Page 1

Aide Mmoire
Subject: Useful formulas for flow in rivers and channels
The University cannot take responsibility for any misprints or errors in the presented formulas. Please use them
carefully and wisely.
1. General basic equat ions
The general continuity equation for flow, following from conservation of mass, is:
, )

t
div v +
r
0
For an incompressible fluid D/Dt=0. Furthermore for a homogeneous fluid also grad()=0, leading
to the following continuity equation (conservation of volume):
div v
r
0
From the basic equations for conservation of momentum the commonly used equation of motion of
Navier-Stokes can be derived (assuming homogeneous incompressible fluid with constant density
):
, ) , )

r
r r r
r
u
t
u u p gz u K + + +

grad grad grad
1 1
2
local acceleration pressure gravity internal external
and convection friction forces
The equation of Euler can be derived by neglecting of internal friction terms (viscous terms)
The relation between convective term and viscous shear-stress term can be expressed in
terms of a Reynolds number:
u L
u L
uL
2
2
/
/
Re

- Small Re: stable system, laminar flow, Navier-Stokes is linear.
- Large Re (> O(10
3
)): non-linear convection dominates, system is instable (small changes
give large differences in solution), turbulent flow.
The internal friction terms or viscous terms are diffusive terms.
The external forces are mainly the shear stresses on the bed, walls and surface (wind-shear).
The subdivision of units to time-average and erratic components (e.g., u=+u) will lead to
balance equation for the average components that is called the Reynold equation. It is
commonly used for turbulent flows.
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2. Equat ions for Two dimensional flow
Basic equations
The basic equations for 2DH flow follow from depth integration of the Reynolds equations. The
continuity equation for flow is:

a
t
au
x
av
y
+ + 0
The basic equations of motion (in their commonly used form):
, ) , ) , )
, ) , ) , )

u
t
u
u
x
v
u
y
g
a z
x a
aT
x
aT
y
v
t
u
v
x
v
v
y
g
a z
y a
aT
x
aT
y
b
bx
xx xy
b by xy yy
+ + +
+
+ +
+ + +
+
+ +
1 1
1 1
in which
u = depth-average velocity in x-direction
v = depth-average velocity in y-direction
a = local water depth
z
b
= local bed level

bx
,
by
= bed-shear stress in x,y-direction
T
xx
, T
xy
, T
yy
= horizontal exchange of momentum through viscosity, turbulence,
spiral flow, and non-uniformity of velocity distribution
Shear stresses can be expressed by 2D Chzy relations:

bx by
gu u v
C
gv u v
C

+
2 2
2
2 2
2
and
with C = Chzy coefficient
Spiral flow
The 2D effect of the 3D spiral flow pattern due to curvature of the streamlines can be obtained from
a parametrised model. The effect of spiral flow on the direction of bottom-shear stress can be
obtained from:

_
,

_
,

arctan arctan
*
v
u
A
a
R
regular flow spiral flow
where is the angle with x-coordinate axis, R
*
is the effective radius of the streamline, and A is the
spiral flow coefficient expressed as:
A
g
C

_
,

2
1
2

with is a calibration coefficient, and is the Von Karman coefficient ( 0.4)
Page 3
In an equilibrium situation (at the end of a long bend) the spiral flow intensity I is expressed by
I
a u v
R

+
2 2
*
Relaxation
For adaptation of 2D non-uniform horizontal velocity distribution to a 2D uniform equilibrium
distribution a length scale is defined as (relaxation length):

w
C h
g

2
2
3. Equat ions for one dimensional flow
Dynamic flow (Saint-Venant equations)
Integration of the continuity equation yields:
B
a
t
Q
x
q
in

+ 0
in which a is water depth, B is the total width (including the storage width), and q
in
is lateral inflow
Integration of the equation of motion yields for conservation of momentum:

Q
t x
Q
A
gA
z
x
A q u
s
w
s
b
in
+

_
,
+ +
2
in which A
s
is cross-sectional area of flow, u is the x-component of velocity of lateral inflow, z
w
is the
water surface elevation,
b
is the bed-shear stress (hydraulic roughness).
Combination of the equations for motion and continuity above yields the following variant for the
equation of motion:
, )

u
t
u
u
x
g
z
x
q
A
u u
w b in
s
+ +

local acceleration pressure roughness lateral
and convection and gravity inflow
Hydraulics roughness is normally expressed by the Chzy formula:

b
s
gu u
C R
gQQ
C A R

2 2 2
in
which R = Hydraulic radius (see uniform flow). (Alternative roughness formulations: see below)
In a river-flood wave the dynamic wave approach can be used that assumes that the intertia
term (local acceleration term) can be neglected. The flood wave is then expressed by the
following diffusion model (after simplification for A
s
=B
s
u, R=a, constant C and B) :

a
t
Q
Ba
a
x
C B a
QB
a
x
s
+

_
,

_
,

3
2 2
0
2 2 3 2
2
Page 4
with B is the total width(including the storage width). From the general diffusion model follows
the propagation speed of the wave c:
c
B
Q
a
Q
Ba
uB
B
s

1 3
2
3
2

Damping of the flood wave is governed by the diffusion coefficient, which is expressed as:
}
K
Q
Bi
b Fr with b B B
b
s

2
1
2
/
Damping of the flood wave occurs proportional with [2(Kt)]
-1
A more simplified approach than the dynamic-wave approach can be used for relatively flat
flood waves. By assuming that the flow (surface slope) behaves like a uniform flow, the
kinematic wave approach is obtained. Different than the dynamic wave, the kinematic wave
does not
Uniform flow (Chzy formula)
The uniform-flow equations follow from the Chzy formula
u C R i with R A P
with i = local hydraulic gradient or energy gradient, and P = wetted perimeter of the cross section
with flow area A.
For a rectangular channel with free surface and B>>a: R
Ba
B h
a
+

2
, while for a filled circular
pipe R=D/4 with D is the diameter of the pipe.
For the equilibrium depth follows:
a
q
C i
e

2
2
3
The Froude number Fr, representing the balance between inertia and gravity, and characteristic for
subdivision of sub-critical (Fr<1) and supercritical flow (Fr>1, torrential regime), is defined as:
Fr
u
ga

For Fr = 1 the flow is critical. Then the depth equals the critical depth a
g
expressed as:
a
q
g
g

2
3
Hydraulic roughness
Hydraulic roughness is expressed in terms of the Chzy (C), Manning-Strickler (n), Darcy-
Weisbach (f). The relation between C and f is:
Page 5
fC g
2
8
The coefficients are generally written as
C = 2,3
g 12R
k + / 3,5
= 18
12R
k + / 3,5
log log
and
f = 0,24
12R
k + / 3,5
-2
log

1
]
1
In these equations k is the equivalent sandroughness according to Nikuradse. For an alluvial bed
the value of k varies strongly with the flow conditions. In rivers the flow regime will often be
hydraulically rough (k >> ).
The value of C then becomes according to White-Colebrook:
White - Colebrook: C = 18
12R
k
log
or according to Strickler:
Strickler: C = 25
R
k
1/ 6

1
]
1
Most often used, and linked with Strickler's equation, is the Manning roughness formula (or
Manning-Strickler roiughness formula). The relation between Manning's roughness coefficient n
and the Chzy coefficient C is (with R in meters):
C
R
n

1 6 /
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0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.09
0.08
0.07
0.06
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
Flood plains
Mountain
streams Lined channels
Excavated
dredged Natural stream on plain
Channels Minor natural streams (Width at flood < 30 m)
Major
stream
Table Range of values of the roughness coefficient n for different types of channels
Surface profiles
Ven Te
Chow
(1959)
Page 7
The equation of Blanger holds for a channel with constant width and bed slope i
b
(i.e., following
from one-dimensional-flow basic equations or Saint-Venant equations simplified for stationary flow):
d
d
h
x
=
i
h
-
h
h
- h
b
e
g
3
3
3
3
With
}
h =
h
= -
h
/
h
= -
Fr e g e
and 1 1
3
2
follows:
x =
h
i
-
-
+
e
b

d
constante
1
3

1
]
1
1
to be solved using the Bresse method:

( ) =
-
=
+ +
( - )
+ arctan
+
- arctan
2
d
1
1
6
1
1
1
3
2 1
3
1
3
3
2

1
]
1
1

_
,

_
,

1
]
1
ln
After introduction of a dimensionless length scale
=
x
i
h
b
e
follows from equations above:
} , ) , ) } 2 1
2 1 2 1

- = - - -
If at x = 0 holds that h
0
=
0
h
e
then the Bresse method can be used to determine (if Fr
2
<< 1, hence
1) for which x still half (50%) of the induced backwater effect remains. By fitting of Bresse
function through a power function the following approximation can be obtained:

1 2 0
4 3
0 24
/
/
,
For relatively small backwater effects (
0
1) the value
1/2
= 1/4 is obtained. These
approximations are useful for sketching surface profiles.
Flow over weirs, spillways and other structures
Flow over a broad-crested weir can be submerged (drowned flow) or free (overflow or modular
Page 8
flow). The discharge through the weir q can be expressed as function of the upstream velocity
head H
u
(energy level) and the water depth downstream h
d
, both relative to the crest level.
Broad-crested weir, submerged flow
q = mh g(H - h)
< m < m
2
0 9 1 3 11 with: average , , ( , )
Broad-crested weir, free flow
q = m g
H
2
3
2
3
3/2

These formulas are used for sharp-crested weirs as well, but usually with a higher discharge
coefficient (m).
Weirs with oblique flow:
If in a stream channel with discharge q
0
flow passes a weir with an angle , then q
0
follows from
0
-1
q = q.
sin

in which q follows from the regular discharge formula (for weirs in perpendicular flow)