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Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 40 (2011) 746761

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Journal of Asian Earth Sciences

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Seismic velocity and Poissons ratio tomography of the crust beneath East Anatolia
Mohamed K. Salah a,, Sakir Sahin b, Ufuk Aydin c
a

Geology Department, Faculty of Science, Tanta University, Tanta 31527, Egypt Department of Geophysics, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Sleyman Demirel University, 32260 Isparta, Turkey c Earthquake Research Center, Ataturk University, Yakutiye 25240, Erzurum, Turkey
b

a r t i c l e

i n f o

a b s t r a c t
Eastern Anatolia is a region in the early stages of continentcontinent collision and so provides a unique opportunity to study the early development of continental plateau. Located within the AlpineHimalayan fold-thrust fault belt, the Anatolian plateau is geologically very complex, with over half of the surface area covered with late Cenozoic volcanics of diverse composition. The plateau is also seismically active and is dissected by numerous seismogenic faults predominantly of strike-slip motion. In this study, we determine 3-D tomographic images of the crust beneath eastern Anatolia by inverting a large number of arrival time data of P- and S-waves. From the obtained P- and S-wave velocity models, we estimated the Poissons ratio structures for a more reliable interpretation of the obtained velocity anomalies. Our tomographic results are generally consistent with the major tectonic features of the region. High P- and S-wave velocity anomalies are recognized near the surface, while at deeper crustal layers, low seismic wave velocities are widely distributed. Poissons ratio exhibits signicant structural heterogeneities compared to the imaged velocity structure. The seismic activity is intense along highly heterogeneous zones and is closely associated with pre-existing faults in the central and western parts of the study area. Results of the checkerboard resolution test indicate that the imaged anomalies are reliable features down to a depth of about 40 km. The low-velocity/high Poissons ratio zones in the middle to lower crust are consistent with many geophysical observations such as strong Sn attenuation, low Pn and Sn velocity, and the absence of mantle lid, implying the presence of partial melt in the uppermost mantle. 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Article history: Received 25 May 2010 Received in revised form 12 October 2010 Accepted 31 October 2010 Available online 3 December 2010 Keywords: Crustal structure Seismic tomography Seismic wave velocity Poissons ratio Eastern Anatolia

1. Introduction Turkey and its surrounding region are considered as an excellent natural laboratory to study a variety of seismotectonic processes such as post-collisional intracontinental convergence, tectonic escape-related deformation, and the consequent structures that include fold and thrust belts, suture zones, active strike-slip faulting, active normal faulting and the associated basin formation (Kalyoncuoglu, 2007). The study of its neotectonic features and the current active tectonics are a key for the understanding of the entire eastern Mediterranean region (Fig. 1). Plate tectonic models (DeMets et al., 1990; Jestin et al., 1994; McClusky et al., 2000) based on analysis of global seaoor spreading, fault systems, and earthquake slip vectors indicate that the Arabian plate is moving in a northnortheast direction relative to Eurasia at a rate of 1825 mm/yr, averaged over about 3 Myr. These models also indicate that the African plate is moving in a northerly direction relative to Eurasia at a rate of about 10 mm/yr. Differential motion between Africa and Arabia ($1015 mm/yr) is accom Corresponding author.
E-mail address: nada6899@yahoo.com (M.K. Salah). 1367-9120/$ - see front matter 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.jseaes.2010.10.021

modated predominantly by left-lateral motion along the Dead Sea Fault Zone (DSFZ). This northward motion results in continental collision along the BitlisZagros fold and thrust belt (Fig. 1), intense earthquake activity (Fig. 2), high topography in eastern Turkey and the Caucasus Mountains, and the westward extrusion of the Anatolian plate. Three major structures, thus, control the tectonics of Turkey; they are the dextral North Anatolian Fault Zone (NAFZ), sinistral East Anatolian Fault Zone (EAFZ) and the AegeanCyprean Arc (Fig. 1). The Anatolian wedge between the NAFZ and EAFZ moves westward away from eastern Anatolia because of the collision zone between the Arabian and the Eurasian plates. Ongoing deformation along, and mutual interaction among them have resulted in four distinct neotectonic provinces, namely, the East Anatolian contractional, the North Anatolian, the Central Anatolian Ova and the West Anatolian extensional provinces (Fig. 1). Each province is characterized by its unique structural elements and presents a typical region to study active strike-slip, normal and reverse faulting and the associated basin formation (Bozkurt, 2001). The westward extrusion of the Anatolian wedge, initiated in the early Pliocene (e.g., Dhont et al., 1998; Kocyigit and Beyhan, 1998; Platzman et al., 1998; Armijo et al., 1999; Barka et al., 2000), is

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Fig. 1. Simplied tectonic map of eastern Turkey showing major structures and neotectonic provinces (from Sengr et al., 1985; Barka, 1992). DSFZ Dead Sea Fault Zone, EAFZ East Anatolian Fault Zone, NAFZ North Anatolian Fault Zone, NEAFZ Northeast Anatolian Fault Zone.

Fig. 2. Epicentral distribution of NEIC (US Geological Survey) seismicity in eastern Anatolia and the surrounding regions. Circles vary in size according to magnitude and in grey color according to the depth of the hypocenter.

accompanied by anticlockwise rotation (McKenzie, 1970; Westaway, 1994; Seber et al., 1997; Reilinger et al., 2006), and is interpreted as a lateral escape of the continental lithosphere away from zones of compression (tectonic escape) to minimize topographic relief and to avoid subduction of buoyant continental material. Whether the westward motion is driven by push forces caused by topography in eastern Turkey or by pull forces caused by sub-

duction south of the Aegean since the late Oligocene (Jolivet et al., 1994; Jolivet and Patriat, 1999) is still a matter of controversy (Bozkurt, 2001). Earlier results of Reilinger et al. (1997), however, suggest that the westward displacement and counterclockwise rotation of Anatolia is driven both by pushing from the Arabian plate and by pulling or basal drag associated with the foundering African plate along the Aegean and Cyprean arcs (Fig. 1). In general, there is an agreement that these are the boundary conditions allowing the westward mass transfer of Anatolia, frequently considered as a rigid plate bounded by the NAFZ and the EAFZ meeting at Karliova. The eastern Mediterranean region has a remarkably long historic record of major earthquakes (e.g., Ambraseys, 1975; Ambraseys and Jackson, 1998) and has been the focus of intense geologic and geophysical investigations (e.g., Sengr et al., 1985; Spakman, 1991; Mueller and Kahle, 1993; De Jonge et al., 1994). Because of sparse seismic stations in the region, the seismic activity could not be monitored well and earthquakes with magnitudes <4.0 were not accurately located. Recent observations show that the seismic activity in eastern Turkey is higher than previously observed. The upper crust of eastern Anatolia is seismotectonically very active, where the majority of earthquakes are shallower than 20 km depths. This implies that there is no continental underthrusting/subduction of Arabia beneath Eurasia (Trkelli et al., 2003) and that only the upper crust in Anatolia is seismogenic, which is consistent with similar results in other continental plateaus (e.g., Maggi et al., 2000). Moreover, Trkelli et al. (2003) found that most of the seismic activity seems to occur in the upper crust (in the rst 10 km). However, the EAFZ, the Bitlis suture zone, the Karliova junction area and the area east of Karliova have some hypocenters which may originate in the lower crust (h > 20 km) as well (Fig. 2). This may suggest that the EAFZ and Bitlis suture are seismogenically thicker than the NAFZ. A continuous band of seismicity stretches eastward from the commonly dened easternmost extent of the NAFZ (Karliova) to Lake Van. This observation may suggest that the NAFZ continues all the way to the main recent fault in northwestern Iran (Zagros Mountain). This is consistent with the observation of Talebian and Jackson (2002) that the main recent fault in northwestern Iran and the NAFZ combine to

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form a nearly continuous band of right-lateral shear on the margin of the Arabian and Eurasian plates. The area has also been affected by several strong earthquakes (e.g., Pasinler earthquake in September 13, 1924, M = 6.8; Erzincan earthquakes in December 26, 1979, M = 7.9; HorasanNarman event in October 30, 1983, M = 6.9; and Erzincan earthquake in March, 13, 1992, M = 6.8). In particular the December 26, 1979 Erzincan earthquake was the most destructive event that hit the area as most of the cities with their residents were lost. Although the crustal and upper mantle structure beneath eastern Anatolia and the northern Arabian plate have been studied by seismic tomography on a regional scale (e.g., Sandvol et al., 2001; Al-Lazki et al., 2004; Lei and Zhao, 2007; Schmid et al., 2008); there is no detailed local seismic tomography study for the region. In the present work, the three-dimensional velocity and Poissons ratio structures of the crust and the uppermost mantle are investigated by inverting a large number of P- and S-wave arrival times generated by local earthquakes in eastern Turkey. The implications of these structures and their consistency with other geophysical investigations, the current seismic activity and the present-day tectonics are then discussed for a more thorough understanding of the seismotectonics of Anatolia and its surrounding regions. 2. Data In the present study, we used a total number of 7380 events that occurred between latitudes 3741N and longitudes 38

44.5E in the period from January 2003 to November 2009 (Fig. 3). These events are recorded by 39 seismic stations belonging to GEOFON and the Turknet (Turkish National Telemetric Earthquke Network), which is operated by the Turkish General Directorate of Disaster and Emergency Management. These stations comprise 30 broadband (BB), 1 very broadband (VBB), and 8 short-period seismic stations. Few stations operate with a sampling frequency of 50 Hz, and the remaining with 100 Hz. The dynamic range is 140 and 164184 dB for the broadband and the short-period seismic stations, respectively. The crustal model of Herrin (1968) and the HYPO71 source code (Lee and Lahr, 1972) are used for the determination of the hypocentral parameters. The errors in the hypocentral locations do not exceed 2.5 km for all events. Except the northeastern and the central southern regions of the study area, all other parts have abundant seismicity that is recorded by a nearly uniform seismic network. This is reected on the resolution scale and reliability of the obtained structures as will be explained in the following sections. Earthquakes are clustered in the central, western, and southeastern regions, and are mostly related to movements on active faults, especially the EAFZ and the NAFZ (Fig. 3). The 7380 events generated 31,730 P and 29,320 S arrivals recorded by the 39 seismic stations shown in Fig. 3; which imply that the ray path coverage of both P- and S-wave data sets are almost similar (Figs. 4 and 5). The approximately equal number of P- and S-wave arrivals and the good ray criss-crossing in most parts of the study area have important implications about the reliability of the obtained velocity and

Fig. 3. Epicentral distribution of the 7380 earthquakes used in this study shown as circles, which vary in color according to the focal depth (scale at the bottom). The black triangles show the 39 seismic stations in eastern Anatolia. Black lines denote active faults (Saroglu et al., 1992); NAFZ and EAFZ are the North and East Anatolian fault zones. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this gure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

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Fig. 4. Horizontal ray path coverage of P-wave (a) and S-wave (b) data sets. Every path between an event and a recording station is drawn as one straight line. Small open circles and triangles denote events and recording stations, respectively.

Poissons ratio structures (e.g., Widiyantoro et al., 1999; Gorbatov and Kennett, 2003). The accuracy of arrival times is estimated to be lesser than 0.10 s for P-wave data and somewhat larger (<0.20 s) for the S-wave data. All residuals have been carefully examined with respect to the assumed initial velocity model. Finally, 5- and 7-s cut-off values are set for P- and S-wave data, respectively (Fig. 6). However, more than 80% of the residuals are within the bounds 2.5 s.

3. Methods To analyze the arrival time data in eastern Anatolia, we used the tomographic method of Zhao et al. (1992, 1994) which has been adopted for many parts of the world with different tectonic circumstances (e.g., Zhao and Kanamori, 1995; Zhao et al., 1996, 1997, 2001; Serrano et al., 1998, 2002a,b; Kayal et al., 2002; Salah et al., 2007). This method is adaptable to a general velocity

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(a) P-wave Residuals

10.0

Residual (sec)

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400

500

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20.0

(b) S-wave Residuals

10.0

Residual (sec)

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-20.0
Fig. 5. Ray path coverage of P-wave (a) and S-wave (b) data sets in depth direction. Small open circles and inverted grey triangles denote events and recording stations, respectively. Other details are the same as those of Fig. 4.

100

200

300

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500

Epicentral Distance (km)

Fig. 6. Input travel-time residuals relative to the assumed initial velocity model vs. epicentral distance in kilometers for P-wave (a), and S-wave data sets. A 5- and 7-scut-off is used in the P- and S-wave tomography inversion, respectively.

structure which includes several complex-shaped velocity discontinuities and allows for 3-D velocity variations everywhere in the model. The discontinuities represent known geological boundaries, like the Moho discontinuity and/or a subducting slab boundary, etc. A 3-D grid net is set up in the model to express the 3-D velocity structure. Velocity perturbations at the grid nodes are taken as unknown parameters. The velocity perturbation at any point in the model is calculated by linearly interpolating the velocity perturbations at the eight grid nodes surrounding that point. To calculate travel times and ray paths accurately and rapidly, an efcient 3-D ray-tracing technique (Zhao et al., 1992) is employed that iteratively uses the pseudo-bending technique (Um and Thurber, 1987) and Snells law. Station elevations are taken into account in the ray tracing scheme. The LSQR algorithm (Paige and Saunders, 1982) with a damping regularization is used to solve the large and sparse system of observation equations, allowing a great number of data to be used to solve a large tomographic problem. The nonlinear tomographic problem is solved by iteratively conducting linear inversions. In each iteration; perturbations to hypocentral parameters and velocity structure are determined simultaneously. A detailed description of the method is given by Zhao et al. (1992, 1994) and Zhao (2001). A grid spacing of 0.4 in horizontal directions is adopted for the present study. Vertically, ve layers of grid nodes are set up at 4, 12, 25, 40, and 55 km depths (Fig. 7). We rst tried slightly different grid spacing and nally adopted the one presented in Fig. 7, to get a reasonable resolution with respect to the present data set (see next section). After determining the P- and S-wave velocity models as described before, we used the relation: (Vp/Vs)2 = 2(1 r)/(1 2r),

to determine the elastic parameter Poissons ratio (r) (see Utsu, 1984). By denition, Poissons ratio is the ratio of radial contraction to axial elongation, and is considered as a key parameter in studying petrologic properties of crustal rocks and can provide more constraints on the crustal composition than either P- or S-wave velocity alone (Zhao et al., 2004; Salah et al., 2007). Its value in common rock types ranges from 0.20 to 0.35 (Christensen, 1996). Poissons ratio has proved to be very effective for the clarication of the seismogenic behavior of the crust, especially the role of crustal uids in the nucleation and growth of earthquake rupture (e.g., Kayal et al., 2002; Zhao et al., 2002). Selecting the initial velocity model is an important step in any tomographic inversion since it affects the amplitude and distribution of the obtained velocity anomalies. The ArabiaEurasia collision in eastern Anatolia pushed the Anatolian plate to move to the west and created the NAFZ in eastern Turkey during the midto-late Miocene (Sengr and Ylmaz, 1981; Ferrari et al., 2003). Such collision zones are usually characterized by a thick crust. Thus, Mindevalli and Mitchell (1989) modeled the crust and upper mantle velocity structure beneath eastern and western Turkey using single-station measurements of Rayleigh and Love surface wave group velocities, and concluded a 40-km crustal thickness. Necioglu (1999) analyzed single-station measurements of surface wave velocities from Iranian earthquakes recorded at station ANTO, which is located in central Turkey. He estimated a crustal thickness of 4244 km from events located in eastern Turkey and northwestern Iran. Zor et al. (2003) inverted the Eastern Turkey Seismic Experiment (ETSE) receiver functions for the crustal structure beneath eastern Turkey, and reported an average crustal

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Fig. 7. Conguration of grid net adopted for the present study in horizontal (a) and depth (b), directions. Grid spacing is 0.4o and 815 km in horizontal and depth directions, respectively. Straight lines in (a) denote the location of three vertical cross sections shown in Figs. 1820. Black lines denote active faults; NAFZ and EAFZ are the North and East Anatolian fault zones.

thickness of 45 km and an average crustal shear-wave velocity of 3.7 km/s. Accordingly, we used the simple P-wave crustal velocity model of Turkelli et al. (2003) for eastern Anatolia with a Moho at a depth of 42 km, as our initial model but with a P-wave velocity of 5.2 km/s for the top most 2-km-thick layer instead of 4.93 km/s (Table 1). This model is obtained through employing a grid search technique and phase data from 66 very well-located events that are evenly distributed throughout the Anatolian plateau (Trkelli et al., 2003). An initial S-wave velocity model is calculated by using a Vp/Vs ratio of 1.79 deduced from a Wadati diagram (Fig. 8) constructed from arrival time data of 20 varying-depth events, which are evenly distributed throughout the study region (Fig. 9). We rst

checked a number of slightly different initial P-wave velocity models with different Vp/Vs ratios (varying gradually from 1.70 to 1.85) and applied it to different sub-data sets and found that the overall seismic structure has no substantial variations with only slight changes in some portions. Finally, the model shown in Table 1, along with a Vp/Vs ratio of 1.79 are selected as they give the minimum RMS travel-time residuals. In order to study the relation between the nucleation zones of moderate and large earthquakes (Mb or Mw P 5.0) and the obtained seismic velocity and Poissons ratio anomalies, we collected 83 events that occurred in the study area since 1974 from the earthquake catalogs of the National Earthquake Information

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M.K. Salah et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 40 (2011) 746761 Table 1 Initial P-wave velocity model adopted for the present study. Depth (km) 0 2 42 P-wave velocity (km/s) 5.20 6.30 7.69

4. Resolution and results In order to check the reliability of the obtained velocity and Poissons ratio anomalies and the spatial resolution of the present data sets, we rst conducted the checkerboard resolution test (e.g., Inoue et al., 1990; Zhao et al., 1992). To make a checkerboard, positive and negative velocity anomalies of 3% are assigned to the 3-D grid nodes as in Fig. 10. Synthetic arrival times are calculated for this input checkerboard model. Numbers of stations, events and ray paths in the synthetic data are the same as those in the real data. Random errors of 0.10.15 s similar in magnitude to those of the real data are added to the synthetic data and are then inverted with the same algorithm used for the real data. The inverted image of the checkerboard shows areas of good and poor resolution. Figs. 11 and 12 show the resolution of both Vp and Vs structures, respectively. The checkerboard resolution test indicates a good and uniform resolution of about 50 km horizontally for both Vp and Vs structures in eastern Anatolia especially at 12 and 25 km depths. This is because of the more uniform distribution of many horizontal and the vertical ray paths passing at these depths. However, the edge portions at 40 km depth and the southern part of the study area at 4 km depth have a relatively poor resolution owing to insufcient ray paths criss-crossing at these regions. In applying the tomographic method described above to the eastern Anatolia data set (Fig. 3), we found that the sum of squared travel-time residuals was reduced by 50% of its initial value after the inversion. The nal root-mean-square travel-time residuals are 0.296 s for P-wave and 0.446 s for S-wave data. The study area has enough ray coverage at four depth layers (4, 12, 25, and 40 km) in which the number of P and S rays passing through each grid node (hit count) is adequate to retrieve the velocity anomalies (Figs. 13 and 14). The southwestern and central parts have large hit counts and many nodes are hit by more than 6000 rays at the rst three layers. Grid nodes with hit counts <6 are not included in the inversion.

40

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Ts - Tp (sec)

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Fig. 8. A cumulative Wadati diagram constructed from arrival time data of 20 selected events distributed in the study area with various focal depths. The resulting Vp/Vs ratio of 1.79 is used to derive the initial S-wave velocity model from the P-wave velocity model shown in Table 1.

Center (NEIC), US Geological Survey (Fig. 9). A close inspection of the distribution of the epicenters of these large events implies that they occur mainly due to movements along the NAFZ and the EAFZ.

Fig. 9. Distribution of 83 moderate and large crustal earthquakes (stars) that occurred in eastern Anatolia (M P 5.0) since 1974 (see text for details), and the 20 events (circles) used to construct the Wadati diagram shown in Fig. 8 for an optimum Vp/Vs ratio. Stars vary in size according to magnitude; whereas all symbols vary in grey color according to the focal depth. Thin black lines denote active faults in the study region; whereas the thin gray lines denote political borders. NAFZ and EAFZ are the North and East Anatolian fault zones.

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Fig. 10. An example of the input checkerboard synthetic model for both P- and Swave data (see text for details). Black and white symbols denote positive and negative synthetic velocity anomalies (3%), respectively, which are assigned to grid nodes. Thin gray lines denote political borders.

Inversion results of Vp, Vs, and r distributions at four depth layers are shown, respectively, in Figs. 1517. Figs. 1820 show the Vp, Vs, and r images along three vertical cross-sections in eastern Anatolia (see Fig. 7 for the location of cross-sections). These images show the velocity and Poissons ratio perturbations in percentage from the initial velocity model at each depth. We have also conducted a number of inversions by adopting slightly different initial models and using different sub-data sets. It was found that the overall pattern of the velocity and r structures as shown in Figs. 1517, and Figs. 1820 is stable and the change in the amplitude of the velocity anomalies is generally less than 1%. Signicant lateral and vertical variations of up to 6% of velocity (Vp and Vs) and 10% of Poissons ratio are revealed in the study area. Higher-than average velocity anomalies are revealed at 4 km depth which change gradually downward to average velocity at 12 km depth and low-velocity at 25 km depth (Figs. 15 and 16ac). At 40 km depth, low-velocity zones are detected near active faults (Figs. 15 and 16d). The EAFZ and the NAFZ are characterized by intense seismicity at shallow layers and low velocity at 25 km depth. Poissons ratio (r) shows high structural heterogeneity at the different crustal layers (Fig. 17), and is generally higher than the average at both shallow and deeper layers (4, 12, and 40 km depths) which implies a general low S-wave velocity

Fig. 11. The results of the checkerboard resolution test for P-wave velocity at four crustal depths (see text for details). Black and white symbols denote high and low velocities, respectively. The perturbation scale is shown at the bottom. The depth of each layer is shown below each map. Thin gray lines denote political borders.

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Fig. 12. The results of the checkerboard resolution test for S-wave velocity at four crustal depths. Other details are similar to those of Fig. 11.

Fig. 13. Number of rays passing through each grid node (hit count) for P-wave data at 4 depth slices. Scale is shown to the right.

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Fig. 14. Number of rays passing through each grid node for S-wave data at 4 depth slices. Other details are similar to those of Fig. 13.

Fig. 15. P-wave velocity structures (in %) at depths of 4 (a), 12 (b), 25 (c), and 40 (d) km beneath eastern Anatolia. Red and blue colors denote low- and high-velocities, respectively. Numbers between brackets show the depth range of the microseismic activity plotted as crosses. Moderate and large earthquakes (M P 5.0) occurring in the same depth range of the background seismicity are plotted as white circles. Thin solid lines denote active faults in eastern Anatolia. The perturbation scale (6%) is shown to the right. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this gure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

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Fig. 16. S-wave velocity structures at the four depth slices. Other details are similar to those of Fig. 15. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this gure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

Fig. 17. Distribution of Poissons ratio (r) structures at four depth slices. Red and blue colors denote high and low r, respectively. The perturbation scale (10%) is shown to the right. Other details are similar to those of Fig. 15. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this gure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

compared to the P-wave velocity. The r image at a depth of 25 km is clearly lower than average; although small portions of high r

zones are also detected (Fig. 17c). The majority of the moderate and large earthquakes are closely related to the active fault zones

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Fig. 18. Vertical cross sections of Vp, Vs and r structures along line AA (see Fig. 7, for the locations of the cross sections). The red color denotes the low-velocity and high Poissons ratio, whereas high-velocity and low Poissons ratio are shown in blue. Large white circles and crosses show, respectively, the location of moderatelarge earthquakes (M P 5.0) and the microseismic activity in a 40 km wide-zone around the prole. The perturbation scale (6% for velocity and 10% for Poissons ratio) is shown to the right. Inverted solid triangle on the top denotes the location of the EAFZ. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this gure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

Fig. 19. Vertical cross sections of Vp, Vs and r structures along line BB. Inverted solid triangles on the top denote the location of the EAFZ and the NAFZ. All other details are similar to those of Fig. 18. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this gure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

which are characterized generally by low-velocity/high Poissons ratio (Figs. 1517). Microseismic activity is also intense at such areas. Along cross sections AA, BB and CC (Figs. 1820); the shallow high-velocity/high Poissons ratio zones are clearly visible, which change to low-velocity/low Poissons ratio around a depth of 25 km. The EAFZ is characterized by moderate Vp, low Vs, and very high Poissons ratio (Fig. 18). This anomalous structure extends in an eastwest direction consistent with the fault orientation, because the low-velocity/high Poissons ratio zone is not visible along cross section BB which runs in a NNE direction. The location of the BitlisZagros Suture Zone (BZSZ) along cross section CC, on the other hand, is associated with a heterogeneous velocity and Poissons ratio structures (Fig. 20). Moderate and large crustal earthquakes (shown as big white circles) occur in both low- and high-velocity/low to high Poissons ratio zones. The implications of these velocity and r anomalies and their relation to other geophysical studies conducted in eastern Anatolia are briey discussed in the following paragraphs.

5. Discussion We determined the detailed 3-D seismic velocity and Poissons ratio tomography from local earthquake data beneath eastern Ana-

tolia. The obtained seismic wave velocity and Poissons ratio models are generally consistent with many previous geophysical observations in eastern Anatolia. For example, Zor et al. (2003) and Angus et al. (2006) using S-wave receiver functions, detected various crustal low-velocity zones predominantly at 25 km depth, consistent with our results at the same depth (Figs. 15 and 16c) and is corresponding with the location of geothermal and Quaternary volcanic centers. In Fig. 18, there is an intense seismic activity at longitude 40.5E, extending downward to a depth of 20 km. This seismogenic zone is very close to the EAFZ and is characterized by average to high Vp, low Vs, and very high Poissons ratio; implying the presence of uids ascending upward from the hot lithosphere. Although a low Vp anomaly, which may be caused by the presence of a partially molten material, is clearly visible at 2030 km depth, the Vs at this depth is not as much as low; and consequently, the r is not substantially high. A similar feature is also visible at cross section CC (Fig. 20) from the surface downward to a depth of 17 km at a latitude of 38.25N. The low-velocity anomalies are interpreted as being caused by hot lithosphere resulting from the collision between the Arabian and Eurasian plates (Kadinsky-Cade et al., 1981; Gk et al., 2000). Previously, Rodgers et al. (1997) pointed out that inefcient Sn propagation (corresponding to high attenuation), low Pn velocity and regional volcanism may indicate partial melt in the upper mantle. akir et al. (2000), by forward modelling of the radial receiver functions, constructed 1-D crustal shear-wave velocity models that include a lower crustal low-velocity zone, indicating a partial melt mechanism which may represent the source of surfacing magmatic rocks and regional volcanism

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Fig. 20. Vertical cross sections of Vp, Vs and r structures along line CC. Inverted solid triangle on the top denotes the location of the BitlisZagros Suture Zone (BZSZ). All other details are similar to those of Fig. 18. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this gure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

(see also Sandvol et al., 1998). Using surface wave measurements from earthquakes occurring in the present study area and recorded at Isparta station in SW Turkey; Erduran et al. (2007) detected rapid velocity gradients at depths between 0 and 10 km and between 25 and 45 km. The low-velocity zone in the mid-crust occurs stronger at depths between 13 and 25 km. They also predicted a crustal thickness of $41 km for the region and a general decrease of shear wave velocities down in the crust and uppermost part of the mantle. Our results (Figs. 15, 16 and 1820) are generally consistent with the above mentioned low-velocity zones. Although the resolution of the present results is not good enough below a depth of 40 km, but there is an indication that the mapped low-velocity zones in the middlelower crust might extend downward to the uppermost mantle (Fig. 19). This is consistent with the anomalously low upper mantle shear wave velocities (slightly lower than 4.5 km/s) down to 130 km depth beneath central Turkey that were mapped by Meier et al. (2004). In addition, Maggi and Priestly (2005), using surface waveform tomography to elucidate the upper mantle shear-wave velocity structure beneath the TurkeyIranian plateau and adjacent regions, obtained a low shear-wave velocity anomaly in the uppermost mantle beneath Turkey and the Aegean Sea. They showed that the strongest portion of the low-velocity anomaly is located under the easternmost Turkish plateau and extended down to 200 km depth. Higher Pn velocities (>8 km/s) imply a tectonically stable mantle lid, while very low Pn velocities (<7.8 km/s) are usually an indi-

cation of the existence of partial melt in the uppermost mantle (e.g., Hearn, 1999; Calvert et al., 2000). Al-Lazki et al. (2004) detected broad scale ($500 km) zones of low Pn velocity anomalies beneath the Anatolian plate, the Anatolian plateau, the Caucasus region, northwestern Iran and northwestern Arabia. These lowvelocity regions are interpreted to be hot and unstable mantle lid zones and may be associated with the latest stage of intense volcanism that has been active since the late Miocene and the subduction of Tethyan oceanic lithosphere beneath Eurasia. Gk et al. (2007) observed very low shear wave velocities at the crustal portion (3038 km) of the northeastern part of the Anatolian plateau indicating the lack of a lithospheric mantle underneath the plateau and its replacement with asthenospheric materials. Isotopic and rare earth elements data analyzed by Adiyaman and Chorowicz (2002) indicate deep mantle sources for this volcanism. Spectral interpretation of magnetic anomaly data obtained by Bektas et al. (2007), shows that the magnetic thickness (crustal thickness derived from magnetic data) of the region is shallow and varies from 13 to 23 km, implying that the temperatures are high within the crust in most locations. The anomalously high temperatures in the crust are also reected in the high temperatures of hot springs (>45 C) and in the young ages of volcanics in the region. Lei and Zhao (2007) and Schmid et al. (2008) detected extensive lowvelocity anomalies beneath eastern Turkey which are consistent with many other geophysical investigations in the region such as low Pn and Sn velocity and strong Sn attenuation. A high heat ow is also observed in the region (Tezcan, 1995). These observations suggest that the uppermost mantle is partially molten and the asthenosphere is close to the base of the crust, consistent with the existence of the volcanism in the region. The volcanism in eastern Turkey has been active since the Late Miocene, which may be ascribed in part to the subducted Tethyan oceanic lithosphere beneath Eurasia (Al-Lazki et al., 2003, 2004). Luccio and Pasyanos (2007) detected high S-wave velocity in the upper crust of the eastern Mediterranean including a signicant part of the present study area and a thin low-velocity sediment zone near the surface. The later, however, could not be detected by the present study. The lower crust and upper mantle in the eastern Mediterranean are also characterized by low S-wave velocity. The anomalously low-velocities found in the upper mantle are interpreted to be an indication of serpentinized mantle, as has been suggested also in other subduction zones (see Hyndman and Peacock, 2003, and references therein). This probably relates to a hydrous or hydrothermal alteration as suggested in other convergent zones, where small percentage of serpentine in the crust would produce water in the mantle by the subducting crust (Hyndman and Peacock, 2003). The physical properties of the forearc mantle are affected by the presence of hydrous minerals as serpentine, which, if present, can decrease the seismic wave velocity and raise the Poissons ratio (Hyndman and Peacock, 2003). Luccio and Pasyanos (2007) speculate that the uppermost mantle should be composed of partially serpentinized peridotite, with a certain amount of serpentine due to the fact that in some regions the observed S-wave velocities are around or below 4.3 km/s. This hypothesis is also supported by the low-velocities associated with the lower crust in the same region (Figs. 15 and 16) since the seismic properties of the uppermost mantle are related to the type of the overlying lower crust. Partial melting in the upper mantle could explain the high heat ow observed in the eastern Mediterranean, where serpentinization plays an important role (Ben-Avraham et al., 2002 and references therein; Kearey and Vine, 2004). Although different processes such as partial melting, water content, compositional or phase change, high temperature, can lower the seismic velocity (as in the Hellenic Cyprian trench), either serpentinization or partial melting could

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be favorite candidates to explain the observed low S-wave velocities beneath eastern Anatolia. Many studies have concluded that Lg propagation in the Turkish Iranian Plateau is usually blocked or highly attenuated (KadinskyCade et al., 1981; Mitchell et al., 1997; Rodgers et al., 1997; Cong and Mitchell, 1998; Sandvol et al., 2001; Al-Damegh et al., 2004). Zor et al. (2007) detected very low Lg Q0-values beneath the eastern Anatolian plateau and western Turkey around the Menderes Massif. High Lg-attenuation values within the Anatolian plateau (Q0 $ 100 200) may be caused by a combination of scattering and intrinsic attenuation. Scattering attenuation is due to the tectonic complexity and the intrinsic attenuation could be due to the widespread crustal melting. However, the lowest Q0-values in the eastern Anatolian plateau ($70100) are most probably due to the widespread Quaternary volcanism; although the high degree of distributed deformation in eastern Anatolia (e.g., Reilinger et al., 1997) could contribute to these low Q0-values. Receiver function waveform inversion in eastern Turkey has suggested that there is no rapid change in the crustal thickness across the Bitlis Suture and the EAFZ; a candidate that may reduce or block Lg propagation. Consistent with our low-velocity zones at the lower crust (Figs. 15 and 16), they also observed localized mid-crustal low-velocity zones scattered throughout the eastern Anatolian plateau (Zor et al., 2007). These low-velocity zones might be an indication of partial melt within the eastern Turkey crust (see also Zor et al., 2003). This inference is also supported by the widespread, young (less than 6 Ma) volcanism in the region (e.g., Keskin, 2003) and low Pn velocities (Hearn and Ni, 1994; Al-Lazki et al., 2004) coupled with high Sn attenuation (Gk et al., 2003; Al-Damegh et al., 2004) as an indication of anomalously hot lithosphere. Another region where low Lg Q0-values have been found to coincide with low crustal velocity is central and southern Tibet. Xie et al. (2004) observed low Lg Q0-values of $100 in central Tibet and extremely low Lg Q0-values of $6070 in southern Tibet. Similar mid-crustal, low-velocity zones have also been found in the southern Tibetan crust. 6. Conclusions The 3-D velocity and Poissons ratio structures beneath eastern Anatolia is estimated by inverting a large number of P- and S-wave arrival times generated from local earthquakes, which are recorded at a relatively dense and uniformly distributed seismic network. Results of the checkerboard resolution test, hit count maps, and the ray path coverage indicate that the obtained structures are reliable features down to a depth of about 40 km. The following conclusions can be drawn from the obtained results: 1. The shallow velocity structure is dominated by higher-thanaverage seismic wave velocities, which change downward to lower velocity at the middlelower crustal depths. 2. High Poissons ratio zones are clearly visible at most crustal layers down to a depth of 40 km, which are consistent with the possibility of the existence of partial melt in the lower crust and the uppermost mantle. 3. Both large and small earthquakes are closely associated with low-velocity/high Poissons ratio zones and are intense near active faults in the region. 4. The mapped low-velocity/high Poissons ratio zones in the middlelower crust are consistent with many geophysical evidences such as low Pn and Sn velocity, high Sn attenuation, high heat ow, shallow magnetic thickness, and low Lg Q0values. These observations are analogous to other continental plateaus such as the Tibet and are interpreted to be an indication of a serpentinized hot mantle that is partially molten. The presence of this partial melt in the uppermost mantle feeds the widespread Cenozoic volcanism in the region.

Acknowledgements The authors thank Ugur Topatan, Didem Soyuer, and Caner Durmus for their assistance in data preparation. Seismicity and large earthquakes information is obtained from earthquake catalogs reported by the National Earthquake Information Center (NEIC), (http://neic.usgs.gov/neis/epic/). Comments of Editor-in-Chief Bor-ming Jahn and two anonymous reviewers signicantly improved the manuscript. Most gures in this paper are made using GMT (Generic Mapping Tools) software written by Wessel and Smith (1998).

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