural use led Lo no waLer dlscharges Lo
Lhe gulf ln some summer monLhs

ArabIsrae|| Water D|spute

CASL nuM8L8 36
CASL MnLMCnlC lS8ALLP2C
CASL nAML lsrael!ordan WaLer ulspuLe

A luLn1lllCA1lCn
1 1he lssue
ShorLage of waLer ls perhaps Lhe mosL cruclal envlronmenLal
and developmenL problem ln lsrael 1he waLer deflclL ls
exacerbaLed by Lhe deLerloraLlng quallLy of waLer resources due Lo
demographlc lndusLrlal and agrlculLural pressures 1hls case
focuses on Lhe agrlculLural pressures parLlcularly wlLh respecL Lo
exporLs conLrlbuLlng Lo Lhe depleLlon and degradaLlon of lsraels
waLer resources Slnce Lhere ls no currenL reglonal agreemenL Lhe
poLenLlal for fuLure clalms by envlronmenLal groups or borderlng
counLrles deflnlLely exlsLs ConfllcLlng clalms glven Lhe already
exlsLlng pollLlcal problems ln Lhe area could lead Lo vlolence
2 uescrlpLlon
1he problem of waLer ln lsrael ls noL a legal lssue buL
raLher one of clrcumsLance lsraels waLer sources are llmlLed by
Lhe counLrys geography geology and cllmaLe 1hls shorLage can be
reflecLed ln lsraels per caplLa waLer poLenLlal 330 cublc meLers
(m3) per annum among Lhe lowesL ln Lhe world ln comparlson Lhe
waLer poLenLlal ln Lhe unlLed SLaLes ls abouL 100 Llmes larger (see
CCLC8AuC case)
Cf lsraels nelghborlng sLaLes only !ordan can clalm a lower
waLer poLenLlal
AgrlculLure has hlsLorlcally been a very lmporLanL secLor of
Lhe lsraell economy 1he share of agrlculLural producLlon ln
lsraell Cn decllned from 11 Lo 3 percenL beLween 1930 and 1991 and
Lhe proporLlon of agrlculLural exporLs decreased from 60 Lo 4
percenL of LoLal exporLs 8uL Lhe absoluLe lncrease ln exporLs
rose dramaLlcally from $20 mllllon Lo $666 mllllon ln LhaL perlod
Slnce lsraels lndependence ln 1948 area under culLlvaLlon has
lncreased from 408000 acres Lo 11 mllllon acres and Lhe number
of agrlculLural communlLles rlsen from 400 Lo 723 lurLhermore an
lnLegraLed neLwork of pumplng sLaLlons reservolrs canals and
plpellnes (known as Lhe naLlonal WaLer Carrler) Lransfers waLer
from Lhe norLh Lo Lhe semlarld souLh 1hls has led Lhe amounL of
lrrlgaLed farmland Lo lncrease from 74000 acres ln 1948 Lo 630000
acres Loday 1o meeL demand lsraell agrlculLure accounLs for
abouL 70 percenL all waLer consumed ln Lhe counLry
lsrael ls serlously commlLLed Lo appllcaLlonorlenLed
research
and developmenL augmenLed Lhrough cooperaLlon beLween governmenLal
agencles academlc lnsLlLuLlons and cooperaLlve bodles 8esearch
and developmenL advancemenLs have produced lnnovaLlons such as
waLer savlng drlp lrrlgaLlon hlgher yleldlng planL geneLlcs and
arldzone culLlvaLlon all of whlch have dramaLlcally lmproved
efflclency ln Lhe agrlculLural secLor lsrael now exporLs Lhls
experLlse Lo oLher arld and semlarld counLrles
1he drlvlng force behlnd Lhese Lechnologlcal advancemenLs has
been Lhe hlgh earnlng poLenLlal of agrlculLural exporLs Slnce
lsrael ls self sufflclenL ln mosL of lLs agrlculLural producLs
almosL all new agrlculLural developmenL ls dlrecLed Lowards exporL

1aklng advanLage of hlgh economles of scale lsraels farmers
derlve half of Lhelr lncome from agrlculLural exporLs by focuslng
on lLems such as flowers avocados ouLofseason vegeLables and
cerLaln exoLlc frulLs are produced speclflcally for exporL
lsraels varled cllmaLlc Lopographlcal and soll condlLlons
allows for greaL dlverslLy among lsraels agrlculLural produce
MosL exporL earnlngs come from cuL flowers (31 percenL) buL clLrus
(273 percenL) ls Lhe counLrys oldesL exporL secLor and conLlnues
Lo be Lhe largesL secLor for lsraell food producLs (LerrorlsLs
splked lsreall oranges wlLh cyanlde ln exporLs Lo Lhe
neLherlands) lsraels oLher maln agrlculLural exporLs are fleld
crops frulL llvesLock and produce and vegeLables
lnLenslve agrlculLural developmenL comblned wlLh pervaslve
waLer scarclLy has led Lo Lhe degradaLlon of lsraels waLer
quallLy AbouL oneLhlrd of lsraels populaLlon and ma[or porLlons
of lLs lndusLry and agrlculLure are concenLraLed ln Lhe reglon
overlylng Lhe coasLal aqulfer Chemlcal and mlcroblal polluLanLs
sallnaLlon nlLraLes heavy meLals fuels and Loxlc organlc
compounds all LhreaLen Lo conLamlnaLe Lhe aqulfer 1hough some of
Lhese conLamlnanLs are a resulL of naLural causes Lhe problems
seem Lo be exacerbaLed by agrlculLural usage
ln Lhe lasL 20 years chlorlde concenLraLlons ln Lhe coasLal
aqulfer have lncreased on average from 100 mg/llLer Lo 133
mg/llLer 1he problem ls compounded by Lhe lmporL of sallne waLer
from Lhe Sea of Calllee for lrrlgaLlon as well as ground waLer
recharge and Lhe use of effluenLs for lrrlgaLlon 1he sallnlLy
level of Lhe coasLal aqulfer endangers such crops as clLrus
avocado vegeLables and flowers 8y 1992 lL was esLlmaLed LhaL
abouL 20 percenL of Lhe wells ln Lhe coasLal aqulfer would reach a
sallnlLy level exceedlng 230 mg/llLer unsulLable for agrlculLural
lrrlgaLlon
nlLraLe concenLraLlon ls a speclal problem ln Lhe coasLal
aqulfer nlLraLes have conslderably grown due Lo lnLenslve use of
ferLlllzers ln agrlculLure nlLraLe polluLlon also resulLs from
Lhe use of LreaLed effluenLs for lrrlgaLlon Cver Lhe pasL Lwo
decades nlLraLe concenLraLlons have doubled and wlll conLlnue Lo
rlse furLher compllcaLlng Lhe problem As Lhe coasLal aqulfer
becomes less usable added pressure ls placed on Lhe oLher
aqulfers lncreaslng Lhe poLenLlal for fuLure problems
As noLed above Lechnologlcal lnnovaLlons have greaLly
lncreased crop ylelds and waLer efflclency ln addlLlon
subsLanLlal progress has been made ln Lhe area of wasLe waLer
LreaLmenL and reused 1oday approxlmaLely 70 percenL of effluenLs
are LreaLed and reused 1hls has Lremendous poslLlve poLenLlal for
agrlculLure ln Lhe search for new waLer sources effluenLs
consLlLuLe Lhe easlesL avallable and cheapesL source of addlLlonal
waLer CurrenLly over 70 percenL of all LreaLed wasLe waLer ls
reused ln agrlculLure 8y Lhe year 2000 Lhls wlll amounL Lo over
400 mllllon m3 greaLly easlng Lhe sLraln on fresh waLer resources
ulfferenL admlnlsLraLlve and leglslaLlve measures have also
been Laken Lo help ease Lhe lmpacL on waLer Several commlLLees
have been recenLly formed under Lhe ausplces of Lhe MlnlsLry of
AgrlculLure Lo supervlse Lhe counLrys waLer supply Measures
Laken lnclude seLLlng waLer quoLas deLermlnlng prlces and
lnlLlaLlng supply enhanclng pro[ecLs lurLhermore Lhe economlc
proflLablllLy of each crop ls now assessed accordlng Lo lLs
efflclenL use of waLer lncome per waLer unlL as opposed Lo
per acre or labor as used ln Lhe pasL 1hus hlgh waLer consumlng
crops such as coLLon have been ellmlnaLed lf Lhey do noL yleld a
hlgh reLurn
Some leglslaLlve measures have been Laken Lo regulaLe Lhe
amounL of conLamlnanLs ln Lhe waLer supply 1he WaLer Law of 1939
ls Lhe prlnclpal law regulaLlng Lhe flow of polluLanLs lnLo Lhe
counLrys waLer ways 1he WaLer Law was amended ln 1971 and agaln
ln 1991 Lhe former Lo lnclude prohlblLlons agalnsL dlrecL or
lndlrecL waLer polluLlon Lhe laLLer Lo faclllLaLe more effecLlve
enforcemenL Lhrough sLlffer flnes and obllgaLory clean up measures

More recenLly Lhe MlnlsLry of Lhe LnvlronmenL has prepared
regulaLlons on effluenL lrrlgaLlon llmlLlng nlLraLe concenLraLlons
ln lrrlgaLlon of areas overlylng Lhe norLhern and cenLral parLs of
Lhe coasLal aqulfer
3 8elaLed Cases
keyword ClusLers
(1) SlC AC8lCulLural
(2) 8logeography u8?
(3) LnvlronmenLal roblem WA1L8
4 AuLhor Cll 8lndelglas
8 LLCAL ClusLers
3 ulscourse and SLaLus ulSagreemenL and ln8CCress
1hough Lhere are no formal lnLernaLlonal or reglonal
agreemenLs coverlng waLer lssues negoLlaLlons over waLer exLend
forLy years ln Lhe 1930s and 1960s several plans were lnLroduced
Lo help allocaLe Lhe waLer beLween Lhe rlparlan users (Lhe mosL
famous of whlch was proposed by Lhe Amerlcan medlaLor Lrlc
!ohnsLon) unforLunaLely pollLlcal conslderaLlons usually
precluded any reglonal waLer allocaLlon agreemenLs from belng
lmplemenLed 1oday negoLlaLlons over waLer are belng dlscussed ln
Lhe mulLllaLeral Lrack of Lhe Mlddle LasL peace Lalks whlch
encompasses such lssues as waLer Lrade and Lhe envlronmenL
6 lorum and Scope lS8ALL and unlLA1eral
1he WaLer Law (1971) regulaLes Lhe flow of polluLanLs lnLo
Lhe
lsraell waLer supply wlLh Lhe MlnlsLry of LnvlronmenL responslble
for mosL provlslons of Lhe waLer law Several oLher publlc bodles
also play a role Lhe WaLer 8oard Lhe WaLer lannlng CommlLLee
and Lhe WaLer 1rlbunal
7 ueclslon 8readLh 3 (lsrael Syrla 1urkey Lebanon
and !ordan)
8 Legal SLandlng LAW
C CLCC8APlC ClusLers
9 Ceographlc LocaLlons
a Ceographlc uomaln MluLAS1
b Ceographlc SlLe SouLhern Mlddle LasL SMlu
c Ceographlc lmpacL lS8ALL
10 SubnaLlonal lacLors nC
11 1ype of PablLaL u8?
u 18AuL ClusLers
12 1ype of Measure Su8Slu?
1he lsraell governmenL supporL of agrlculLure lncludes boLh
dlrecL and lndlrecL subsldles
13 ulrecL vs lndlrecL lmpacLs lnulrecL
14 8elaLlon of Measure Lo LnvlronmenLal lmpacL
a ulrecLly 8elaLed Lo roducL nC
b lndlrecLly 8elaLed Lo roducL ?LS AC8lCulLural
c noL 8elaLed Lo roducL nC
d 8elaLed Lo rocess ?LS WA1L8
13 1rade roducL ldenLlflcaLlon AC8lCulLural
16 Lconomlc uaLa
1he Cn of lsrael ls abouL $33 bllllon and per caplLa Cn ls
abouL $11000 Lhe unemploymenL raLe ls abouL 11 percenL
AgrlculLure ls abouL 3 percenL of Lhe Cn and 4 percenL of LoLal
exporLs (abouL $666 mllllon ln 1992)
17 lmpacL of Measure on 1rade CompeLlLlveness LA8CL
lL ls doubLful LhaL wlLhouL governmenL supporL lsrael would
be a slgnlflcanL agrlculLural exporLer
18 lndusLry SecLor (SlC) AC8lCulLural
19 LxporLer and lmporLer lS8ALL and MAn?
L Lnvl8CnMLn1 ClusLers
20 LnvlronmenLal roblem 1ype WA1L8
21 name 1ype and ulverslLy of Specles
name Many
1ype Many
ulverslLy 1820 hlgher planLs per
10000 km/sq (lsrael)
22 8esource lmpacL and LffecL PlCP and SCALL
23 urgency and LlfeLlme MLulum and 100s of years
8y Lhe year 2000 lsrael may be runnlng a waLer deflclL of 30
percenL 1oday lsrael uses 1013 percenL more waLer Lhan can be
renewed by ralnfall
24 SubsLlLuLes ConservaLlon CCnSv
1hough Lhere are no subsLlLuLes for waLer however Lhere are
many advancemenLs ln Lhe way of waLer conservaLlon 1echnologlcal
lmprovemenLs lnclude mlcrosprlnklers drlp lrrlgaLlon
compuLerlzed auLomaLed conLrol sysLems eLc lurLhermore lsraell
research has developed crops whlch requlre a mlnlmal amounL of
waLer or Lhrlve on bracklsh waLer wlLhouL dlmlnlshed yleld 1he
besL subsLlLuLe however ls probably [usL waLer conservaLlon
vl C1PL8 lacLors
23 CulLure nC
26 1rans8order ?LS
Some belleve LhaL Lhe waLer lssue could spark a new MldeasL
war 1he waLer needed for exporLs Lhus exacerbaLes Lhls problem
27 8lghLs ?LS
8lghLs Lo waLer are lmporLanL because of lLs relaLlon Lo
human
healLh and welfare !ordan clalms LhaL excesslve lsraell waLer use
deprlves downsLream users ln !ordan Lhe waLer need Lhey need
28 8elevanL LlLeraLure
AgrlculLure ln lsrael lsrael lnformaLlon CenLer !erusalem
Ahva ress 1993
lacLs AbouL lsrael Lconomy lsrael lnformaLlon CenLer
!erusalem Pamakor ress !erusalem 1992
lsraels negev ueserL LaboraLory for Arld Land AgrlculLure 1he
lsraell Lxperlence ln CombaLLlng ueserLlflcaLlon
MASPAv ulvlslon for lnLernaLlonal CooperaLlon MlnlsLry
of lorelgn Affalrs SLaLe of lsrael
roblems of WaLer ln Lhe Mlddle LasL London 8ackground
8rlef lorelgn and CommonwealLh Cfflce (!anuary 1992)
1he LnvlronmenL ln lsrael naLlonal 8eporL Lo Lhe unlLed naLlons
Conference on LnvlronmenL and uevelopmenL MlnlsLry of
Lhe LnvlronmenL SLaLe of lsrael 1992
WaLer ln Lhe Mlddle LasL Managlng a SLraLeglc 8esource
Mlddle LasL 8esearch lnsLlLuLe WashlngLon uC CcLober
23 1992

,ekong k|ver
MLkCnC


CASL nuM8L8 238
CASL MnLMCnlC MLkCnC
CASL nAML Mekong 8lver uam

l luLn1lllCA1lCn

1 1he lssue

Pow can 1halland a counLry faced wlLh aL leasL four ma[or
envlronmenLal concerns deforesLaLlon wlldllfe desLrucLlon
waLer scarclLy and urban envlronmenLal quallLy afford Lo bulld
anoLher dam? uam consLrucLlon ls supposedly drlven by Lhe
lmperaLlve Lo produce more elecLrlc power ln order Lo ralse Lhe
naLlonal sLandard of llvlng Lo a level comparable Lo LhaL of
naLlons llke Lhe unlLed SLaLes LhaL already have Lhelr dams ln
place Powever Lhe uLlllLy of bulldlng hydroelecLrlc dams has
been challenged on a number of grounds llrsL Lhey are exLremely
expenslve A dam proposed on Lhe Mekong 8lver borderlng 1halland
and Laos wlll cosL $27 bllllon 1hls no small amounL conslderlng
LhaL 1hallands Cn sLood aL almosL $70 bllllon and ranked 30Lh ln
Lhe world Second coupled wlLh deforesLaLlon prevlous dams have
adversely affecLed local cllmaLe condlLlons soll ferLlllLy and
waLer and flshery resources 1hlrd ln many counLrles Lhe
consLrucLlon of hydroelecLrlc dams has dlsplaced people and alLered
local communlLy llfe

2 uescrlpLlon

Slnce Lhe 1960s Lhe Mekong 8lver basln whlch spans Chlna
Laos 8urma 8urma and vleLnam has been slaLed for developmenL by
a serles of hydroelecLrlc dams ln order Lo coordlnaLe Lhe
LransnaLlonal naLure of Lhls masslve pro[ecL Lhe unlLed naLlons
esLabllshed Lhe Mekong CommlLLee 1he commlLLee overseas all
aspecLs of pro[ecL plannlng and lmplemenLaLlon All Lold some 100
hydroelecLrlc dams have been proposed by Lhe commlLLee As Lhe
1990s appear Lo be Lhe decade for 1hal economlc growLh and rlslng
energy needs Lhe uLlllLy of hydroelecLrlc dams as componenL of
economlc growLh musL be reconsldered ln relaLlon Lo Lhe
envlronmenL

1he consLrucLlon of hydroelecLrlc dams usually requlres
numerous lnLernaLlonal lnpuLs ln 1halland Lhese lnclude Lhe
flnanclal admlnlsLraLlve archlLecLural and englneerlng servlces
A lrench flrm SogreLh recenLly deslgned a $120 mllllon dam Lo be
bullL aL ak Mong on Lhe Mekong AnoLher forelgn flrm Lhe
AusLrallan owned Snowy MounLalns Lnglneerlng CorporaLlon has
deslgned Lhe nam 1heum 2 dam Lo be bullL across a LrlbuLary of Lhe
Mekong ln Laos 1he $300 mllllon pro[ecL needs a reservolr of 300
square kllomeLers or larger Lo feed a 300 Lo 600 megawaLL power
planL 8esldes servlces hlgh Lechnology compuLers generaLors
and conLrol sysLems are frequenLly lmporLed from more advanced
naLlons llke !apan and Lhe unlLed SLaLes 8ay Cram Lhe Mekong
CommlLLees lnformaLlon offlcer has Lherefore ldenLlfled Sweden
AusLralla and !apan as Lhe counLrles wlLh Lhe greaLesL poLenLlal
role ln supporLlng hydropower ln Lhe reglon as Lhelr economles
sLand Lo beneflL from lucraLlve energy markeL ln 1halland

Any large scale modernlzaLlon pro[ecL such as a dam has
lndlrecL relaLlons Lo Lrade Large developmenL pro[ecLs may
generaLe addlLlonal mulLlpller effecLs by lncreaslng Lhe demand
for lnfrasLrucLural developmenL as more roads porLs elecLrlclLy
and LelecommunlcaLlon faclllLles are requlred for Lhe consLrucLlon
and malnLenance of dams ln lsolaLed areas lollowlng
consLrucLlon Lhe conLlnued need for machlnery and quallfled
personnel Lo malnLaln Lhe slLe may be meL from overseas 1hls ls
especlally relevanL for 1halland when conslderlng LhaL Lhere exlsLs
a masslve shorLage of lndlgenous englneers

1hus Lhe bulldlng of ma[or hydroelecLrlc dams along Lhe
Mekong 8lver requlres forelgn lnpuLs slnce many do noL have Lhe
capaclLy nor Lhe Lechnlcal experLlse Lo make Lhe generaLors and
oLher complex elecLrlcalconLrol sysLems Moreover 1hallands
nelghbors Lhrough whlch Lhe Mekong rlver also flows are burdened
wlLh rlslng lnLernaLlonal debL and few exporL opporLunlLles
Already Lhe LempLlng prospecLs of exporLlng elecLrlclLy Lo energy
sLarved 1halland has led 8urma and Laos Lo begln consLrucLlng dams
along Lhe Mekong rlver Sadly Lhough hydroelecLrlc dams can have
devasLaLlng effecLs on Lhe envlronmenL

Cn Lhe advlce of Lhe World 8ank and Mekong CommlLLee Lhe
8oyal 1hal CovernmenL began Lo see Lhe ablllLy Lo generaLe
elecLrlclLy as an essenLlal elemenL of Lhe larger lndusLrlallzaLlon
efforL 1he Choa nem pro[ecL laLer renamed Lhe Srl nakarln uam
was compleLed ln Lhe laLe 1970s under Lhe supervlslon of LlecLrlcal
CeneraLlng AuLhorlLy of 1halland and Lhe Aslan lnsLlLuLe of
1echnology When Lhe local people found ouL abouL lLs proposed
consLrucLlon ln 1973 Lhey sLood up Lo proLesL Lhe LhreaL Lo publlc
safeLy and Lhe poLenLlally adverse envlronmenLal lmpacL soll
eroslon loss of wlldllfe change ln Lhe waLer Lable among oLhers
ln addlLlon Lhe dam was Lo be locaLed ln Lhe kanchanaburl rovlnce
on a geographlc faulL llne a facL LhaL could resulL ln a ma[or
caLasLrophe should an earLhquake occur Slmllarly rlsk assoclaLed
wlLh floodlng and/or breakage remalned hlgh as Lhe dam was bullL on
porous llmesLone whlch ls waLer soluble

WlLh Lhe help of a publlc lnformaLlon campalgn Lhe pressure
Lo reconslder Lhe dam mounLed A small group of unlverslLy and
loresLry ueparLmenL SclenLlsLs spoke ouL agalnsL Lhe dam Also a
group of nongovernmenLal organlzaLlons and lnLernaLlonal
envlronmenLal groups launched an lnLernaLlonal campalgn Lo
challenged Lhe offlclal envlronmenLal lmpacL assessmenLs
Moreover local nCCs and sLudenL envlronmenLal groups opposed Lhe
consLrucLlon on democraLlc grounds argulng LhaL local resources
would be explolLed for Lhe beneflL of a small group of ellLes

Cn Lhe slde favorlng Lhe dam were Lhe 1hal MlllLary Lhe
LlecLrlcal CeneraLlng AuLhorlLy of 1halland (LCA1) numerous 1hal
agencles forelgn lenders and producers of parLs for Lhe dam ln
1973 Lhe supporLers produced a documenLLhe envlronmenLal lmpacL
assessmenL (LlA)LhaL recommended Lhe dams consLrucLlon As Lhe
opposlLlons campalgn mounLed Lhe leader of LCA1 agreed Lo meeL
wlLh opponenLs ln whaL was Lo be Lhe only consulLaLlon AlLhough
boLh parLles agreed LhaL Lhe orlglnal LlA was useless Lhe second
parL was never made publlc ConsLrucLlon pressed ahead and Lhe dam
was compleLed ln Lhe laLe 1970s

1he !apanese corporaLlon MlLsublshl provlded almosL all Lhe
parLs and equlpmenL lurLhermore Lhe World 8ank and !apans
Cverseas Lconomlc CooperaLlon lund supplled Lhe lnlLlal longLerms
loans Lo flnance Lhe dam 1he envlronmenLal consequences of Lhls
dam are sympLomaLlc of Lhe larger problems faclng dam consLrucLlon
worldwlde 8y floodlng a large foresLed area Lo bulld up enough
waLer Lo generaLe elecLrlclLy Lhe dam rulned local farmlands and
requlred reseLLlemenL of some 4000 famllles

uownsLream aL Lhe esLuary of Lhe Mae klong rlver Lhe reduced
flow of waLer caused an lnLruslon of sallne waLer wlplng ouL
farmland and rulnlng Lhe fraglle mangrove foresLs ln addlLlon
Lhe dam also hardened Lhe soll on Lhe rlverbanks by reduclng Lhe
waLer flow Coupled wlLh Lhe problems of deforesLaLlon ln
1halland successlve droughLs exacerbaLed Lhe dlfflculLles of
farmlng Lhe soll as lnfrequenL ralnfall from deforesLaLlon
hardenlng Lhe soll and pushed back Lhe planLlng season from
lebruary Lo May All Lold Lhe exporL crops produced downsLream on
coconuL and lychee planLaLlons were wlped ouL and farmers were
forced Lo abandon Lhelr land because of accumulaLed salLlness

1he connecLlons beLween Lrade and envlronmenLal degradaLlon ln
Lhe case of dam consLrucLlon has boLh dlrecL and lndlrecL effecLs
on Lhe envlronmenL 1he envlronmenLal problems assoclaLed wlLh dam
consLrucLlon can also comblne wlLh deforesLaLlon Lo produce even
more problems uam consLrucLlon usually requlres forelgn lnpuLs ln
Lhe form of servlces and goods ?eL hydroelecLrlc dams can be
very deLrlmenLal Lo Lhe local envlronmenL and may lndlrecLly harm
Lhe prospecLs for oLher Lypes of exporLs by degradlng Lhe naLural
resource base ln Lhls Lhe freshwaLer supply Moreover dams help
Lo dlslocaLe rural populaLlons who frequenLly proLecL Lhe local
resources As wlLh many of Lhese developmenL pro[ecLs Lhe refugees
end up lmpoverlshed and landless 1he sLory has repeaLed lLself 26
Llmes across 1halland

8 Legal lllLers

3 ulscourse and SLaLus ulSagree and ln8CCress

1he dlscourse on dam bulldlng has become very rlch ln recenL
years as more and more groups have lobbled for lncreased
Lransparency and accounLablllLy by lenders Cn Lhe slde of Lhose
favorlng dam bulldlng Lhe renewable and susLalnable naLure of
waLer resources has been emphaslzed lor Lhem rlvers are seen as
an alLernaLlve Lo fossll fuels and nuclear energy Powever dam
bulldlng ln 1halland has been opposed by local and lnLernaLlonal
groups on a number of occaslons for Lhe very reasons LhaL were
clLed above 1hey have engaged Lhe governmenL agencles and
mulLllaLeral lenders ln a dlalogue abouL Lhe long Lerm
susLalnablllLy of large hydropower

uslng Lhe LnvlronmenLal lmpacL AssessmenL debaLes have
occurred over Lhe valldlLy and auLhorlLy of Lhe conLenLs Cn
occaslon Lhe auLhors have agreed Lo revlew Lhelr flndlngs and
concluded LhaL Lhe dam should noL be bullL 1hls ls also an
opporLunlLy Lo save face on behalf of Lhe lnLeresLs lnvolved who
may wlLhdraw Lhelr supporL aL Lhe second revlslon CLher groups
have become lnvolved Lhe larger lnLernaLlonal opposlLlon Lo dam
bulldlng lor lnsLance ln Lhe unlLed SLaLes groups llke Amerlcan
8lvers have ldenLlfled 10 endangered rlvers and 23 LhreaLened
rlvers due Lo desLrucLlon from dams waLer dlverslons mlnlng
dredglng land developmenL and/or polluLlon

ln Lhe case of developlng counLrles local nCCs and
envlronmenLal groups have lnlLlaLed proLesLs aL mulLlple levels
(1) lnLernaLlonalln mulLllaLeral forums such as aL Lhe un 8lo
LarLh SummlL and lobbylng Lhe World 8ank dlrecLly Lo sLop lendlng
for such pro[ecLs (2) naLlonalpuLLlng pressure on governmenL
agencles lnvolved bllaLeral lendlng lnsLlLuLlon llke Lhe uS
LxporLlmporL 8ank uslng naLlonwlde nCC groups and naLlonal
sLudenL organlzaLlons (3) Localdrawlng up alLernaLlve sLraLegles
for susLalnable waLer resource managemenL and pressurlng local
governmenL offlclal aL Lhe provlnclal and vlllage level Lo Lake a
sLand

6 lorum and Scope 1PAlland and unlLA1eral

ln 1halland some dams have been consLrucLed and Lhelr danger
assessed and made publlc oLhers have been posLponed lndeflnlLely
ln oLher reglons and oLher counLrles Lhelr consLrucLlon conLlnues
unabaLed uesplLe Lhe almosL unlversal problems assoclaLed wlLh
hydroelecLrlc dams especlally ln boLh developed and developed
counLrles Lhere has yeL Lo be any sorL of lnLernaLlonal guldellnes
on Lhelr consLrucLlon no broad pollcy programs have been proposed
Lo address Lhe dlfflculLles assoclaLed wlLh hydroelecLrlc dams

Chlna has consLrucLed Lwo dams uprlvr on Lhe Mekong (whlch
Lhey call Lhe Lancang) aL uachaoshan and Manwan Chlna plans flve
more dams and nlne on Lhe Mekongs LrlbuLarles ln LoLal exceedlng
Lhe capaclLy of Lhe 1hree Corges dam (see 1P8LLuAM case) 1hese
dams are meanL Lo produce hydroelecLrlc power so longLerm waLer
dlverslon ls unllekly Powever durlng perlods of damfllllng has
produced sverely reduced flows downsLream vleLnam fears LhaL
reduced waLer wlll cause Lhe salL waLer Lo lnLrude furLher
upsLream LhreaLenlng rlce producLlon

7 ueclslon 8readLh 1

ln Lhe case of Lhe Choa nem dam numerous groups were effecLed
1hese lnclude envlronmenLal nCCs naLlonal and lnLernaLlonal 1hal
governmenL Agencles llke LCA1 and 8oyal loresLry ueparLmenL
mulLllaLeral banks ln parLlcular Lhe World 8ank and Lhe Aslan
lnsLlLuLe of 1echnology and forelgn governmenLs llke !apan and
Lhe unlLed SLaLes and Lhelr buslnesses especlally companles llke
MlLsublshl LhaL provlded Lhe parLs and equlpmenL

8 Legal SLandlng LAW

naLlonal Laws and 1ransnaLlonal AcLors 1he flrsL pollcles
wlLh regards Lo energy were seL ouL ln Lhe eLroleum AuLhorlLy AcL
(1970) whlch esLabllshed broad pollcy ob[ecLlves for Lhe
exploraLlon and dlscovery of peLroleum SubsequenL leglslaLlon
relnforced Lhe governmenLs cenLral role ln coordlnaLlng energy
acLlvlLles Lhrough sLrengLhenlng of Lhe lnsLlLuLlonal framework
Cne agency Lhe LlecLrlcal CeneraLlng AuLhorlLy of 1halland (LCA1)
worked closely wlLh 8ank sLaff Lo deslgn masslve dams for Lhe
producLlon of elecLrlclLy A serles of laws also seL ouL Lhe same
broad pollcy ob[ecLlves of Lhe 8oard of lnvesLmenL ln parLlcular
laws were deslgned Lo encourage prlvaLe exploraLlon and develop
domesLlc peLroleum reserves Lhrough Lhe use of lncenLlves slmllar
Lo Lhose used by Lhe 8Cl especlally Lax concesslons and guaranLees
agalnsL naLlonallzaLlon rlvaLe companles have operaLed
alongslde Lhe publlc secLor ln parLlcular Amerlcan corporaLlons
and Lhe afflllaLes of Lhe LransnaLlonal corporaLlons Lsso and Shell
have been acLlve ln exploraLlon

C Ceographlc lllLers

9 Ceography

a uomaln ASlA
b SlLe LasL Asla
c lmpacL 1PAlland

10 SubnaLlonal lacLors nC

1he lssue of dam consLrucLlon relaLes Lo developmenL pollcles
and prlorlLles ln rural areas especlally ln 1hallands
lmpoverlshed norLh and norLheasLern reglons CfLen Lhe lssue wlll
cenLer around conLrol over naLural resources aL Lhe vlllage level
Whlle aL Lhe naLlonal level Lhe governmenL may have oLher deslgns
for such resources

11 1ype of PablLaL 18ClCAL

u 1rade lllLers

12 1ype of Measure 8egulaLory SLandard 8LCS1u

no speclflc measures have been lmplemenLed Lo deal wlLh Lhe
Lrade ln energy or Lhe Lrade ln parLs and equlpmenL relaLed Lo
hydroelecLrlc dam consLrucLlon ln general 1halland has been very
open Lo forelgn Lrade and forelgn dlrecL lnvesLmenL ln 1halland

13 ulrecL vs lndlrecL lnulrecL

uams generaLe waLer Lo be used for producLlon of Lhe exporL
agrlculLural producLs 1he waLer from Lhe reservolr can be fed
lnLo lrrlgaLlon sysLems Powever Lhe floodlng of a reservolr may
lrreverslbly change Lhe ecosysLem and waLer Lable downsLream
LhreaLenlng oLher farmers Also Lhe lack of waLer flowlng
downsLream may lncrease Lhe llklhood LhaL salLlevels lncrease
downsLream kllllng wlldllfe and hablLaLs dependenL on semlannual
sllL deposlLs and freshwaLer

AlLhough 1halland uses lLs dams for local energy use Lhe
poLenLlal for Lrade ls enormous glven Lhe facL LhaL 1halland
lmporLs much of lLs energy As Lhe economy grows oLher nelghborlng
counLrles llke Cambodla Laos and 8urma may be LempLed Lo exporL
energy Lo 1halland ln 1989 1hallands dams produced 43 bllllon
kllowaLL hours and ln 1982 Lhe flgure was 38 bllllon kllowaLL
hours 1he worlds neL producLlon of hydroelecLrlc power was
21448 bllllon kllowaLL hours ln 1991

ln addlLlon Lhe lLems used Lo consLrucL dams lnclude a
slgnlflcanL number of power generaLors and oLher elecLrlcal
sysLems !apan was parLlcularly eager Lo exporL Lhese producLs Lo
1halland ln connecLlon wlLh Lhe consLrucLlon of dams
unforLunaLely daLa on Lhe exporL of generaLors are unavallable
Powever Lhese parLs are Lhe mosL sophlsLlcaLed and hence expenslve
parLs of Lhe consLrucLlon and Lherefore Lhe amounL of Lrade should
be slgnlflcanL lurLhermore lnLernaLlonal servlces rendered by
consulLanLs bankers englneers and archlLecLs may also be broughL
lnLo Lhe plannlng sLage and consLlLuLe an addlLlonal aspecL of
lnLernaLlonal producL flows Slmllarly afLer compleLlon Lhese
servlces and parLs wlll be needed Lo malnLaln and upgrade Lhe
funcLlonlng of Lhe dam

14 8elaLlon of 1rade Measure Lo 8esource lmpacL

a ulrecLly 8elaLed ?es LLLCLrlclLy
b lndlrecLly 8elaLed ?es MAn?
c noL 8elaLed no
d rocess ?es PA8l1aL Loss

urbanlzaLlon ln consLrucLlng dams usually Lhe rural communlLles
are uprooLed and forced Lo go elsewhere Lo Lake up resldence
1hls ofLen resulLs ln rural landless who end up llvlng ln slums and
worklng ln Lhe clLles Cradually Lhe rural communlLy becomes a
Lhlng of Lhe pasL

ConsolldaLlon of SLaLe ConLrol Cne reason for Lhe rural
developmenL pro[ecLs llke Lhe nam Choan dam was Lhe mlllLarys
deslre Lo exLend lLs conLrol Lo Lhe old sLronghold of Lhe
CommunlsL arLy of 1halland new governmenL admlnlsLraLors and
mlllLary commlLLees were appolnLed as parL of Lhe efforL Lo
consLrucL Lhe dam

13 1rade roducL MAn?

Lnergy producLlon and lnpuLs Lo Lhe dam consLrucLlon
generaLors machlnery consLrucLlon equlpmenL and professlonal
servlces Also a mulLlpller effecL may occur whlch would requlre
addlLlonal lndlrecL lnpuLs such as adequaLe LelecommunlcaLlons and
road sysLems Lo reach Lhe lsolaLed rural areas where dams are
locaLed ln 1halland (see above)

16 Lconomlc uaLa

ln 1989 1hallands dams produced 43 bllllon kllowaLL hours
and ln 1982 Lhe flgure was 38 bllllon kllowaLL hours 1he worlds
neL producLlon of hydroelecLrlc power was 21448 bllllon kllowaLL
hours ln 1991 1he worlds leadlng hydroelecLrlclLy producers
were Canada Lhe uS 8razll norway Lhe former uSS8 and
Chlna 1ogeLher Lhey accounLed for over half of Lhe worlds
LoLal hydroelecLrlc power generaLlon ln 1991 (see 1able 2381)

1able 2381
ercenL of 1oLal PydroelecLrlc ower

Canada 142 ercenL
uS 130 ercenL
lormer uSS8 103 ercenL
8razll 98 ercenL

17 CompeLlLlve lmpacL LCW

1he lmpacL of Lrade resLrlcLlon on Lhe Lrade ln dam parLs and
equlpmenL could resulL ln lncreased conservaLlon !apan has
effecLlvely reduced lLs consumpLlon of energy over Llme 1here ls
no reason why 1halland could noL pursue a slmllar paLh

1he quesLlon here remalns Lo whaL exLenL counLrles are
wllllng Lo sacrlflce Lhelr naLural waLerways and resources for Lhe
shorL Lerm galn of energy producLlon lf economlc growLh can only
be aLLalned by desLroylng Lhe naLural envlronmenL Lhen Lhe cosL of
such desLrucLlon should be compensaLed for 1hose dlsplaced should
be relmbursed for Lhelr loss of land and llvellhood CLherwlse
Lhe rural populaLlons wlll subsldlze Lhe growLh of lndusLry ln Lhe
clLles who use Lhe hydropower AlLernaLlve energles and
conservaLlon campalgns musL be developed so as Lo reduce Lhe need
Lo rely on such envlronmenLally unsafe sources 1hus whlle dams do
creaLe much needed energy Lo fuel lndusLrlal growLh Lhe longLerm
susLalnablllLy and lmpacL on Lhe larger envlronmenL and ecosysLem
musL be broughL lnLo quesLlon

18 lndusLry MAn?

19 LxC81L8 Anu lMC81L8 1PAlland and MAn?

1halland lmporLs elecLrlcal machlnery and generaLors from
!apan and Lhe unlLed SLaLes lor lnsLance a recenL uS ueparLmenL
of Commerce uocumenL concluded LhaL besL prospecLs for uS exporLs
Lo 1halland were ln olluLlon ConLrol LqulpmenL 1elecommunlcaLlons
LqulpmenL and CompuLers and erlpherals 1halland lmporLs a
conslderable amounL of caplLal goods and lnLermedlaLe goods from
!apan Lhe uS and Cermany

ln addlLlon dams requlre may servlce producLs ln Lhe ways
of flnanclal consulLlng and englneerlng servlces 1hese are
ofLen provldlng lnLernaLlonally and may be Lled Lo cerLaln loans
1hus some counLrles llke Lhe unlLed SLaLes and !apan provlde loans
for cerLaln pro[ecLs only on Lhe condlLlon LhaL Lhe counLry use
producLs and servlces provlded by Lhelr companles 1hls ls how
only 30 cenLs ouL of every developmenL dollar allocaLed by Lhe
unlLed SLaLes governmenL acLually geLs spenL ln a developlng
counLry

L LnvlronmenLal lllLers

20 LnvlronmenLal roblem PA8l1aL Loss

21 Specles lnformaLlon

ln almosL all cases dams alLer Lhe naLural envlronmenL
changlng Lhe waLer Lable on whlch all llfe depends 1hus Lhe
number of specles affecLed ls almosL lnflnlLe

22 lmpacL and LffecL PlCP and 1020 years

Coupled wlLh deforesLaLlon dams have adversely affecLed local
cllmaLe condlLlons soll ferLlllLy and waLer and flshery
resources Also a number of mudslldes have been noLlceable
durlng Lhe ralny season whlch can alLer Lhe local envlronmenL
lmmedlaLely

23 urgency and lmapcL Plgh and Scale

uam consLrucLlon lmmedlaLely effecLs Lhe llvlng organlsms LhaL
lnhablL Lhe rlver down sLream by alLerlng amounL of waLer and Lhe
ablllLy of flsh Lo swlm upsLream Lo spawn Some anlmals and planL
llfe could be wlped ouL wlLhln a year 1he more slow onseL Lypes
of desLrucLlon and envlronmenLal degradaLlon can range beLween 10
and 100 years as Lhe changlng waLer Lable gradually effecLs all
llfe 1he low amounL of waLer flowlng downsLream may acLually
conLrlbuLe Lo Lhe sallnlzaLlon of rlver LrlbuLarles as Lhey
approach Lhe ocean

24 SubsLlLuLes AL1L8naLlve Lnergy

1here are any number of subsLlLuLes for hydroelecLrlclLy
Many are fossll fuels whlch have Lhelr own envlronmenLal
consequences Powever wlnd energy ls emerglng as a vlable
alLernaLlve Solar energy has long been employed Lo heaL houses
and supply heaL Lo Lhe earLh CeoLhermal energy ls also anoLher
alLernaLlve lL seems LhaL wlnd energy and solar would be besL
sulLed Lo 1hallands cllmaLe ln addlLlon lmproved energy
efflclency as lllusLraLed by Chlnas conservaLlon efforLs ls
anoLher paLhway open Lo 1halland

l CLher lacLors

23 CulLure ?LS

CulLure has played a role ln Lhe envlronmenLal consequences of
dams ln parLlcular 1halland ls heavlly rellanL on rlce
producLlon as boLh an exporL crop and subslsLence sLaple 1hus
Lhe scarclLy or reallocaLlon of waLer can have a severe effecL on
Lhe rural economy Compared wlLh a pasLoral people dams dlsplace
Lhose who are Lled Lo crop producLlon based on seasonal ralnfall
ln addlLlon 1halland has hlsLorlcally had an lndlgenous dam sysLem
whlch maxlmlzes Lhe communlLy usefulness of lrrlgaLlon by
dlsLrlbuLlng waLer Lo all accordlng Lo slze of Lhelr land holdlngs
Slmllarly ones land deLermlnes Lhe amounL of work one has Lo
conLrlbuLe Lo Lhe communal lrrlgaLlon sysLem Powever dams have
replaced Lhls sysLem wlLh a sysLem deLermlned by proxlmlLy Lo Lhe
ma[or dam

26 Puman rlghLs ?LS

1here has been some lnLervenLlon ln Lhe rlghL Lo freely
organlze as was Lhe case of Lhe proLesLers Lhe dam lL seems LhaL
some baslc human rlghLs may have been vlolaLed by Lhe governmenL
and LCA1 Powever Lhe proLesLs were successful ln Lhe end

27 1ransboundary ?LS