6.17.

Non-finite forms of verbs The non-finite verbal forms or verbals are the present participle or Participle I, the past participle or Participle II, the gerund and the infinitive. Their main characteristic feature is determined by their syntactic functioning: verbals can never be predicate in a sentence and thus have no grammatical subject to agree with in person and number. However, they may perform a predicative function, that is be part of predicate in association with finite verbal forms. For example: He is watching TV. The house was built. The book has been read. My aim is to master English. Besides, verbals are characterized by their common traits with some other parts of speech. Infinitives and gerunds combine verbal and nounal characteristics while participles have both verbal and adjectival as well as verbal and adverbial features. Verbals participate in the realization of some of verbal categories. Thus, the participle has two tense forms: the present Participle 1 and the past Participle II. For example: writing written, cleaning cleaned: reading read, working worked. Such verbals as the present participle, gerund and infinitive have Taxis and Voice distinctions. This means that they may be either perfect or non-perfect and either active or passive. Compare: writing, being written, to write, to be written, to be writing (non-perfect) having read, having been read, to have written, to have been written, to have been writing (perfect) writing, having written, to write, to have written, to be writing, to have been writing (active) being written, having been written, to be written, to have been written (passive). The infinitive has also aspect distinctions: to read, to be read, to have read, to have been read non-continuous: to be reading, to have been reading continuous. The three verbals retain the syntagmatic characteristics of the finite forms of the verb they are derived from. They may be transitive and intransitive. Compare: transitive The teacher told us to learn the poem by heart. (infinitive) I'm learning the poem by heart, (present participle) I've learnt the poem by heart, (past participle) On learning the news we got upset, (gerund); intransitive I'd like you to come tomorrow, (infinitive) He's coming. (present participle) He's come, (past participle) On coming nearer I saw a friend of mine crossing the street, (gerund) See also 6.4. As well as the finite forms of the verb participles, gerunds and infinitives are modified by adverbs: / was sitting in the armchair waiting patiently for her. She woke the child by talking loudly. Children must listen to the teacher attentively. 6.17.1. Participle The participle is a non-finite verbal form which has some common features with the adjective or the adverb. There are two participles in English which are the two realizations of the category of Tense: the present participle or participle I and the past participle or participle II. The formal sign of the present participle is the -ing suffix added to the infinitive without to. being, having, doing, coming, flying, etc. The formal sign of the past participle of regular verbs is the -ed suffix added to the first (or the present tense) form: cleaned, worked, loved and so on. Irregular verbs have past participles of their own: been, had, done, spoken, come, flown. 6.17.1.1. Verbal characteristics of the participle The verbal characteristics of the present participle are determined by the Categories of Taxis and Voice. This results in the following set of forms: 1) active, non-perfect reading, 2) passive , nonperfect being read, 3) active, perfect having read, 4) passive perfect having been read. The non-perfect forms of the participle show that the action is simultaneous with the action denoted by the finite form of the verb in the sentence: He was sitting in the arm-chair, looking through a magazine. She sat next to him trying various topics of conversation. The perfect participle indicates that the action precedes the action expressed by the finite verb in the sentence. Having looked through a magazine he rose and went away. Having tried various topics of conversation she asked him to tell her who all the people at table were. Participle II has only one form for each of verbs which is passive, be been, have had, come come, love loved, clean cleaned, work worked. There is no corresponding active participle in English, so its function is performed by a clause. Compare: I don't like books written in the first person. The woman who wrote the book is a friend of mine. The present participle of a transitive verb can take a direct object: Opening the window, he noticed a stranger in the garden. The participle can be modified by an adverb: The room was crowded by people talking and laughing noisily. Deeply impressed she couldn't help crying. 6 7.1.2. Adjectival characteristics of the participle Like adjectives the participle is related to a noun in the sentence, either as attribute or predicative. For example: The next minute we were welcomed by a smiling woman of about forty, (attribute) The young mother was looking at her little child, (predicative) 6.17.1.3. Participle and adjective Both present and past participles should not be confused with homonymous adjectives ending in -ing and -ed. These adjectives form pairs like annoying annoyed, amazing - amazed, amusing amused, astonishing astonished, boring bored, confusing confused, depressing depressed, disappointing disappointed, embarrassing embarrassed, exhausting exhausted, exciting excited, frightening frightened, horrifying horrified, satisfying satisfied, shocking shocked, surprising surprised, tiring tired, worrying worried. 6.17.1.4. Adverbial characteristics of the participle The adverbial character of the participle is manifested in its syntactic function of adverbial modifier: While travelling around the country we visited many interesting places. Having entered the house he heard some noise. When left alone she spends her time at her writing table. 6.17.1.5. Syntactic functions of participle The participle can fulfil the following syntactic functions: 1) attributive: I saw a running boy. It was a pleasant room overlooking a garden. There was a broken cup on the table. This

was a story made up to impress me. 2) predicative: The boy was running. The cup was broken. I have broken a cup. The cup has been broken. In the predicative function the participle may find itself in the Complex Subject (see also 6.17.3.1.}. The boy was seen running to the river. The children were heard laughing. 3) objective as part of the Complex Object (see also 6.17.3.2.}: I saw a boy running along the street. She heard him playing the piano. In this function the past participle is used only after have to show an action done by someone: We have just had our house painted. (Someone has painted the house for us.) / have my hair cut once a month. (Compare: We have just painted our house. I cut my hair once a month.} 4) adverbial as part of the Absolute Participial Construction. Turning round, he stared at me. While working so hard he needed fresh air. When dressed. I sat a long time by the window. He drove slowly, enjoing the evening. Adverbial function may also be carried out by both participles when they find themselves as parts of the Absolute Nominative Participial Construction. 6.17.1.5.1. Absolute Nominative Participial Construction The Absolute Nominative Participial Construction or the Nominative Absolute is a special grammatical pattern in which either the present or past participle is in predicative relation to a noun in the Common Case or a pronoun in the Nominative Case; the noun or pronoun is not the subject of the sentence. For example: She turned, losing her restraint, her eyes sparkling with honest indignation. (A. Cronin) He found that Ann had advanced into the hall, her hands folded upon her apron, her eyes contemplating him... (A. Cronin.) The Nominative Absolute is mainly recurrent in fiction or intellective prose: Supper finished, he led him into the parlour... (S. Maugham) Sitting like that, his eyes half closed, tasting blood, an image began to form hazily in his mind. (I. Shaw) Africans who spoke different languages were purposefully grouped together by the slave traders to discourage communication between the slaves, the idea being to prevent slave revolts. The Nominative Absolute may precede or follow the sentence it is attached to or sometimes be inserted between subject and predicate and is normally separated by a comma (commas): Then Ms face lightening, he ran to the desk. (A. Christie) She had the window opened, and sat looking out, the feeble sun shining full upon her. (T. Hardy) The Strand, it being the hour when the theatres began to empty themselves, was a roaring torrent of humanity and vehicles. (P. Woodhouse) The Nominative Absolute usually expresses adverbial relations, that is time, cause, condition, or manner and therefore is used in the function of adverbial modifier. For example: This duty completed, he had three months' leave. (T. Hardy) It being now pretty late, we took our candles and went upstairs. (Ch. Dickens) One morning he stood in front of the tank, his nose almost pressed to the glass. (Th. Dreiser) Weather permitting, we shall start tomorrow. The Nominative Absolute may be introduced by the preposition with and is then called the Prepositional Absolute Participial Construction. For example: The daughter sat quite silent and still, with her eyes fixed on the ground. (Ch. Dickens) The accent variations have provoked not a little controversy in recent years, with the broad Australian accent in particular having its critics and its defenders. Besides participles absolute constructions may admit of adjectives, nounal phrases and adverbs. For example: Mansion went homeward alone, his heart full of strange emotion. (T. Hardy) He was there, writing busily at a distant table, with his back towards the door. (Elliot) Breakfast over, he went to his counting house. (Ch. Bronte) 6.17.2. Gerund The gerund is a non-finite verbal form which has some common features with the noun. The gerund is homonymous to the present participle and thus is formed by means of the -ing suffix added to the infinitive without to: being, having, doing, coming, flying, etc. 6.17.2.1. Verbal characterisrics of gerund Like the present participle the gerund has the same set of forms which is the result of the realization of such categories as Taxis and Voice: 1) active, non-perfect reading, 2) passive, non-perfect being read, 3) active, perfect having read, 4) passive perfect having been read. The perfect gerund indicates that the action precedes the action expressed by the finite verb in the sentence. However, the same meaning may be rendered by means of the non-perfect form used as a direct object: He admitted having stolen the money. = He admitted stealing the money. They now regret having got married. = They now regret getting married. To render finished actions the non-perfect gerund is often used with the prepositions on and after as adverbial modifier: On hearing the news she got pale. On arriving in the city the travellers went to the hotel. After leaving school he went to work at a factory. After looking through the book she gave it back to the shop assistant. In the above sentences the actions denoted by the gerunds may as well be rendered by means of perfect participles: Having heard the news she got pale. Having arrived in the city the travellers went to the hotel. Having looked through the book she gave it back to the shop assistant. Passive gerunds can be formed only out of transitive verbs or intransitive verbs with prepositions: She disliked both reading aloud and being read to. He was surprised at being surrounded by his former enemies and being spoken to. Note that after the verbs to want, to need, to deserve, to require and the adjective worth the gerund is used in the active form, though it is passive in meaning. For example: The flowers need watering. The child deserves praising. The pictures are not worth looking at. The gerund of a transitive verb can take a direct object: The boy has made progress in reading and speaking English. The gerund can be modified by an adverb: She is fond of reading aloud. He objected to going there immediately. 6.17.2.2. Gerund and Participle Although the gerund and the present participle are formally identical, their functions in the language are completely different. As distinct from the participle the gerund may be preceded by a preposition, it may be modified by a noun in the possessive case or by a possessive pronoun; it can be used as subject and object. Although both the gerund and the present participle may be used as

attributes and adverbial modifiers the gerund in these functions is always preceded by a preposition. Compare: The very idea of sailing makes me sick. The sailing ship was on its way to the port, (attributes) On coming home he phoned his mother. Coming home he found the gate open, (adverbial modifiers) 6.17.2.3. Nounal characteristics of gerund The nounal characteristics of the gerund are realized first and formost in its syntactic functioning as subject, object, and predicative. For example: Reading aloud is dying out these days, (subject) In the silence the boy began reading, (object) His hobby is reading aloud, (predicative) The gerund can be preceded by a preposition: Without asking for his advice I have taken an important step. On receiving the telegram he went to the station. After stamping the envelope she went to post the letter. The gerund can be attributed by a possessive pronoun: They didn't approve of his playing a roulette. She was not pleased at my coming. They were surprised at their coming so early. The gerund can be modified by a noun in the Possessive Case: She was furious at her son's having disobeyed her. I was proud of my sister's dancing so well. 6.17.2.4. Syntactic functions of gerund The gerund is used as 1) subject: Swimming against the current was difficult. Learning rules without examples is useless. 2) predicative: Her aim is learning English grammar. They couldn 't help laughing. 3) direct object: Avoid making mistakes. Excuse my interrupting you. They postponed giving a definite answer. The room needs cleaning. 4) prepositional object: / was never tired of talking to him. She is very good at reciting poems. He was accused of stealing the money. I object to going there. 5) attribute (always with a preposition, mostly of): He gave up the idea of becoming a professional singer. Could you do me a favour of introducing me to you wife? 6) adverbial modifier (always with a preposition): After talking to us for a moment he left to get his train on the other side. She left without saying goodby. On coming nearer I could recognize my schoolfriend who was buying a newspaper. 6.17.2.4.1. Gerund and infinitive as a direct object Some verbs and verbal phrases may be followed by 1) gerunds only, 2) by infinitives only (see 6.17.3.2.1.}, and 3) by both gerunds and infinitives. The verbs that are usually associated with gerunds are: finish, delay, enjoy, mind, suggest, fancy, imagine, admit, deny, avoid, consider, involve, practise, miss, postpone, risk, give up (stop), put off (postpone), carry on (continue), keep or keep on, like, dislike, hate, enjoy, can't stand. For example: / don't fancy going out this evening. Would you mind closing the door? He admitted stealing the car. She gave up trying to find a job. I enjoy meeting people. I can't stand being alone. Gerunds are used after such verbal expressions as be interested in, be good at, be fed up with, be excited about, be/get used to, it's no use/it's no good, there's no point in, it's (not) worth, go ing. Are you interested in working for us? He is not very good at learning languages. They are not used to getting up early. I've got used to driving on the left. It's no use worrying about it. The book is not worth reading. I've never been sailing. I have to go shopping everyday. The gerund is used after prepositional verbs like succeed in, feel like, think about/of, dream of, approve/disapprove of, look forward to, insist on, persist in, decide against, apologise for, accuse somebody of, suspect somebody of, congratulate somebody on, prevent somebody from, thank somebody for, forgive somebody for, warn somebody against. For example: Has he succeeded in finding the job? I'm looking forward to meeting them. He apologised for having been rude. They accused him of telling lies. They warned us against staying at the hotel. What prevented him from coming to the meeting? The verbs that may be followed by both gerunds and infinitives without any difference in meaning are as follows: begin, start, intend, continue, love, can't bear. For example: The girl began crying. = The girl began to cry. It has started raining. = It has started to rain. He continued working after his illness. = He continued to work after his illness. The verbs and verbal phrases that can be used with both gerunds and infinitives with some difference in meaning are as follows: stop, forget, remember, regret, try, be afraid, help. Compare: He stopped to smoke. He stopped smoking. I remembered to lock the door before I left. / clearly remember locking the door before I left. I regret to inform you that you are bankrupt. We've always regretted selling the farm. The two sides are still trying to reach an agreement. If the car won't start, try pushing it. I was afraid to go out of the house at night. I'm always afraid of being bitten by dogs. Can you help me (to) move the desk? We couldn't help laughing at the joke. 6.17.2.5. Gerund and verbal noun The gerund must not be confused with the verbal noun that has the same -ing suffix. The points of differences between the two are given below. Like all the verbals the gerund has a double nature nominal and verbal while the verbal noun has only a nominal character. Besides, the nominal meaning of nouns is much wider since they are intended to name people, objects, states, abstract notions, and actions. Gerunds are supposed to name actions only. For example, as a noun teaching means the work or profession of a teacher as well as in the plural teachings denote something which is taught, especially the moral, political, or religious beliefs taught by a person of hisporical importance. Painting is used to refer to the act of painting houses, rooms, etc. and pictures, as well as to a painted picture. As gerunds they denote only actions of teaching and painting correspondingly. The gerund is not used with articles whereas the verbal noun may be used with an article. For example: We have come to an understanding. I have only a limited understanding of economics. I lent him the money on the understanding that he paid it back the next month. The gerund has no plural form while the verbal noun (countable) may be used in the plural: Hard work will be the making of him. She has the makings of a good doctor. The gerund of a transitive verb takes a direct object whereas the verbal noun takes a prepositional object with the preposition of. Compare: He received so many letters that he gave up reading them. She tried to pull herself together and get ready to the

reading of the letter. The gerund can be modified by an adverb while the verbal noun may be modified by an adjective. Compare: On the course she got a thorough training in every aspect of the job. The man insisted on shaking hands enthhu-siastically. 6.17.3. Infinitive The infinitive is a non-finite verbal form that has some nounal characteristics. The infinitive is homony-mous to the present form of the verb with the exception of to be, its formal sign is the particle to: to come, to do, to have, to clean, to fly. However there are cases in which infinitives are used without to. They are as follows: 1) after auxiliaries: We shall meet tomorrow. I don't speak French. 2) after modals such as must, can/could, may/might, shall/should, will/would: You must visit us when you are in Moscow. 3) as part of the Complex Object after verbs denoting sense perception: / saw him cross the street. We heard her singing. 4) as part of the Complex Object after the verbs make, let, have. He made her cry. Let us be friends. I had them take my baggage. 5) after such expressions as had better, would rather. You'd better go home now. I'd rather play tennis than swim. The particle to may be used without the infinitive provided it is easily understood in the context: f couldn't go to the party yesterday but I wanted to. He can leave if he prefers to. The particle may be separated from the infinitive by an adverb making a split infinitive. This is often considered bad English: He was wrong to suddenly say that. But sometimes there is nowhere else to put the adverb: Your job is to really solve the problem. 6.17.3.1. Verbal characteristics of infinitive The verbal characteristics of the infinitive arc determined by the categories of Taxis, Aspect and Voice This results in the six forms: 1) active, non-perfect, non-continuous to read, 2) active, perfect, non-continuous to have read, 3) active, perfect, continuous: to have been reading, 4) active, non-perfect, continuous to be reading, 5) passive, non-perfect, non-continuous: to be read, 6) passive, perfect, non-continuous to have been read. The perfect forms of the infinitive show an action as anterior to another action and thus are used to express a result or finality while its non-perfect forms indicate simultaneity. For example: It is better to live than to have lived. The continuous forms of the infinitive denote an action in progress whereas the non-continuous forms show an action as a fact. For example: She seems to be reading now. She seems to read a lot. The perfect continuous infinitive shows an action as lasting a certain period of time before another action of the finite verb: She seems to have been reading since morning. Passive infinitives can be formed from either transitive verbs or intransitive with prepositions: She prefers to be told news rather than tell it. Such dishonest action is not to be thought of. In sentences with the construction there is the infinitive of some verbs may be active or passive without any change in meaning. For example: There is nothing to fear/to be feared. There was no work to do/to be done. The infinitive can be modified by an adverb: / can't speak French so well. I used to get up early but now I prefer to stay in bed till afternoon. 6.17.3.2. Nounal characteristics of infinitive The nominal character of the infinitive is revealed in its syntactic functions as subject, predicative and object. For example: To know a foreign language is to know its grammar and vocabulary, (subject) To learn is to gain knowledge of something. The train is to arrive at 5 p.m. (predicative) The boy has already learned to read and i write, (direct object) i 6.17.3.2.1. Infinitive as a direct object Infinitives are normally used as direct objects after the following verbs: afford, agree, appear, arrange, attempt, decide, fail, hope, learn, manage, offer, plan, pretend, promise, refuse, seem, threaten, would like, would love, hate, prefer. For example: They agreed to lend me some money. We can't afford to lose such a chance. She decided to say no. He pretended to be reading. I refused to answer the question. I would like to come to a party. I would love to meet with you tonight. She hates to be late for work. 6.17.3.3. Syn ta ctic fun ctions of infin itive In a sentence the infinitive may function as subject, predicative, object, attribute and adverbial modifier. For example: To keep silent under the circumstances is almost a crime, (subject) / can drive. One has to know a foreign language. The aim of the book is to give the reader the idea of literature, (predicative) My father taught me to drive. Can you help me (to) move the table? (object) / have much work to do. I have no pen to write with, (attribute) To learn a foreign language one has to work hard. To be in time for the party we had to take a taxi. (adverbial modifier) Besides, the infinitive enters into the specific grammatical patterns, namely Complex Subject and Complex Object.