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DESIGN OF SOLAR POWER SYSTEM FOR HOME APPLICATION

ABSTRACT:
In this project, a design of solar cell is presented. A solar cell or photovoltaic cell is a device which generates electricity directly from visible light by means of the photovoltaic effect. In order to generate useful power, it is necessary to connect a number of cells together to form a solar panel, also known as a photovoltaic module. The nominal output voltage of a solar panel is usually 12 Volts, and they may be used singly or wired together into an array. The number and size required is determined by the available light and the amount of energy required. The design of the simple solar power system right is to ensuring both reliability of supply and minimum cost. The PV panel systems may have only a few 12 Volt, but in bigger systems 230 or 110 Volts will probably be needed. The output from a photovoltaic (PV) cell is insufficient to operate a large DC load. A Boost converter is used to transform the low voltage DC generated by the solar panels into high voltage DC. In many small scale industries and residential a DC motor is the only source to run a machine. According to our proposed system 40% of the power consumption of the industries may reduce as well as our system increases the efficiency of the industries or home applications.

Introduction:
In today's climate of growing energy needs and increasing environmental concern, alternatives to the use of non-renewable and polluting fossil fuels have to be investigated. One such alternative is solar energy. Solar energy is quite simply the energy produced directly by the sun and collected elsewhere, normally the Earth. The sun creates its energy through a thermonuclear process that converts about 650,000,000 tons of hydrogen to helium every second. The process creates heat and electromagnetic radiation. The heat remains in the sun and is instrumental in maintaining the thermonuclear reaction. The electromagnetic radiation (including visible light, infra-red light, and ultra-violet radiation) streams out into space in all directions.

Only a very small fraction of the total radiation produced reaches the Earth. The radiation that does reach the Earth is the indirect source of nearly every type of energy used today. The exceptions are geothermal energy, and nuclear fission and fusion. Even fossil fuels owe their origins to the sun; they were once living plants and animals whose life was dependent upon the sun. Much of the world's required energy can be supplied directly by solar power. More still can be provided indirectly. The practicality of doing so will be examined, as well as the benefits and drawbacks. In addition, the uses solar energy is currently applied to will be noted. Due to the nature of solar energy, two components are required to have a functional solar energy generator. These two components are a collector and a storage unit. The collector simply collects the radiation that falls on it and converts a fraction of it to other forms of energy (either electricity and heat or heat alone). The storage unit is required because of the nonconstant nature of solar energy; at certain times only a very small amount of radiation will be received. At night or during heavy cloudcover, for example, the amount of energy produced by the collector will be quite small. The storage unit can hold the excess energy produced during the periods of maximum productivity, and release it when the productivity drops. In practice, a backup power supply is usually added, too, for the situations when the amount of energy required is greater than both what is being produced and what is stored in the container. Methods of collecting and storing solar energy vary depending on the uses planned for the solar generator. In general, there are three types of collectors and many forms of storage units. The three types of collectors are flat-plate collectors, focusing collectors, and passive collectors. Flat-plate collectors are the more commonly used type of collector today. They are arrays of solar panels arranged in a simple plane. They can be of nearly any size, and have an output that is directly related to a few variables including size, facing, and cleanliness. These variables all affect the amount of radiation that falls on the collector. Often these collector panels have automated machinery that keeps them facing the sun. The additional energy they take in due to

the correction of facing more than compensates for the energy needed to drive the extra machinery. Focusing collectors are essentially flat-plane collectors with optical devices arranged to maximize the radiation falling on the focus of the collector. These are currently used only in a few scattered areas. Solar furnaces are examples of this type of collector. Although they can produce far greater amounts of energy at a single point than the flat-plane collectors can, they lose some of the radiation that the flat-plane panels do not. Radiation reflected off the ground will be used by flat-plane panels but usually will be ignored by focusing collectors (in snow covered regions, this reflected radiation can be significant). One other problem with focusing collectors in general is due to temperature. The fragile silicon components that absorb the incoming radiation lose efficiency at high temperatures, and if they get too hot they can even be permanently damaged. The focusing collectors by their very nature can create much higher temperatures and need more safeguards to protect their silicon components. Passive collectors are completely different from the other two types of collectors. The passive collectors absorb radiation and convert it to heat naturally, without being designed and built to do so. All objects have this property to some extent, but only some objects (like walls) will be able to produce enough heat to make it worthwhile. Often their natural ability to convert radiation to heat is enhanced in some way or another (by being painted black, for example) and a system for transferring the heat to a different location is generally added. People use energy for many things, but a few general tasks consume most of the energy. These tasks include transportation, heating, cooling, and the generation of electricity. Solar energy can be applied to all four of these tasks with different levels of success. Heating is the business for which solar energy is best suited. Solar heating requires almost no energy transformation, so it has a very high efficiency. Heat energy can be stored in a liquid, such as water, or in a packed bed. A packed bed is a container filled with small objects that can hold heat (such as stones) with air space between them. Heat energy is also often stored in phase-changer or heat-of-fusion units. These devices will utilize a chemical that changes phase

from solid to liquid at a temperature that can be produced by the solar collector. The energy of the collector is used to change the chemical to its liquid phase, and is as a result stored in the chemical itself. It can be tapped later by allowing the chemical to revert to its solid form. Solar energy is frequently used in residential homes to heat water. This is an easy application, as the desired end result (hot water) is the storage facility. A hot water tank is filled with hot water during the day, and drained as needed. This application is a very simple adjustment from the normal fossil fuel water heaters. Swimming pools are often heated by solar power. Sometimes the pool itself functions as the storage unit, and sometimes a packed bed is added to store the heat. Whether or not a packed bed is used, some method of keeping the pool's heat for longer than normal periods (like a cover) is generally employed to help keep the water at a warm temperature when it is not in use. Solar energy is often used to directly heat a house or building. Heating a building requires much more energy than heating a building's water, so much larger panels are necessary. Generally a building that is heated by solar power will have its water heated by solar power as well. The type of storage facility most often used for such large solar heaters is the heat-of-fusion storage unit, but other kinds (such as the packed bed or hot water tank) can be used as well. This application of solar power is less common than the two mentioned above, because of the cost of the large panels and storage system required to make it work. Often if an entire building is heated by solar power, passive collectors are used in addition to one of the other two types. Passive collectors will generally be an integral part of the building itself, so buildings taking advantage of passive collectors must be created with solar heating in mind. These passive collectors can take a few different forms. The most basic type is the incidental heat trap. The idea behind the heat trap is fairly simple. Allow the maximum amount of light possible inside through a window (The window should be facing towards the equator for this to be achieved) and allow it to fall on a floor made of stone or another heat holding material.

During the day, the area will stay cool as the floor absorbs most of the heat, and at night, the area will stay warm as the stone re-emits the heat it absorbed during the day. Another major form of passive collector is thermosyphoning walls and/or roof. With this passive collector, the heat normally absorbed and wasted in the walls and roof is re-routed into the area that needs to be heated. The last major form of passive collector is the solar pond. This is very similar to the solar heated pool described above, but the emphasis is different. With swimming pools, the desired result is a warm pool. With the solar pond, the whole purpose of the pond is to serve as an energy regulator for a building. The pond is placed either adjacent to or on the building, and it will absorb solar energy and convert it to heat during the day. This heat can be taken into the building, or if the building has more than enough heat already, heat can be dumped from the building into the pond. Solar energy can be used for other things besides heating. It may seem strange, but one of the most common uses of solar energy today is cooling. Solar cooling is far more expensive than solar heating, so it is almost never seen in private homes. Solar energy is used to cool things by phase changing a liquid to gas through heat, and then forcing the gas into a lower pressure chamber. The temperature of a gas is related to the pressure containing it, and all other things being held equal, the same gas under a lower pressure will have a lower temperature. This cool gas will be used to absorb heat from the area of interest and then be forced into a region of higher pressure where the excess heat will be lost to the outside world. The net effect is that of a pump moving heat from one area into another, and the first is accordingly cooled. Besides being used for heating and cooling, solar energy can be directly converted to electricity. Most of our tools are designed to be driven by electricity, so if you can create electricity through solar power, you can run almost anything with solar power. The solar collectors that convert radiation into electricity can be either flat-plane collectors or focusing collectors, and the silicon components of these collectors are photovoltaic cells.

Photovoltaic cells, by their very nature, convert radiation to electricity. This phenomenon has been known for well over half a century, but until recently the amounts of electricity generated were good for little more than measuring radiation intensity. Most of the photovoltaic cells on the market today operate at an efficiency of less than 15%; that is, of all the radiation that falls upon them, less than 15% of it is converted to electricity. The maximum theoretical efficiency for a photovoltaic cell is only 32.3%, but at this efficiency, solar electricity is very economical. Most of our other forms of electricity generation are at a lower efficiency than this. Unfortunately, reality still lags behind theory and a 15% efficiency is not usually considered economical by most power companies, even if it is fine for toys and pocket calculators. Hope for bulk solar electricity should not be abandoned, however, for recent scientific advances have created a solar cell with an efficiency of 28.2% efficiency in the laboratory. This type of cell has yet to be field tested. If it maintains its efficiency in the uncontrolled environment of the outside world, and if it does not have a tendency to break down, it will be economical for power companies to build solar power facilities after all. Of the main types of energy usage, the least suited to solar power is transportation. While large, relatively slow vehicles like ships could power themselves with large onboard solar panels, small constantly turning vehicles like cars could not. The only possible way a car could be completely solar powered would be through the use of battery that was charged by solar power at some stationary point and then later loaded into the car. Electric cars that are partially powered by solar energy are available now, but it is unlikely that solar power will provide the world's transportation costs in the near future. Solar power has two big advantages over fossil fuels. The first is in the fact that it is renewable; it is never going to run out. The second is its effect on the environment. While the burning of fossil fuels introduces many harmful pollutants into the atmosphere and contributes to environmental problems like global warming and acid rain, solar energy is completely non-polluting. While many acres of land must be destroyed to feed a fossil fuel energy plant its required fuel, the only land that must be destroyed for a solar energy plant is

the land that it stands on. Indeed, if a solar energy system were incorporated into every business and dwelling, no land would have to be destroyed in the name of energy. This ability to decentralize solar energy is something that fossil fuel burning cannot match. As the primary element of construction of solar panels, silicon, is the second most common element on the planet, there is very little environmental disturbance caused by the creation of solar panels. In fact, solar energy only causes environmental disruption if it is centralized and produced on a gigantic scale. Solar power certainly can be produced on a gigantic scale, too. Among the renewable resources, only in solar power do we find the potential for an energy source capable of supplying more energy than is used. Suppose that of the 4.5x1017 kWh per annum that is used by the earth to evaporate water from the oceans we were to acquire just 0.1% or 4.5x10 14 kWh per annum. Dividing by the hours in the year gives a continuous yield of 2.90x1010 kW. This would supply 2.4 kW to 12.1 billion people. This translates to roughly the amount of energy used today by the average American available to over twelve billion people. Since this is greater than the estimated carrying capacity of the Earth, this would be enough energy to supply the entire planet regardless of the population. Unfortunately, at this scale, the production of solar energy would have some unpredictable negative environmental effects. If all the solar collectors were placed in one or just a few areas, they would probably have large effects on the local environment, and possibly have large effects on the world environment. Everything from changes in local rain conditions to another Ice Age has been predicted as a result of producing solar energy on this scale. The problem lies in the change of temperature and humidity near a solar panel; if the energy producing panels are kept non-centralized, they should not create the same local, mass temperature change that could have such bad effects on the environment. Of all the energy sources available, solar has perhaps the most promise. Numerically, it is capable of producing the raw power required to satisfy the entire planet's energy needs.

Environmentally, it is one of the least destructive of all the sources of energy. Practically, it can be adjusted to power nearly everything except transportation with very little adjustment, and even transportation with some modest modifications to the current general system of travel. Clearly, solar energy is a resource of the future. Photovoltaic Cells Photovoltaic (PV) cells, which convert light directly into electricity, have become commonplace on devices such as calculators and watches. There are a number of technologies in development with the aim of making PV more economic for electrical power generation. All use semiconductor materials like those used in silicon chips. Photovoltaic (PV) power systems convert sunlight directly into electricity. A residential PV power system enables a homeowner to generate some or all of their daily electrical energy demand on their own roof, exchanging daytime excess power for future energy needs (i.e. nighttime usage). The house remains connected to the electric utility at all times, so any power needed above what the solar system can produce is simply drawn from the utility. PV systems can also include battery backup or uninterruptible power supply (UPS) capability to operate selected circuits in the residence for hours or days during a utility outage. The purpose of this document is to provide tools and guidelines for the installer to help ensure that residential photovoltaic power systems are properly specified and installed, resulting in a system that operates to its design potential. This document sets out key criteria that describe a quality system, and key design and installation considerations that should be met to achieve this goal. This document deals with systems located on residences that are connected to utility power, and does not address the special issues of homes that are remote from utility power. In this early stage of marketing solar electric power systems to the residential market, it is advisable for an installer to work with well established firms that have complete, preengineered packaged solutions that accommodate variations in models, rather than custom designing custom systems. Once a system designhas been chosen, attention to installation

detail is critically important. Recent studies have found that 10-20% of new PV installations have serious installation problems that will result in significantly decreased performance. The heart of a PV cell is the interface between two different types of semiconductor. When a light photon hits a silicon atom in this region, it throws out an electron. The electron can travel through the n-type semiconductor to metal contacts on the surface. The hole left by the absence of the electron travels in the opposite direction. Once at the metal contact the electron flows through an electrical circuit back to meet up with a hole at the other contact. As it flows through the external circuit, the electron does useful work, like charging a battery, or operating an electrical appliance. Photovoltaic systems have been reducing in cost, and increasing in efficiency in recent years. The most efficient commercially available systems can convert up to 16% of the light energy that strikes them into electrical energy. Boost converter A boost converter (step-up converter) is a power converter with an output DC voltage greater than its input DC voltage. It is a class of switching-mode power supply (SMPS) containing at least two semiconductor switches (a diode and a transistor) and at least one energy storage element. Filters made of capacitors (sometimes in combination with inductors) are normally added to the output of the converter to reduce output voltage ripple.

Overview
Power can also come from DC sources such as batteries, solar panels, rectifiers and DC generators. A process that changes one DC voltage to a different DC voltage is called DC to DC conversion. A boost converter is a DC to DC converter with an output voltage greater than the source voltage. A boost converter is sometimes called a step-up converter since it steps up the source voltage. Since power (P = VI) must be conserved, the output current is lower than the source current. A boost converter may also be referred to as a 'Joule thief'. This term is usually used only with very low power battery applications, and is aimed at the ability of a boost converter to 'steal' the remaining energy in a battery. This energy would otherwise be wasted since a normal load wouldn't be able to handle the battery's low voltage.

History
For high efficiency, the SMPS switch must turn on and off quickly and have low losses. The advent of a commercial semiconductor switch in the 1950s represented a major milestone that made SMPSs such as the boost converter possible. Semiconductor switches turned on and off more quickly and lasted longer than other switches such as vacuum tubes and electromechanical relays. The major DC to DC converters were developed in the early 1960s when semiconductor switches had become available. The aerospace industrys need for small, lightweight, and efficient power converters led to the converters rapid development. Switched systems such as SMPS are a challenge to design since its model depends on whether a switch is opened or closed. R.D. Middlebrook from Caltech in 1977 published the models for DC to DC converters used today. Middlebrook averaged the circuit configurations for each switch state in a technique called state-space averaging. This simplification reduced two systems into one. The new model led to insightful design equations which helped SMPS growth.

Applications
Battery powered systems often stack cells in series to achieve higher voltage. However, sufficient stacking of cells is not possible in many high voltage applications due to lack of space. Boost converters can increase the voltage and reduce the number of cells. Two batterypowered applications that use boost converters are hybrid electric vehicles (HEV) and lighting systems. The Toyota Prius HEV uses a 500 V motor. Without a boost converter, the Prius would need nearly 417 cells to power the motor. However, a Prius actually uses only 168 cells and boosts the battery voltage from 202 V to 500 V. Boost converters also power devices at smaller scale applications, such as portable lighting systems. A white LED typically requires 3.3 V to emit light, and a boost converter can step up the voltage from a single 1.5 V alkaline cell to power the lamp. Boost converters can also produce higher voltages to operate cold cathode fluorescent tubes (CCFL) in devices such as LCD backlights and some flashlights.

Circuit analysis
Operating principle
The key principle that drives the boost converter is the tendency of an inductor to resist changes in current. When being charged it acts as a load and absorbs energy (somewhat like a resistor), when being discharged, it acts as an energy source (somewhat like a battery). The

voltage it produces during the discharge phase is related to the rate of change of current, and not to the original charging voltage, thus allowing different input and output voltages.

Fig. 1:Boost converter schematic

Fig. 2: The two configurations of a boost converter, depending on the state of the switch S.

The basic principle of a Boost converter consists of 2 distinct states (see figure 2):

in the On-state, the switch S (see figure 1) is closed, resulting in an increase in the inductor current;

in the Off-state, the switch is open and the only path offered to inductor current is through the flyback diode D, the capacitor C and the load R. This results in transferring the energy accumulated during the On-state into the capacitor.

The input current is the same as the inductor current as can be seen in figure 2. So it is not discontinuous as in the buck converter and the requirements on the input filter are relaxed compared to a buck converter.

Continuous mode

Fig. 3:Waveforms of current and voltage in a boost converter operating in continuous mode.

When a boost converter operates in continuous mode, the current through the inductor (IL) never falls to zero. Figure 3 shows the typical waveforms of currents and voltages in a converter operating in this mode. The output voltage can be calculated as follows, in the case of an ideal converter (i.e. using components with an ideal behaviour) operating in steady conditions: During the On-state, the switch S is closed, which makes the input voltage (Vi) appear across the inductor, which causes a change in current (IL) flowing through the inductor during a time period (t) by the formula:

At the end of the On-state, the increase of IL is therefore:

D is the duty cycle. It represents the fraction of the commutation period T during which the switch is On. Therefore D ranges between 0 (S is never on) and 1 (S is always on). During the Off-state, the switch S is open, so the inductor current flows through the load. If we consider zero voltage drop in the diode, and a capacitor large enough for its voltage to remain constant, the evolution of IL is:

Therefore, the variation of IL during the Off-period is: As we consider that the converter operates in steady-state conditions, the amount of energy stored in each of its components has to be the same at the beginning and at the end of a commutation cycle. In particular, the energy stored in the inductor is given by:

So, the inductor current has to be the same at the start and end of the commutation cycle. This means the overall change in the current (the sum of the changes) is zero: This can be written as:

Which in turns reveals the duty cycle to be:

From the above expression it can be seen that the output voltage is always higher than the input voltage (as the duty cycle goes from 0 to 1), and that it increases with D, theoretically to infinity as D approaches 1. This is why this converter is sometimes referred to as a step-up converter.

Discontinuous mode

Fig. 4:Waveforms of current and voltage in a boost converter operating in discontinuous mode. In some cases, the amount of energy required by the load is small enough to be transferred in a time smaller than the whole commutation period. In this case, the current through the inductor falls to zero during part of the period. The only difference in the principle described above is that the inductor is completely discharged at the end of the commutation cycle (see waveforms in figure 4). Although slight, the difference has a strong effect on the output voltage equation. It can be calculated as follows: As the inductor current at the beginning of the cycle is zero, its maximum value (at t = DT) is

During the off-period, IL falls to zero after T:

Using the two previous equations, is:

The load current Io is equal to the average diode current (ID). As can be seen on figure 4, the diode current is equal to the inductor current during the off-state. Therefore the output current can be written as:

Replacing ILmax and by their respective expressions yields:

Therefore, the output voltage gain can be written as flow:

Compared to the expression of the output voltage for the continuous mode, this expression is much more complicated. Furthermore, in discontinuous operation, the output voltage gain not

only depends on the duty cycle, but also on the inductor value, the input voltage, the switching frequency, and the output current.

BLOCK DIAGRAM:

HARDWARE DETAILDRIVER CIRCUIT


FROM MICRO CONTROLLER
U1 R1 1k OP-07C/301/TI R3 D1

D1N1190

1K
Q1

R4

Q2

MCT2E

R2

100
R5 BDX37

Q3

230/12V

100

G
100
R6 1k R8 1k

C1 1n

500mA

S
0

The driver circuit is supplied using a step down transformer 230V/12V AC .In this project the driver circuit is mainly used to amplify the pulse output coming from the microcontroller circuit.The output from pin 1 and 2 of PIC16F877A is passed to the buffer IC CD4050 .The buffer IC acts as a NOT gate .the output from the buffer IC is passed to the two optocoupler

respectively. The optocoupler is used to isolate the voltages between the main circuit and microcontroller circuit. This signal is passed to the transistors CK100 and 2N2222 which is connected in a Darlington pair model. The driver circuit has two legs. First leg is connected to switch-1 Sm and the second leg is connected to switch-2 Sa. Thus the 5V pulse from the microcontroller circuit is amplified to 12V and sent to MOSFET switch.

POWER SUPPLY POWER SUPPLY UNIT

Fig 1: Block diagram of power supply unit As we all know any invention of latest technology cannot be activated without the source of power. So it this fast moving world we deliberately need a proper power source which will be apt for a particular requirement. All the electronic components starting from diode to Intel ICs only work with a DC supply ranging from -+5v to 0-+12v. We are utilizing for the same, the

cheapest and commonly available energy source of 230v-50Hz and stepping down, rectifying, filtering and regulating the voltage. This will be dealt briefly in the forth-coming sections. STEP DOWN TRANSFORMER When AC is applied to the primary winding of the power transformer it can either be stepped down or up depending on the value of DC needed. In our circuit the transformer of 230v/0-12v is used to perform the step down operation where a 230V AC appears as 12V AC across the secondary winding. One alteration of input causes the top of the transformer to be positive and the bottom negative. The next alteration will temporarily cause the reverse. The current rating of the transformer used in our project is 1A. Apart from stepping down AC voltages, it gives isolation between the power source and power supply circuitries.

DIODE BRIDGE RECTIFIERS


The ac input from the main supply is stepped down using a 230 /30V step down transformer. The stepped down AC voltage is converted into dc voltage using a diode bridge rectifier. The diode bridge rectifier consists of four diodes arranged in two legs. The diodes are connected to the stepped down AC voltage. For positive half cycle of the ac voltage, the diodes D1 and D4 are forward biased (ref fig). For negative half cycles diodes D2 and D3 are forward biased. Thus dc voltage is produced to provide input supply to the DC-DC Converter.

FIG 2.DIODE BRIDGE RECTIFIER

When the positive half cycle is applied to the diode bridge rectifier, the diodes D1 and D4 are forward biased. The diodes start conducting and the load current flows through the positive of the supply, diodeD1, the load, the diode D4 and the negative of the supply. The diode D2 and D3 are reverse biased and do not conduct. During the negative half cycle, the diodes D1 and D4 areb reverse biased and they stop conducting. The diodes D2 & D3 are forward biased and they start conducting. The load current flows in the same direction for both the half cycles. Thus the ac supply given to diode bridge rectifier is converted into pulsating dc.

FILTERING UNIT
Filter circuits which are usually capacitors acting as a surge arrester always follow the rectifier unit. This capacitor is also called as a decoupling capacitor or a bypassing capacitor, is used not only to short the ripple with frequency of 120Hz to ground but also to leave the frequency of the DC to appear at the output. A load resistor R1 is connected so that a reference to the ground is maintained. C1R1 is for bypassing ripples. C2R2 is used as a low pass filter, i.e. it passes only low frequency signals and bypasses high frequency signals. The load resistor should be 1% to 2.5% of the load.

1000f/25v

: for the reduction of ripples from the pulsating.

10f/25v

: for maintaining the stability of the voltage at the load side.

O, 1f

: for bypassing the high frequency disturbances.

VOLTAGE REGULATORS:

The voltage regulators play an important role in any power supply unit. The primary purpose of a regulator is to aid the rectifier and filter circuit in providing a constant DC voltage to the

device. Power supplies without regulators have an inherent problem of changing DC voltage values due to variations in the load or due to fluctuations in the AC liner voltage. With a regulator connected to the DC output, the voltage can be maintained within a close tolerant region of the desired output IC7805 is used in this project for providing +12v and 12v DC supply.

DRIVER CIRCUIT COMPONENTS


The driver circuit is used to amplify the pulses. It consists of three main components they are: o OPTOCOUPLER o BUFFER IC o TRANSISTOR

OPTOCOUPLER

Introduction
There are many situations where signals and data need to be transferred from one subsystem to another within a piece of electronics equipment, or from one piece of equipment to another, without making a direct ohmic electrical connection. Often this is because the source and destination are (or may be at times) at very different voltage levels, like a microprocessor, which is operating from 5V DC but being used to control a MOSFET that is switching at a higher voltage. In such situations the link between the two must be an isolated one, to protect the microprocessor from over voltage damage.Relays can of course provide this kind of isolation, but even small relays tend to be fairly bulky compared with ICs and many of todays other miniature circuit components. Because theyre electro-mechanical, relays are also not as reliable and only capable of relatively low speed operation. Where small size, higher speed and greater reliability are important, a much better alternative is to use an optocoupler. These use a beam of light to transmit the signals or data across an electrical barrier, and achieve excellent isolation. Optocouplers typically come in a small 6-pin or 8-pin IC package, but are essentially a combination of two distinct devices: an optical transmitter, typically a gallium arsenide LED (light-emitting diode) and an optical receiver such as a phototransistor or lighttriggered diac. The two are separated by a transparent barrier which blocks any electrical

current flow between the two, but does allow the passage of light. The basic idea is shown in Fig.1, along with the usual circuit symbol for an optocoupler. Usually the electrical connections to the LED section are brought out to the pins on one side of the package and those for the phototransistor or diac to the other side, to physically separate them as much as possible. This usually allows optocouplers to withstand voltages of anywhere between 500V and 7500V between input and output. Optocouplers are essentially, digital or switching devices, so theyre best for transferring either on-off control signals or digital data. Analog signals can be transferred by means of frequency or pulse-width modulation.

Key Parameters
The most important parameter for most optocouplers is their transfer efficiency, usually measured in terms of their current transfer ratio or CTR. This is simply the ratio between a current change in the output transistor and the current change in the input LED that produced it. Typical values for CTR range from 10% to 50% for devices with an output phototransistor and up to 2000% or so for those with a Darlington transistor pair in the output. Note, however that in most devices CTR tends to vary with absolute current level. Typically it peaks at a LED current level of about 10mA, and falls away at both higher and lower current levels Other optocoupler parameters include the output transistors maximum collector-emitter voltage rating VCE(max), which limits the supply voltage in the output circuit; the input LEDs maximum current rating

IF(max), which is used to calculate the minimum value for its series resistor; and the optocouplers bandwidth, which determines the highest signal frequency that can be transferred through it ,determined mainly by internal device construction and the performance of the output phototransistor. Typical opto-couplers with a single output phototransistor may have a bandwidth of 200 - 300kHz, while those with a Darlington pair are usually about 10 times lower, at around 20 - 30kHz.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION

In our project the optocoupler is used in the driver circuit. They are used to isolate the voltage between the main circuit and microcontroller circuit. The pulse is provided to the MOSFET switch using a microcontroller circuit; this circuit produces a waveform of 5V DC. This pulse is supplied to MOSFET switch which is supplied by 12V AC as the source and destination voltage is different they have to be isolated, which is done using optocoupler.

MCT2 OR MCT2E OPTOCOUPLER

Specifications

Gallium Arsenide Diode Infrared Source Optically Coupled to a Silicon npn Phototransistor High Direct-Current Transfer Ratio Base Lead Provided for Conventional Transistor Biasing High-Voltage Electrical Isolation . . . 1.5-kV or 3.55-kV Rating Plastic Dual-In-Line Package High-Speed Switching: tr = 5 s, tf = 5 s Typical Designed to be Interchangeable with General Instruments MCT2 and MCT2E

BUFFER IC CD4050
The CD4050BC hex buffers are monolithic complementary MOS (CMOS) integrated circuits constructed with N- and P-channel enhancement mode transistors. These devices feature logic level conversion using only one supply voltage (VDD). The input signal high level (VIH) can exceed the VDD supply voltage when these devices are used for logic level conversions. These devices are intended for use as hex buffers, CMOS to DTL/ TTL converters, or as CMOS current drivers, and at VDD = 5.0V, they can drive directly two DTL/TTL loads over the full operating temperature range.

Connection Diagrams Pin Assignments for DIP

Schematic Diagrams CD4050BC1 of 6 Identical Units

Features
Wide supply voltage range: 3.0V to 15V Direct drive to 2 TTL loads at 5.0V over full temperature range

High source and sink current capability Special input protection permits input voltages greater than VDD

Absolute Maximum Ratings


Supply Voltage (VDD) -0.5V to +18V Input Voltage (VIN) -0.5V to +18V Voltage at Any Output Pin (VOUT) -0.5V to VDD + 0.5V Storage Temperature Range (TS) -65C to +150C Power Dissipation (PD) Dual-In-Line 700 mW Small Outline 500 mW Lead Temperature (TL) (Soldering, 10 seconds) 260C

Recommended Operating Conditions


Supply Voltage (VDD) 3V to 15V Input Voltage (VIN) 0V to 15V Voltage at Any Output Pin (VOUT) 0 to VDD Operating Temperature Range (TA) CD4049UBC, CD4050BC -40C to +85C Note 1: Absolute Maximum Ratings are those values beyond which the safety of the device cannot be guaranteed; they are not meant to imply that the devices should be operated at these limits. The table of Recommended Operating Conditions and Electrical Characteristics provides conditions for actual device operation. Note 2: VSS = 0V unless otherwise specified

Typical Applications
CMOS to TLL or CMOS at a Lower VDD

Applications
CMOS hex inverter/buffer CMOS to DTL/TTL hex converter CMOS current sink or source driver CMOS HIGH-to-LOW logic level converter.

TRANSISTOR
In electronics, a transistor is a semiconductor device commonly used to amplify or switch electronic signals. A transistor is made of a solid piece of a semiconductor material, with at least three terminals for connection to an external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's terminals changes the current flowing through another pair of terminals. Because the controlled (output) power can be much larger than the controlling (input) power, the transistor provides amplification of a signal. The transistor is the fundamental building block of modern electronic devices, and is used in radio, telephone, computer and other electronic systems. Some transistors are packaged individually but most are found in integrated circuits.

TRANSISTOR AS AN AMPLIFIER
The above common emitter amplifier is designed so that a small change in voltage in (Vin) changes the small current through the base of the transistor and the transistor's current

amplification combined with the properties of the circuit mean that small swings in Vin produce large changes in Vout..It is important that the operating parameters of the transistor are chosen and the circuit designed such that as far as possible the transistor operates within a linear portion of the graph, such as that shown between A and B, otherwise the output signal will suffer distortion. Various configurations of single transistor amplifier are possible, with some providing current gain, some voltage gain, and some both. From mobile phones to televisions, vast numbers of products include amplifiers for sound reproduction, radio transmission, and signal processing. The first discrete transistor audio amplifiers barely supplied a few hundred milliwatts, but power and audio fidelity gradually increased as better transistors became available and amplifier architecture evolved. Modern transistor audio amplifiers of up to a few hundred watts are common and relatively in expensive. Some musical instrument amplifier manufacturers mix transistors and vacuum tubes in the same circuit, as some believe tubes have a distinctive sound.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION
In our project we use transistor in driver circuit. the transistor is used to amplify the signal pulse coming from the microcontroller circuit .Here we use two main types of transistor namely CK100 2N2222

These two transistors are present in the driver circuit which is connected in a darlington pair circuit.

DARLINGTON PAIR CIRCUIT

In electronics, the Darlington transistor (often called a Darlington pair) is a compound structure consisting of two bipolar transistors (either integrated or separated devices) connected in such a way that the current amplified by the first transistor is amplified further by the second one [1]. This configuration gives a much higher current gain (written , hfe, or hFE) than each transistor taken separately and, in the case of integrated devices, can take less space than two individual transistors because they can use a shared collector. Integrated Darlington pairs come packaged in transistor-like integrated circuit packages.The Darlington configuration was invented by Bell Laboratories engineer Sidney Darlington in 1953. He patented the idea of having two or three transistors on a single chip (and sharing a single collector), but not that of an arbitrary number. A similar configuration but with transistors of opposite type (NPN and PNP) is the Sziklai pair, sometimes called the "complementary Darlington

TRANSISTOR-2N2222

The 2N2222, often referred to as the 'quad two' transistor, is a small, common NPN BJT transistor used for general purpose low-power amplifying or switching applications. It is designed for low to medium current, low power, medium voltage, and can operate at moderately high speeds. It was originally made in the TO-18 metal can as shown in the picture, but is more commonly available now in the cheaper TO-92 packaging, where it is known as the PN2222 or P2N2222.

FEATURES
High current (max. 800 mA). Low voltage (max. 40 V).

PINNING

APPLICATIONS

Linear amplification and switching.

MICROCONTROLLER Introduction

FIG 1.PIC16F877 A PINOUT To perform the various operations and conversions required to switch, control and monitor the devices a processor is needed. The processor may be a microprocessor, micro controller or embedded controller. In this project an micro controller has been preferred because we require to generate clock pulse. We have chose PIC16F877A in this project mainly for the following features.

High-Performance, Enhanced PIC Flash Microcontroller in 40-pin


The PIC16F877A CMOS FLASH-based 8-bit microcontroller is upward compatible with the PIC16C5x, PIC12Cxxx and PIC16C7x devices. It features 200 ns instruction execution, 256 bytes of EEPROM data memory, self programming, an ICD, 2 Comparators, 8 channels of 10-bit Analog-to-Digital (A/D) converter, 2 capture/compare/PWM functions, a synchronous serial

port that can be configured as either 3-wire SPI or 2-wire I2C bus, a USART, and a Parallel Slave Port.

MEMORY ORGANIZATION
There are three memory blocks in each of the PIC16F877A devices. The program memory and data memory have separate buses so that concurrent access can occur and is detailed in this section.

Program Memory Organization


The PIC16F877A devices have a 13-bit program counter capable of addressing an 8K word x 14 bit program memory space. The PIC16F877A devices have 8K words x 14 bits of Flash program memory. Accessing a location above the physically implemented address will cause a wraparound. The Reset vector is at 0000h and the interrupt vector is at 0004h.

DATA EEPROM AND FLASH PROGRAM MEMORY


The data EEPROM and Flash program memory is readable and writable during normal operation (over the full VDD range). This memory is not directly mapped in the register file space. Instead, it is indirectly addressed through the Special Function Registers. There are six SFRs used to read and write this memory: EECON1 EECON2 EEDATA EEDATH EEADR EEADRH When interfacing to the data memory block, EEDATA holds the 8-bit data for read/write and EEADR holds the address of the EEPROM location being accessed. devices have 128 or 256 bytes of data EEPROM (depending on the device), with an address range from 00h to FFh. On devices with 128 bytes, addresses from80h to FFh are unimplemented and will wraparound to the beginning of data EEPROM memory. When writing to unimplemented locations, the on-chip charge pump will be turned off. When interfacing the program memory block, the EEDATA and EEDATH registers form a two-byte word that holds the 14-bit data for read/write and the EEADR and EEADRH registers form a two-byte word that holds the 13-bit address of the program memory location being accessed. These devices have 4 or 8K words of program Flash, with an address range from 0000h to 0FFFh for the PIC16F874A and 0000h to 1FFFh for the PIC16F877A. Addresses above the range of the respective device will wraparound to the nbeginning of program memory. The EEPROM data memory allows single-byte read and write. T0 the Flash program memory allows single-word reads and four-word block writes. Program memory write operations automatically perform an erase-before write on blocks of four words. A byte write in data EEPROM memory automatically erases the location and writes the new data (erase-before-write). The write time is controlled by an on-chip timer. The write/erase voltages are generated by an on-chip charge pump, rated to operate over the voltage range of

the device for byte or word operations. When the device is code-protected, the CPU may continue to read and write the data EEPROM memory. Depending on the settings of the writeprotect bits, the device may or may not be able to write certain blocks of the program memory; however, reads of the program memory are allowed. When code-protected, the device programmer can no longer access data or program memory; this does NOT inhibit internal reads or writes.

Architecture:
Two types of Architecture are followed. I). Van-Neumann Architecture: The width of addr ess and data bus is same. II). Haward Architecture: The bus width of address and data may not be same. Pipelining is here. Micro controllers have built-in peripherals, they are: 1. Memory a. Program Memory (E.g. PROM, Flash memory) b. Data Memory (E.g. RAM, EEROM) 2. I/O Ports 3. ADC 4. Timers 5. USART 6. Interrupt Controllers 7. PWM / Capture possible

PM

DM I/O

Port A Port B Port C Port D Port E

CPU

Ports

Timer / Counter PWM/ Capture

PERIPHERALS OF PIC16F877A

ADC

As the PIC16F877A is rich in peripherals so you can use it for many different projects
USART

OSC

WDT

PERIPHERALS OF PIC16F877A

FEATURES OF PIC16F877A High-Performance RISC CPU

Lead-free; RoHS-compliant Operating speed: 20 MHz, 200 ns instruction cycle Operating voltage: 4.0-5.5V Industrial temperature range (-40 to +85C) 15 Interrupt Sources 35 single-word instructions All single-cycle instructions except for program branches (two-cycle)

Special Microcontroller Features


Flash Memory: 14.3 Kbytes (8192 words) Data SRAM: 368 bytes Data EEPROM: 256 bytes Self-reprogrammable under software control In-Circuit Serial Programming via two pins (5V) Watchdog Timer with on-chip RC oscillator Programmable code protection Power-saving Sleep mode Selectable oscillator options In-Circuit Debug via two pins

Peripheral Features

33 I/O pins; 5 I/O ports Timer0: 8-bit timer/counter with 8-bit prescaler Timer1: 16-bit timer/counter with prescaler
o

Can be incremented during Sleep via external crystal/clock

Timer2: 8-bit timer/counter with 8-bit period register, prescaler and postscaler Two Capture, Compare, PWM modules
o o o

16-bit Capture input; max resolution 12.5 ns 16-bit Compare; max resolution 200 ns 10-bit PWM

Synchronous Serial Port with two modes:


o o

SPI Master I2C Master and Slave

USART/SCI with 9-bit address detection Parallel Slave Port (PSP)


o

8 bits wide with external RD, WR and CS controls

Brown-out detection circuitry for Brown-Out Reset

Analog Features

10-bit, 8-channel A/D Converter Brown-Out Reset Analog Comparator module


o o o o

analog comparators Programmable on-chip voltage reference module Programmable input multiplexing from device inputs and internal VREF Comparator outputs are externally accessible

ADVANTAGES
The 16F877A is one of the most popular PIC microcontrollers and it's easy to see why - it comes in a 40 pin DIP pinout and it has many internal peripherals. The 40 pins make it easier to use the peripherals as the functions are spread out over the pins. This makes it easier to decide what external devices to attach without worrying too much if there enough pins to do the job.

One of the main advantages is that each pin is only shared between two or three functions so its easier to decide what the pin function (other devices have up to 5 functions for a pin).

DISADVANTAGE
A disadvantage of the device is that it has no internal oscillator so you will need an external crystal of other clock source.

DIODE RECTIFIER-IN4007
The diodes are used to convert AC into DC these are used as half wave rectifier or full wave rectifier. Three points must he kept in mind while using any type of diode. Maximum forward current capacity Maximum reverse voltage capacity Maximum forward voltage capacity

GENERAL DESCRIPTION

In this project the diode rectifier is used in the main circuit. Usually all the power electronics circuits are provided with a diode rectifier. This helps to convert the 12V AC voltage to DC voltage. They are connected at the output of input filters.

FEATURES
Diffused Junction High Current Capability Low Forward Voltage Drop Surge Overload Rating to 30A Peak Low Reverse Leakage Current Plastic Material: UL Flammability Classification Rating 94V-0

MECHANICAL DATA
Case: Molded Plastic Terminals: Plated Leads Solderable per MIL-STD-202, Method 208 Polarity: Cathode Band Weight: DO-41 0.30 grams (approx) A-405 0.20 grams (approx) Mounting Position: Any Marking: Type Number

MOSFET SWITCH-IRFP250N Definition of MOSFET

(Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor). The most popular and widely used type of field effect transistor (see FET). MOSFETs are either NMOS (n-channel) or PMOS (p-channel) transistors, which are fabricated as individually packaged discrete components for high power applications as well as by the hundreds of millions inside a single chip (IC).

GENERAL DESCRIPTION
In our project the MOSFET switch is connected to the main circuit.Here we have two switches namely Main switch Sm Auxiliary switch Sa

The pulse to these switches is given using micro controller PIC16F877A through a driver circuit. In PIC16F877A the pulse of 5V is generated which is sent to driver circuit, these signal is amplified to about 12V DC, that is sent to the MOSFET switch Sm and Sa respectively.

USING MOSFET AS A SWITCH

A field effect transistor operates in a very similar way to the transistor that we have just experimented with except that the main current flow is controlled by an electrostatic field. An FET has the great advantage that no current flows into the control input (called the gate), the main current is turned on and off by the level of voltage on the gate.

FETs are available in many different types and with various drive level requirements. We are

going to keep it simple and not get into these complications. The MOSFET that we will be using is a logic level MOSFET - they are designed to be driven directly from the output lines of microcontrollers that is all we need to know!For these experiments we will be using the BS270 N channel MOSFET. As it is designed for logic level inputs we know that when the gate is connected to ground it is turned off and when the gate is connected to 5 volts it is turned on. We do not need to use a resistor between the push button switch and the gate because the current is very very low whatever the input voltage (if kept within 0 to 5 volts).

The MO and the FE


The "metal oxide" in MOS comes from the first devices that used a metal gate over oxide (silicon dioxide). Subsequently, poly-crystalline silicon was used for the gate, but MOS was never renamed. The "field-effect" in FET is the electromagnetic field that is generated when the gate electrode is energized, causing the transistor to turn on or off.

NMOS and PMOS


In NMOS transistors, the silicon channel between the source and drain is of p-type silicon. When a positive voltage is placed on the gate electrode, it repulses the holes in the p-type material forming a conducting (pseudo n-type) channel and turning the transistor on. A negative voltage turns the transistor off. With a PMOS transistor, the opposite occurs. A positive voltage on the gate turns the transistor off, and a negative voltage turns it on. NMOS transistors switch faster than PMOS.

CMOS
When an NMOS and PMOS transistor are wired together in a complementary fashion, they become a CMOS (complementary MOS) gate, which causes no power to be used until the transistors switch. CMOS is the most widely used microelectronic design process and is found in almost every electronic product. See n-type silicon, bipolar transistor, chip and FET.

INDUCTORS:
An inductor or reactor is a passive electrical component that can store energy in a magnetic field created by the electric current passing through it. An inductor's ability to store magnetic energy is measured by its inductance, in units of henries. Typically an inductor is a conducting wire shaped as a coil, the loops help create a strong magnetic field inside the coil due to Faraday's law of induction. Inductors are one of the basic electronic components used in electronics where current and voltage change with time, due to the ability of inductors to delay and reshape alternating currents.An "ideal inductor" has inductance, but no resistance or capacitance, and does not dissipate energy. A real inductor is equivalent to a combination of inductance, some resistance due to the resistivity of the wire, and some capacitance. At some frequency, usually much higher than the working frequency, a real inductor behaves as a resonant circuit (due to its self capacitance). In addition to dissipating energy in the resistance of the wire, magnetic core inductors may dissipate energy in the core due to hysteresis, and at high currents may show other departures from ideal behavior due to nonlinearity.

CONCLUSIONS:

Solar (PV) power system has a great potential in future as one of renewable energy technologies for off-grid power generation. The hybrid technology, integrating PV with DG, offers solution to off-grid power generation. The easy installation and maintenance free operational feature of the hybrid system created more popularity among the rural masses.

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