Part 1 Mechtechnotespolymerbydvshirbhate

Mech Tech – Unit 1 1
UNIT NO. 1
Q.1. What are the sources for obtaining magnesium? OR
Q.1. What are the non ferrous metals ? State their
advantage in Engg. works. OR
Q.1. Describe the extraction method, properties and uses
of the following Non-ferrous Metals.
1) Copper 2) Lead 3) Magnesium
Ans:- Extraction, properties and uses(advantages)of non-
ferrous metals-
Aluminium:-Aluminium ore is found as a hydrated aluminium
oxide, called bauxite. The impurities present in it are

oxides of iron, silicon and titanium. The first process,
therefore, is to separate aluminium oxide from these
impurities For this purpose, bauxite is fused in an
electric furnace and carbon is added to reduce the
impurities, which form a sludge and can be removed, As a
result of this refining, pure aluminium oxide is

separated from the impurities. Then an electrolytic bath
is used to reduce the aluminium from its oxide. As the
electrolytic processes proceeds the oxygen escapes
through the bath and molten aluminium collects at the
bottom (cathode), from where it is periodically tapped
off.
Properties and uses
1.High electrical conductivity. Used for heavy conductors
and busbar work.
2. High heat conductivity: Used in various domestic
utensils and other heat conducting appliances.

3.Good resistance to corrosion:- Used in manufacture of
containers for chemical industry and window frames etc.
4. It can be readily worked extruded, rolled, drawn and
forged.
5. It has high ductility and is extremely light in
weight. Widely used in aircraft industry.
6. Its corrosion resistance can be considerably increased
by anodising.
7. It becomes hard by cold working and, therefore,needs
frequent annealing.
8. Its low tensile strength can be sufficiently improved

by adding 3 to 4 percent copper.
Copper:- The copper ore is first roasted to driven off
water, CO2 sulphur. It is followed by melting in a

reverberatory furnace of the type used for wrought iron.
Silica is added to the charge to form slag with
impurities like iron and alumina etc. The molten metal
is tapped and transferred to a converter where air is
blown through it to burn the impurities. This result in
the production of a crude form of copper, known as
blister copper,containing 68% purity. Final refining is
done by an electrolytic process, pure copper depositing
on the cathode. This gives a highly pure(99.96%) copper
which is remelted and cast into suitable shapes.
properties and uses
1.High electrical conductivity:- Used-as electrical
conductor in various shapes and forms viz., wire, sheet
and contacts etc.

2. High heat conductivity. Used in beat exchangers and
heating vassels and appliances.
3. Good corrosion resistance. Used for providing base
coating on steel prior to nickel and chromium plating.
4. High ductility:- Can be easily cold worked, rolled,
drawn and spun. Loses ductility in cold working,
requiring annealing.
5. Light in weight. Used in various appliances where
light weight with good corrosion resistance is desired.
Magnesium. Principal sources for obtaining magnesium are
natural salt brines, sea water, water liquors obtained
from potash industry and ores.The principal ores are
magnesite, dolomite and dolomite and carnallite, Various
processes have been developed for its extraction, but the

most popular and widely used one is the electrolytic
process.
Properties and uses
1. It is the lightest of all metals, weighing about
two-third of aluminium.
2. It may be sand, gravity and pressure die-cast.
3. Its castings are pressure tight and obtain good
surface finish. A few examples of magnesium castings
include motor car gear box and differential housing and
portable tools.
4. It may lie easily formed, spun, drawn, forged and
machined with high accuracy.
5. Additions of 10% aluminium and small amounts of zinc
and manganese improve its strength and casting
characteristics.
6. Addition of 2% Mn helps in its easy forming into
plates and sheets and extrusion work.
7. -In finely divided form it is4ikely to burn, and
adequate fire protection measures should be strictly
observed.
Zinc:- The zinc ore is first concentrated through a
suitable process. This concentrate is fed into a retort
with a suitable amount of carbonaceous material (say
coal). Several such retorts are housed in one furnace
and their temperature raised to llOOO C. Zinc emerges as
vapour and is passed through a condenser, where it is

collected w a liquid. The impurities arc given out as
gases and burn at the month of the condenser. By rapid
cooling the zinc vapour may be quickly converted into
powdered zinc.
Properties and Uses
1. High corrosion resistance. Widely used as protective
coating on iron and steel. It may be coated either by
dip galvanising, electroplating or sheradising. The
coating can also be provided through painting or hot
spraying.
2. Low melting point and high fluidity. Make it the
most suitable metal for pressure die-casting, generally

in the alloy form.
Lead:- Lead ores are generally found as oxides or
sulphides. Other impurities present in the ores are iron,
copper and zinc ete. The prepared ore concentrate,
together with the flux (lime and silica) is fed to a
small blast furnace where the temperature is raised to

about 1010°C. The lead is incited and a liquid slag
formed of the impurities. Both slag and molten lead are
tapped at intervals. Further refining is carried out in a

reverberatory furnace where and oxidising atmosphere is
maintained to burn out the impurities.
Properties and uses
1. Good corrosion resistance. Used for water pipes
and roof (protection.
2. Good resistance to chemical action. Used for acid
baths and containers in chemical industry.
3. It is soft, heavy and malleable, can be easily
worked and shaped.
4. It is used as an alloying element in making soft
solders and plumber’s solders.
5. It is also alloyed with brass and steel to impart
them free cutting properties.
Q.2. Draw neat diagram of blast furnace indicating temp
in different parts. OR
Q.3. Explain different zones of blast furnace. How the
heat of hot gases is utilized ?
Ans. According to these temperature ranges the blast
furnace can be divided into the following zones :
1. Preheating zone—
2. Reduction zone—
3. Fusion zone—
Preheating zone. It consists of only the top layers of
the charge. The temperature in this zone ranges

between 200°C to 350°C, which provides only a preheating
effect on the charge and helps in evaporating the
moisture content from it.

Reduction zone. In this zone the temperature ranges
between 350°C to 1200°C. For convenience of explanation

of the chemical reactions this zone is further subdivided
into upper reduction zone and lower reduction zone. The
chemical reactions taking place in these zones are as
follows :
Upper reduction zone. (350O C—700°C) In this zone the
iron oxide is reduced to metallic iron by reacting with

the ascending carbon monoxide. For this reason this zone
is also called iron oxide reduction zone. The reaction is
as follows :
Fe2O3 +3 CO ' 2Fe+3CO2
In this zone limestone (flux) also starts dissociating as
follows :
CaCOÆCaO+ CO2
Lower redaction zone. (700OC—1200OC). In this zone the
charge becomes hotter as it descends. The decomposition

of CaCO3 started earlier, is completed at about 850°C. The
CO2 formed due to this decomposition reacts with the
carbon of coke to reduce to CO.
CO2+CÆ2CO
Reduction of iron oxide, if remaining after the previous
zone, is completed here.
Fe2O3 +3CÆ2Fe+3 CO
The calcium oxide formed by the decomposition of lime-
stone combines all the impurities like silica and
aluminium with it to form the slag. The higher
temperature of about 1200O C also causes the reduction of
other oxides in the ore, like P2O5, MnO2 and Si02 etc.,
into respective free elements P, Mn and Si. They are
absorbed by the metal formed (Fe) as above. As a result
of all these, the melting point of iron is lowered and it

starts melting at about 1200°C instead of 1530°C. the
melting point of pure iron.
Fusion zone. (1200°C—1600°C).Evidently this part carries
highest temperatures and in this region the melting of
charge is finally completed. The iron gets superheated
here and trickles down to the bottom of the furnace. On

its top floats the slag. The slag and molten metal are
tapped separately from the furnace. The molten metal is
poured into the moulds, where it solidifies to form. What
is known as Pig iron. This, iron contains 2 to 5% C, upto
3% Si, upto 01% P, upto 03%S and upto 1% Mn, the
remainder being iron.
Hot gases - The hot gases passing out of the blast
furnace carry a temperature Between 800°C to 1200°C. If
they are allowed to escape as such into the atmosphere, a

lot of beat will be wasted. This heat is, therefore,
utilised in many ways. However, before using these gases
they are passed through dust catchers and gas washers to
remove any dust or coke particles present in them. After
that a part of their beat is utilised in driving the gas
blowing engines supplying the air blast. Some of the beat
is utilised in blast stoves for preheating the air blast
before sending it to the furnace. Waste gases may also
be utilised in gas turbines to electric power.
Q.4. Draw neat cross sectional diagram indicating its
various zones and describe the following :
1.Its construction 2. Preparation before operation

3. Method of charging. 4. Difference zones and their
function. OR
Explain with neat diagram the principal and working of
cupola furnace.
Ans. In foundry, molten metal is required for casting.
The metal is melted in melting furnaces. Only cupola
furnace used in foundries for melting and refining pig
iron along with serap. The cupola furnace consist of a
vertical cyclinderical steel sheet, 6 to 12 mm thick, and
lined inside with refractory bricks. The lining is
generally thicker in the lower region where the
temperatures encountered are higher than in the upper
region. The shell is mounted either on a brick work
foundation or on steel columns.
In the bottom region wind box is provided through
which air is circulated ground the shell and then into
the furnace through number of openings called Tuyeres.

In each row number of tuyors varies from 4 to 8.
In the bottom of the shell, two semi-circular doors
are fitted with bottom plate. When cupola is to be used,

these doors are closed and every time after use of
cupola, these doors are opened to remove (fall out) the
slag and burnt coke. The bottom of cupola is built with

green sand and it is sloped towards tap hole after
ramming. Little above this hole another hole is provided
for slag to go out is called slag hole. Slag hole is
kept closed when not in use.
CUPOLA OPERATION :
1.Clean the slag etc from previous run cupola. So before
it is charged again the lining is repaired. Close the

bottom doors. The sand bottom is then prepared with
green mould sand, ram it thoroughly and slope it towards
the tap hole.
2.The cupola is then fired by wood at the bottom usually
it is fixed least 2-3 hours before the molten metal is
required. On this fire, a layer of coke is put.
Depending on the size of cupola this layer thickness may
vary from 50 cm – 125 cm.
3.Wait, till the coke bed is thoroughly lighted. Once

the cake starts firing properly, layers of pig-iron, cake
and flux limestone are charged through the charging door.
The thickness of each layer may vary 150 – 200 cm. These
layers are to be put alternately.
4.Once, the cupola is fully charged, maintaining it as
such for about 45-60 minutes without air blast. This
gives proper soaking to iron .
5.When soaking time is completed, the air blast blower is
started. At this time, the tapping hole, and other
outlets are plugged.(Closed), when the metal gets molten
and accumulated in sufficient quantity, then the slag
door is opened to letout the slag.
6.When sufficient quantity of molten metal has been
collected in the cupola over the sand bed and the slag is
letout through the slag hole. Now the plug of tapping
hole is removed. The molten metal starts flowing and
collected into ladles and through ladles the molten metal
is poured into the moulds. The same procedure is adopted

to collect the molten metals repeatedly till the
requirement is met.
8. When the required amount of molten metal is taken out
and no additional metal is needed, then shut the air
blast and blouer. After sometimes, the bottom plates are

opened and the corn plate fillings have been dropped out
in the floor. They are quenched and collected from the
under neath of cupola.
Q.5. State the metals used in nuclear Energy.
Ans. Leads having density as high as 11.3 is used in X -
ray protection against deadly rays from nuclear fission

and radio active isotopes.
Q.6. What are the constituents of gray C.I.? How do they
vary in
1. Gray C.I.
2. White C.I.
3. Nodular C.I.
Ans:-Gray cast iron contains 2.5-3.8% C,1.1-2.8% Si, 0.4-
1.0% Mn, 0.15% P and 0.10% S
White Cast iron contains1.8-3.6% C, 0.5-2.0%Si, 0.2-0.8%
Mn,0.18%P and 0.10% S.
Nodular Cast iron contains 3.2-4.2% C, 1.1-3.5% Si, 0.3-
0.8% Mn, 0.08 % P and 0.2% S.

Q.7. What is brass? Explain properties composition and
uses ?
Ans. Brasses:- All brasses are basically alloys of copper

and zinc. There are two main varieties of brasses :
1. Alpha brass (upto 37% Zn)—for cold working.
2. Alpha Beta brass (33% to 46% Zn)—for hot working.

Alpha brasses are very ductile and can be readily cold
worker without any chances of fracture. They can be cold

rolled into sheets drawn into wires, deep drawn and drawn
into tubes. In these brasses’ as the proportion of zinc
increases their strength increases but ductility
decreases.
They are work hardened when subjected to intensive
cold working, but ductility can be regained by annealing

them at 600”C. Slow cooling provides maximum ductility,
but for common uses they maybe water quenched. Deep
drawing of this brass requires periodical annealing
during the process. An alpha-beta brass loses strength at
high temperatures but becomes very plastic. It,
therefore, responds very well to hot rolling, hot

extrusion, hot stamping and casting etc. When cold
worked, fractures are always likely to develop.
Common types of brasses in engineering use are the

following :
Cartridge brass. It has 70% Cu and 30% Zn. It is very
strong and ductile. It is used for a wide range of drawn
components like cartridge cases, head lamp reflectors,
radiator shells and drawn tubes.
Muntz metal. It contains 60% Cu and 40% Zn and can be

cast, rolled, extruded and stamped. It is sort of
general purpose alloy having good resistance to
corrosion. It is used for casting pump parts, valves,

taps and other similar items.
Naval brass. It contains 60% Cu, 39% Zn and 1% tin. It
is more or less similar in composition to Muntz metal
except that 1% Zn is replaced by 1% tin. As a result of

this change the resistance to sea water corrosion is
vastly improved. This alloy is, therefore, widely used

for cast and forged fittings for ships.
Admiratly brass. It contains 70% Cu, 29% Zn and 1% tin.
It is similar to cartridge brass in composition except
that 1% Zn is replaced by 1% tin. It can be cold worked
and has good resistance to sea water corrosion. It is
cold drawn into tubes and rolled into sheets and brass.
It is widely used in ship fittings, bolts, nuts, washers
and other items subjected to sea-water corrosion. It is
also used in condenser plant.
Gilding brass. It contains upto 15% Zn and the rest Cu.
It is a very good cold working alloy and is used for
jewellery, decorative and ornamental work. It is

commercially available as cold rolled strip, wire or
sheets. Its colour, according to the percentage of Zn,
varies from red to bright yellow. It is also called

Gilding metal.
Delta brass. Also known as Delta metal, it consists of
60% Cu, 37% Zn and 3% iron. It can be easily hot worked,
forged, rolled, extruded and cast. It has a fairly good
tensile strength after hot working and casting. It also
has a good corrosion resistance. It can susitably
replace steel castings.
Free cutting brass. It contains 60% Cu, 37% Zn and 3%
Pb. It is specially used in machining work, such as

producing components from bar stock on turret and
automatic lathes. It is also used for making cast,
forged or stamped blanks to be used for further

machining. With this metal very high speeds and feeds
can be employed in machining.
Q.8. Discuss the effect of following alloying elements on
C.I.
Ans. 1. Carbon 2. Silicon 3. Magnese.
Effects of different alloying elements on cast iron
Carbon. It generally varies from 2 to 4 percent in cast
iron, and its presence is due to the carbon present in

pig iron scrap and coke. AH these materials contribute in
adding this content to iron, and more the amount of
carbon present in these materials the higher will be the
percentage of this constituent in the composition of cast
iron. It may be present either in free state or combined
form. The form in which this element is present, greatly

effects the proper-ties of cast iron. Its presence in
free state renders the iron weak and increases
machinability and brittleness. Presence of carbon in

combined form makes the iron hard and strong.
Silicon. It acts as a softener as it promotes the
formation of free graphite by combining with iron and

forming silicates. If this content is, however, allowed
to increase beyond a definite limit (approximately 3.2%),
it acts as a hardner. Its proportion should be kept lower

for big castings and higher for small ones. It normally
ranges between 2.5 to 3.0 percent.
Sulphur. It renders the iron hard by promoting the
formation of combined carbon. With the result the iron
loses its due fluidity and it leads to the production .of
blow holes in the casting. To minimise its effect
manganese should be added.

Manganese. It is added to cast iron mainly with a view to
mitigate the ill effects of sulphur by the formation of

manganese sulphides. The normal range of manganese in
cast irons is betwee6 05 to 0’8 percent. Its presence
below 0’5 percent has no significant influence.
Phosphorus. It improves the fluidity and castability
of molten metal into thin sections, and promotes graphite
formation. Its higher percentage increases hardness and
brittleness and decreases toughness.
Nickel. It acts as a graphitizer in cast iron. With
its addition, therefore, machinability of cast iron is

improved. For common engineering applications it varies
in cast iron between 0.25 to 2.0 percent. Higher
proportions are, however, used in alloy cast irons.
Chromium. It forms its own stable carbides in cast
iron and, thus, acts as a carbide stabiliser. Its
proportion normally varies from 0.15 to 0.9 percent. Its

addition increases wear resistance, tensile strength and
hardness and aids chilling. Higher proportions of
chromium are used in alloy cast irons.
Molybdenum. Its proportion normally varies between 0.25
to 1.5 percent. It may be added cither as free
molybdenum or combined with other elements. It improves
tensile strength, increases hardness and resistance to
shock, improves toughness and machin-ability.
Vanadium. It forms carbides and reduces graphitization.
It is normally used in proportions varying between 0.1 to
0.5 percent. It increases strength, hardness and
machinability of cast iron.

Copper:- It promotes graphite formation and improves
strength. Its proportion normally varies between 0.25.

to 2.5 percent.
Q.9. What is difference between brass and bronze ? OR
State the composition, and two common uses of a bronze
commonly used in engineering. OR
What is the general effect of adding a small proportion
of (i) phosphorus, (u) lead, to a bronze?

Ans. (a) A brass is an alloy of copper and zinc, the
major constituent being copper.
A bronze is an alloy of copper and tin, the major
constituent being copper.
(b) A bronze commonly used in engineering and commonly
known as ‘eighty-fives’, three fives’ consists of 85% of
copper, with 5% each of tin, zinc and lead. Because of
its improved machining qualities, it has replaced the
traditionally used admiralty gun metal.
It is used for low pressure pipe fittings and small pump
castings where reasonable corrosion resistance is
desired.
c)If phosphorus is added in very small quantities, often
roily a trace, improves fluidity of casting. If the
phosphorus ranges from about 0.05 to 0.25% as in a
phosphor-bronze, it forms cuboids which resist wear and
can carry heavy loads. It thus becomes an excellent
bearing material.
(ii) Lead is distributed throughout a bronze as globules.
It allows chip cracks to propagate easily and hence the
addition of lead improves machining quantities.

Q.10. State composition and uses of following :
Muntz metal - It contains 60% Cu and 40% Zn and can be
cast, rolled, extruded and stamped. It is sort of
general purpose alloy having good resistance to
corrosion. It is used for casting pump parts, valves,
taps and other similar items.
Admiralty brass- Admiralty brass contains Cu 71 %, Zn
28%, and Sn 1 %.
- The small amount of tin added to brass improves its
resistance to certain types of corrosion.
- Admiralty brass, though, it has been to a greater
extent superseded by better materials for the exacting
conditions of marine condensers, it is still widely used
for the tubes and other parts of condensers cooled by

fresh water and for many other purposes. For such
applications, the modern alloy contains about 0.04%
Arsenic, which improves resistance to a penetrative form

of corrosion known as dezincification.
Gun metal - It is a phosphor bronze having 2 to 5% Zn.
Small amount of lead is also added to improve castability

and machinability. It is used for bearing bushes,
glands, pumps and valves etc.
Aluminium branze -
Aluminium bronzes have the following compositions:
Cu Al Fe Sn Mn (%)
89 7 3.5 0.35 -
91 6.8 1.5.3.5 - 1 (max)
Aluminium bronzes possess the following properties:
Good strength High corrosion resistance
Good heat resistance Good cold working properties,etc.
Aluminium bronze finds the following uses :

Bearings Valve seats
Gears Propellers
Slide valves Cams
Imitation jewellery Pumps parts etc.
Q.10. Explain with neat sketch a direct Arc furnace.
It consists of a steel shell having a spherical bottom,
as shown in Fig. The complete furnace is mounted on

rollers, so that it can be titled for pouring the melt
into the ladle. The hearth inside has a bowl shape and is
provided with a basic lining with magnesite or dolomite.
Two spouts are provided on opposite sides, one for the
slag and the other for the molten metal. The roof is of
detachable type and the charge fed through it. Three

vertical electrodes are suspended through the top through
which a 3-phase current is led into the furnace. These
electrodes can be raised up flowered desired.
After charging the furnace the top is c]0iedaad the
electrodes lowered. The current is switched on to

generate the arc, thereby producing a high temperature of
about 2000°C or above. This intense heat melts the

charge. As the level of the molten metal rises, the
electrodes are also raised automatically. The charge
usually consists of light and heavy steel scrap together
with suitable amount of flux. Alloy additions are
usually made later on for controlling the final
composition.
Q.11. Difference between Gray C.I. and White C.I.
The points of difference between white cast iron and grey
cast iron are given below
(a)White cast iron contains all the carbon in the
combined form while in grey cast iron, most of the carbon
is in the free form.
(b)White cast iron contains pearlite and cementite while
grey cast iron may show a ferrite and graphite, or
pearlite and graphite or a mixture of the two.
(c)White cast iron is very hard and brittle while the
grey cast iron is softer and brittle. White cast iron can
not be machined while grey cast iron can easily be
machined.
(d)If a rod of white cast iron is fractured, the
fractured surface is bright metallic. Hence it is given
the name “white cast iron”. On the other hand the
fractured surface of grey cast iron is “Gray” which
explains the name given to it.
(e) White cast iron has very poor damping capacity while
grey cast iron has an excellent damping capacity.

Q.12. What are alloy steels? Discuss the reasons for
alloying steel with different element.
All steels, in addition to iron and carbon, contain
other elements like silicon, manganese, sulphur and
phosphorus in varying ,amounts. In carbon steels
manganese normally varies upto 1 percent and silicon upto
0.3 percent. Against this, there is another variety of
steel in which manganese is more than 1 percent and

silicon more than 0.3 percent. A1so,in addition to iron
and carbon, they carry sulphur, phosphorus, nickel,
chromium, molybdenum and vanadium etc. in varying
proportions. Such steels are called ‘Alloy steels’ and
they owe their different properties mainly to these
alloying elements· They are normally named after the

principal alloying element These elements are alloyed
with steel for one or more of the following reasons:
1. To improve tensile strength without adversely

affecting the ductility.
2. To improve hardenability.
3. To improve toughness.
4. To improve corrosion resistance.
5. To improve wear resistance.
6. To impart capability to retain physical properties
at high temperatures.
7. To improve cutting ability and ability to retain
shape and resist distortion at elevated temperatures
8. To promote fine grain size.
9. To improve case hardening properties.
Q.13. What are phosphor bronzes ? Discuss their uses.
Phosphor bronze. Various compositions of this alloy are
available for different uses. That having about 0.5% P

is widely used for different types of springs in
electrical instruments. Its drawn tubes are used in fuel

systems and instruments. Cast phosphor bronze is used
for bearings and gears. Bearing bronze contains 10% tin
and small addition of lead. Gear bronze contains 13%
tin for greater strength. Phosphor bronze can be sand
cast, centrifugally cast, or cast through lost wax
process. It carries good load bearing capacity, enough
plasticity and good wear resistance, which make it an
ideal bearing metal.
Q.14. Discuss the effect of following elements on the

properties of steel.
i) Nickel
ii) Chromium
iii) Molybdenum
iv) Cobalt
v) Tungsten
vi) Vanadium
The various alloying elements affect the properties of
steels as follows:
Nickel:- It improves toughness, tensile strength,
ductility and corrosion resistance.
Chrominm:- It is added in varying proportions upto 18%.
Below 1.5% addition increases tensile strength and 12%
addition imparts high corrosion resistance. In general,
chromium addition improves bardenability and toughness

simultaneously.
Cobalt:- It improves hardness, toughness, tensile
strength, thermal resistance and magnetic properties. It
also acts as a grain refiner.

Manganese:- In lower proportions, say from 1.0 to 1.5
percent, its addition increases strength and toughness.

Higher proportions up-to 5 percent impart hardness
accompanied by brittleness. Still higher proportions, say
between 11 to 14 percent, provide very high degree of
hardness.
Silicon:- It acts as a ferrite strengthener and
improves elastic limit. It improves magnetic

permeability and decreases hysterisis losses. Higher
percentage of silicon gives rise to corrosion resisting
alloys.
Molybdenum:- Its addition increases wear resistance,
thermal resistance, hardness, ability to retain
mechanical properties at elevated temperatures and helps

to inhibit temper brittleness. When added with nickel, it
also improves corrosion resistance.
Tungsten:- It increases hardness, toughness, wear
resistance, shock resistance, magnetic reluctance and
ability to retain mechanical properties at elevated
temperatures.
Vanadinm:- It improves tensile strength, elastic limit,
ductility, shock resistance and also acts as a degaser
when added to molten steel.
Q.15. Explain important characteristics of bearing metal.
Ans:- Bearing metals :- Bearing metal should possess the
following important characteristics:
1. It should have enough compressive strength to
possess adequate load canying capacity.

2. It should have good plasticity to allow for small
variations fa alignment and fitting.
3. It should have good wear resistance to maintain a
specified
4. It should have low co-efficient of friction to avoid

excessive
heating. x
Q.16. Explain the physical properties of metals.
Ans:-Physical Properties of Metals
1. Plasticity. It is fhe property of a metal on account
of which it can be converted into a desired shape so

as to make it suitable for use in engineering work.
This conversion into different shapes is effected’
either by the application of beat or pressure or
both. This property renders the metal to flow under
the action of this pressure or beat so that it can be
suitably shaped.
2. Elasticity. It is the property due to which a
metal is capable of resisting permanent deformation
into a new shape and size, from its original shaps

and size, under the action of external forces.
3. Stiffness. It is the property due to which a
metal is capable of resisting deflection due to an

externally applied force. This is very important for
those parts which are required to remain perfectly
aligned under applied loads.
4. Ductility. It is the property due to which a metal
can be drawn into the form of a wire, without
rupture, at the same time retaining enough strength.

Most of the metals are more ductile in cold state
than when they are not.

5. Malleability. It is the property of a metal on
account of which it can be extended in all directions
by hammering or rolling. Production of the metal
sheets has been possible only due to the presence of
this characteristic in the metals.
6. Toughness. It is the property due to which a metal
is able to withstand bending or torsion without
fracture.
7. Fusibility. It is the property due to which a metal

becomes fluid when it is heated. Castability of a
metal entirely depends upon this characteristic.
8. Refractoriness. It is the property on account of

which a metal is able to withstand high temperatures
without fusing.
9. Hardness. It is the property which renders a metal

capable of resisting surface penetration by other
materials.
10. Impact resistance. It is the property due to which a

metal is able to withstand heavy shocks such as in
power hammering.
11. Machinability. It is the property due to which a
metal can be easily cut by cutting tools to produce a
desired shape and surface finish on its surface.
12. Strength. It is the measure of ability of a material

to withstand external forces.
Q.17. Write short notes on

i) Preparation of Cupola
ii) Charging of Cupola

iii) Cupola Zones
Ans:- Preparation of Copula
To start with, the waste material and slag etc.,
dumped under the furnace after the previous meltings,
are removed and the surrounding cleaned. Inside the
furnace the projecting pieces of iron and slag etc, are

chipped off the wall. This is followed by ,the
application of refractory material over the burnt
portions of the firebrick lining. If any brick is noticed
to have been burnt to the extent of being unusable, it is
replaced by a new brick. Thus the firebrick lining is
reconditioned and brought to its original shape, and the

required internal diameter of the cupola is obtained.
After the repair of the lining is over the bottom door is
brought and secured in position, followed by the ramming
of a property riddled and tempered floor sand to form a
tapared sand bed. The moisture content of the sand
mixture is kept about 5 per cent. The sand bed is made

sloping towards the spout to ensure better flow of the
molten metal. The average thickness of this bed is kept
about 10 centimeters.
Charging the Cupola
The kindling material, generally soft and dry of
wood, is first placed over the sand bed followed by a
small amount of coke charge, known as bed charge. The
choke for this charge is put gradually in the furnace
through the charging door. The kindling material is

ignited through the tap bole. This fire spreads slowly
into the coke around the kindling material. Additional
coke is filed until the bed charge acquires the required

height. Cover plates opposite the tureyes are opened to
allow the free entry of air to aid combustion and they
are left open till the entire bed charge is fully
ignited. A carefully weighted proportionate amount of
metal, pig iron, scrap and flux is then fired over the
bed charge followed by a weighed quantity of coke. They
are repeated in alternate layers, of course a
predetermined quantity of each, until the cupola ii full
to the charging door. If the cupola, on account of its

fixed capacity, is unable to takeup the entire material
to be melted ,at a time, the remainder is fed into it
after the initial charge has been melted. Although,

as described in the foregoing articles, the amount of
coke consumed per unit of charge varies according to the
quality of coke, control of air supply and similar other

factors, the usual practice is to keep the ratio of the
metal charge to the coke in between 8 to 1 and 10 to 1.
The natural draft through the cover plates, opposite

tuyeres, is continued for about 1 to 2 hours so that the
brickwork in the furnace is uniformly preheated before
the blower is started. Also during this period the metal
and coke charges, lying in alternate layers, are
sufficiently heated up. The cover plates are then
replaced in position and the blower started. Within 10

minutes after the start of the forced draught the molten
metal starts trickling down and collects, in the well.
The height of coke charge in the cupola in each layer

varies generally from 10 cms to 25cms. The amount of
flux to be added to the metal charge depends upon the

quality of the charged metal and scarp and the
composition of the coke. It is the amount of ash content

present in the coke, which effects the quantity of the
flux to be charged, and no other constituent of the coke.
Usual practice is to charge about 40 kg to 50 kg of
limestone, as flux, per metric ton of the metal charged.
The amount of this flux to be charged should be properly
determined. Otherwise it gives the adverse effect If it
is fed in excess, it affects the acid lining of cupola,
and if fed in lesser amount than required, if will result
in the loss of molten metal which will be driven outmixed

with the slag. The first charge received of the molten
metal is either allowed to drain out or used for rough
castings where machining is not required as it bas not

acquired the desired temperature.
Cupola Zones
A number of chemical reaction take place in these
zones which are explained below:
1. Well:- It is the space between the bottom of the
tuyeres and the sand bed. The metal, after melting,

trickles down and collects in this space before it is
tapped out.
2. Combustion zone. It is also known as oxidising zone.
It is located between the top of the tuycres and a
theoretical level above it The total height of this zone
is normally from 15 cm. to 30 cm. The actual combustion
takes place in this zone, consuming all free oxygen from
the air blast and producing a lot of beat, which is
sufficient enough to meet the requirements of other zones
of cupola. More heat is evolved due to oxidation of
silicon and manganese. A temperature of about l540°C to

1870O C is produced in this zone. The exothermic reactions
taking place in this zone can be represented thus;

C + O2 Æ CO2 + Heat
Si+ O2 Æ Si O2+ Heat
2Mn +O2 Æ2MnO + Heat

3. Reducing zone. It is also known as the protective
zone. It is located between the top of the combustion
zone and the top level of the coke bed. CO2is reduced to
CO in this zone through an endothermic reaction, as a
result of which the temperature falls from combustion
zone temperature to about l200°C at the top of this zone.
The reaction is as follows:
CO2 + C(of coke)Æ 2CO -Heat
Nitrogen, the other main constituent of the upward

moving hot gases does not participate in the reaction.
This zone, on account of the reducing atmosphere in it,
protects the charge against oxidation.
4. Melting zone. The first layer of metal charge
above the coke bed constitutes this zone. The solid
metal charge changes to molten state in this zone and

trickles down through the coke to the well. The molten
metal picks up sufficient carbon content in this zone as
represented by the following reaction :
3Fe+2CO Æ Fe3C + CO2
5.Preheating zone. It extends from above the melting zone
to the bottom level of the charging door and contains a

number of alternate layers of coke and metal charges.
The function of this zone is to preheat the charges from
atmospheric temperature to about 10930C before they settle

downwards to enter the melting zone. This preheating
takes place due to the upward advancing hot gases, from
which the solid metal also picks up some sulphur content.

6. Stack. The empty portion of cupola above the
preheating cone, which provides the passage to hot gases
to go to atmosphere, is known as stack.
i) Cast iron
ii) Bronze
Ans:- Cast iron
It is the product of a cupola or any other
suitable type of furnace used for remelting pig iron

billets made from molten pig iron received from the blast
furnace. As already described earlier, pig iron is not
capable of being cast direct to give suitable castings

for engineering use. For making it useful for
engineering purposes it is remelted in a cupola or any
other type of suitable furnace for this purpose, together
with a definite amount of limestone (flux), steel scrap
and spoiled castings, etc. This remelting of pig iron
along with the above additions enables it to be cast into

moulds to give suitable castings. It is then known as
cast iron. The cast iron produced as above consists of
iron, carbon, silicon, sulphur, phosphorus and manganese
in varying proportions. Out of all these constituents
carbon plays a very significant role and its proportion
in the metal varies from 2 to 4.5 percent. Average cast
irons, in general use, possess carbon from 3 to 4
percent. Other constituents present in cast iron are
silicon 1 to 3 percent, sulphur 0.02 to 0.15 percent,
phosphorus upto 1.0 percent and manganese 0.5 to 1.0
percent. This metal is very brittle and has a low

resistance to tension but is good in compression. It is
sufficiently lard and cannot be worked with a band file.

It has no plasticity and hence is unsuitable for forging
work. Cast iron is also available in different forms such
as grey iron and white iron which are described in the
following articles.
Bronzes
Bronze is basically an alloy of copper and tin. In
general, it possesses superior mechanical properties and
corrosion resistance than brass. Those containing upto
8% tin are called working bronzes. They can be easily

cold worked, rolled, formed and drawn. They are available
in various forms, as strip, wire and sheet etc.
With the increase in tin content, its strength and

corrosion resistance increases. It is then known as hot
working bronze. Small addition of phosphorus further
improves its strength, ductility and bearing properties.
The amount of phosphorus added is 0’5%. This is known
as phosphor bronze.
Q.19. What are the different melting furnaces used for

ferrous metals
Ans:- Following are the melting furnaces which are used
for ferrous metals-
1) Cupola furnace
2) Basic furnace
3) Acid furnace
4) Blast furnace
5) Direct Arc furnace
6) High frequency electric furnace.

Q.20. What is malleable cast iron ?
Ans:- Malleable Cast Iron. It can be obtained by
annealing the castings. The cast product is packed in an

oxidising material such as iron ore or in an inert
material such as ground fire-day. The pack is put into an
oven and is heated to a temperature of about 870°C. It is
kept at that temperature for about two days and is then
allowed to cool at the rate of 5 to 10 degrees per hour.
Iron ore acting as an oxidising agent reacts with

carbon and carbon dioxide escapes. The annealed cast
product is free from carbon. If the cast product is
packed in an inert material, slow cooling will separate
out the temper carbon. Malleable cast irons are used for
complicated structures.
Q.21. What are the different types of C.I? Explain

briefly each of its by giving their fields of
application.
Ans. Types of Cast irons are –
1) Gray cast iron
2) Malleable cast iron
3) Nodular cast iron

4) White or motted cast iron
GRAY CAST IRON
Characteristics
Gray Iron basically is an alloy of carbon and silicon
with iron.
It is readily cast into a desired shape in sand mould.
It contains 2.5-3.8% C, 1.1-2.8% Si, 0.4-1.0% Mn, 0.15% P
and 0.10% S.
It is marked by the presence of flakes of graphite in a
matrix of ferrite pearlite or austenite.
Graphite flakes occupy about 10% of the metal volume.
Length of flakes may vary from 0.05 mm to O.1 mm.
Applications
i) Machine tool structures.
ii) Gas or water pipes for underground purposes.
iii) Manhole covers.
iv) Cylinder blocks and heads for I.C. Engines.
v) Tunnel segment.
vi) Frames for electric motors.

vii) Ingot moulds.
viii) Sanitary wares.
ix) Piston rings.

x) Rolling mill and general machinery parts.
xi) Household appliances, etc.
MALLEABLE CAST IRON
Characteristics
Malleable cast- which can be hammered and rolled to
obtain different shapes.
Malleable cast iron is obtained from hard and
brittle white iron through a controlled heat conversion
process.
a) A ferritic malleable cast iron has Ferrite matrix.
b) A pearlitic malleable cast iron has Pearlite matrix.

c) An alloy malleable cast iron contains chromium and
nickel and possesses high strength and corrosion
resistance.
Malleable cast iron possesses high yield strength.
It has high Young’s modulus and low coefficient of
thermal expansion.
It possesses good wear resistance and vibration damping
capacity.
It has low to moderate cost.
Application
(1) Automotive industry.
(2) Railroad.
(3) Agricultural implements.
(4) Electrical line hardware.
(5) Conveyor chain links.
(6) Gear case.
(7) Universal joint yoke.
(8) Real axle banjo housing.
(9) Truck tandem axle assembly parts.
(10) Automotive crankshaft.
NODULAR CAST IRON
Unlike long flakes as in gray cast iron, graphite appears
as rounded particles, or nodules or spheroids in Nodular

Cast Iron.
The spheroidizing elements when added to melt eliminate
sulphur and oxygen (from the melt), which change

solidification characteristics and possibly account for
the nodulization.
Ductile cast iron possesses very good machinability.

Soft annealed grades of Nodular cast iron can be turned
at very high feeds and speeds.
The properties of Nodular Cast Iron depend upon the metal
composition and the cooling rate.
Applications
(1) Paper industries machinery.
(2) Internal combustion engines.
(3) Power transmission equipment.
(4) Farm implements and tractors.
(5) Earth moving machinery.

(6) Valves and fittings.
(7) Steel mill rolls and mill equipment.
(8) Pipes.
(9) Pumps and compressors.
(10) Construction machinery.
WHITE CAST IRON (MOTTLED IRON)
Characteristics
White cast iron derives its name from the fact that its
freshly broken surface shows a bright white fracture.
Unlike gray iron, white cast iron has almost all its
carbon, chemically bonded with the iron - as iron
carbide, Fe3C. Iron carbide is a very hard and brittle
constituent.
Thus, white iron possesses excellent abrasive wear

resistance.
White iron under normal circumstances is brittle and not
machinable.
By using a fairly low silicon content, cast iron may be
made to solidify as white iron.

White iron castings can be made in sand moulds.
White iron can also be made on the surface of a gray iron
casting provided the material is of special composition.
Uses
(1) For producing malleable iron castings.
(2) For manufacturing those component parts which require
a hard and abrasion resistant materials.
Q.22. What are different commercial processes available
for making steel? Explain any one of them with the help
of neat sketch.
Ans:- Steel Production methods are :-
1) Crucible process
2) Open hearth process
3) The Bessemer process
4) The Linz-Donqwitz process
5) The Electric process.
( electric process is already explained in Direct arc
furnace)
Q.23. What is Chilled ( White) cast iron ?
Ans:- It has no graphite and is, therefore, white in
colour. The whole of carbon content in this type of cast
iron is in the form of either free cementite or cemenlite
in lamellar pearlite.
White or chilled cast iron is prepared by two methods :
1)The grey iron is cast in such a way that it is cooled
rapidly.
2) By adjustment of the composition in such a way that
carbon and silicon content are low.

For manufacturing such a kind of cast iron, low
phosphorus pig iron and steel scrap are melted together

in an air furnace which is heated from above, or in a
cupola furnace. However, for getting best results
generally duplexing or triplexing processes, which are
combinations of cupola, air furnace, Bessemer converter
and electric furnace, are adopted.
White cast iron is very hard, brittle and wear resistant

iron. Hardness of 400 Brinell can be obtained by keeping
silicon below one per cent and carbon to about 2% in cast
iron.When chromium is present above 3% in cast iron, it
prevents formation of graphite. White cast iron produced
in such a way has got better high temperature strength,
grain growth resistance and corrosion resistance besides

having ordinary properties of while cast irons.
This being almost unmachinable, is used in parts
requiring high abrasion resistance.
Q.24. Define ferrous and non-ferrous metal ?
Ans:- Ferrous metals are those which contain iron where
as non ferrous metals are those which does not contain

iron.
Q.25. How cast iron differ from steel ?
Ans:- The essential difference between a plain carbon
steel and a cast iron is that steels do not exhibit
eutectic reaction during solidification while cast irons
undergo the eutectic reaction during solidification. It
means that steels do not exhibit primary cementite
(cementite directly formed from the liquid) while cast
irons may show either primary cementite or graphite

depending upon the chemical composition of the melt and
the cooling rate.

With respect to mechanical properties, steels are
tougher than cast iron. Steels are ductile and are
deformable while cast irons are relatively brittle and
undeformable.
Q.26. What are the mechanical properties of metals ?
Ans:- Fatigue :- When subjected to fluctuating or
repeated loads (or stresses), materials tend to develop a
characteristic behaviour which is different from that (of

the materials) under steady loads. Fatigue is the
phenomenon that leads lo fracture under such conditions.
Fracture takes place under repeated or fluctuating

stresses whose maximum value is less than the tensile
strength of the material (under steady loads). Fatigue
fracture is progressive, beginning as minute cracks that

grow under the action of the fluctuating stress.
Creep. In many applications, materials sustain steady
loads for long periods of time, e.g., beams in the roof
of a building. Under such conditions, the materials may
continue to deform until their usefulness is seriously
impaired or they may tend to fracture under the same
load. Creep may be defined as the time dependent part of
the strain resulting from stress.
The creep strain occurring at a diminishing rate is
called primary creep, that occurring at a minimum and
almost constant rate, secondary creep and that occurring
at an accelerating rate is known as tertiary creep.

Stiffness: Stiffness is the ability of a material or
shape to resist elastic deflection. For identical shapes,

the stiffness is proportional to the modulus of
elasticity. A material which deforms less under a given
load is more stiff than one which deforms more.
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Mech tech – Unit 2 39
UNIT NO.2
Q.1. (a) Define the following terms.
1) Drag
2) Sprue
3) Parting line
4) Gate
(b) Discuss the following casting defects.
i) Sand Spots
ii) Run Out
Ans. 1) Drag:- Sand moulds are prepared in specially
constructed boxes called flasks. The purpose of the
flask is to import the necessary rigidity and strength to
the sand in moulding. They are usually made in two
parts, held in alignment by dowel pins. The top part is

called the cope and the lower part.
2) Sprue :- A vertical passage through the cope and
connecting the pouring basin to the runner and gate is

called Sprue. Conventionally a sprue should be tapered
with larger end to receive the molten metal and to act as
reservoir. Round sprue is preferred upto 20 mm dia, but

longer sprues may be rectangular (less turbulence in
rectangular sprue). The circular sprue has minimum
surface exposed to cooling and offers the least
resistance to flow).
3) Parting line :- It is the line along which the
sand surfaces of the drag and cope join each other.
4) Gate :- It is an opening through which the
molten-mental flows from runner to mould cavity. The
size, and location of gates are so arranged that the
mould cavity can be filled as quickly as possible without

cutting the mould surfaces, further crack in metal after
solidification should not develop.

(b)i)Sand Spots:- Sand spots on surfaces are generally
developed on iron castings rich in silicon content due to
local chilling of those spots by moulding sand. Due to
this chilling effect white cast iron is formed at those
places, rendering them hard. The main cause of this
defect is a faulty metal composition and a faulty casting
design which results in relatively more rapid cooling of
certain portions than the remaining casting. Changes in
metal composition, addition of suitable amount of nickel

and modification in casting design are the possible
remedies of this defect.
i) Run Out :- A run out occurs when the molten metal

leaks out of the mould during pouring, resulting in an
incomplete casting. The main causes of this defect are
defective moulding boxes, which do not fit properly, and

faulty moulding. Corrective measures in respect of these
two causes will prevent this defect.
Q.2. What is the purpose of die casting? Describe vacuum

die casting with the help of a neat sketch.
Ans. The method of die casting serve the following
purpose :
1) Increasing production rate.
2) Effecting greater economy.
3) Improving quality of casting.

4) Eliminating or minimising the need of further
machining.
5) Provide better dimensional control.

6) Production of better surface finish.
Vaccum die casting machine :- Complete evacuation of air
from the die prior to metal injection is a vital

necessity for preventing the air entrapment in the
casting.
This difficulty is overcome in the vaccum die

casting machine. Some modifications are made in hot
chamber die casting machine to get vaccum die casting
machine. The additional equipment required in this case

consist of an encasement ground the die blocks,
compressible seals at the top and bottom of this
encasement and a pipe connecting the encasement to the

vaccum pump through a valve and vaccum tank. An
additional plunger, adjecent to the main plunger, for
elasing the part, when vaccum is applied to the die to

prevent the molten metal
From being drawn into the die.
Q.3. What is the utility of various types of furnaces
used in foundry shops? Describe one widely used furnace
with special reference to its parts, working and other
features. Draw a neat sketch of the furnace also.

Ans. The main utility of various furnaces used in
foundries is for melting of various varieties of ferrous

and non-ferrous metals and alloys.
Describe Cupola furnace for 2nd part of question.
Q.4. Write short notes on the following
(Covering main aspects only).
(i) Inspection of castings
(ii) Modernisation and mechanisation of foundries.
Ans: Inspection of castings :-
It serves two purposes (1) The rejection of the
castings which do not meet the specifications and (2)

maintaining the quality of workmanship.
There are many methods used to check the quality of
castings. Most of the methods mentioned below.
(i) Visual inspection.
(ii) Dimensional inspection.
(iii) Mechanical testing and chemical testing.

(iv) Defects in internal flows by non-destructive tests.
(v) Metallurgical testing.
(ii) Modernisation and mechanisation of foundries.

The term ‘mechanization’ means substitution of
machinery to perform the operations which were otherwise
performed by hands. Such a substitution can be made of
sand preparation, moulding and core-making, pouring,
material handling and many other similar operations. Such
foundries, where machines have been employed to replace

hand operations, are called mechanized foundries.
However, the decision to switch over to mechanization in
any foundry is largely governed by economic
considerations. The extent to which it can be adopted in

any foundry depends considerably on the quantity and type
of production. Larger the production, more is the scope

for mechanization. This scope is further enhanced if the
sad production is of identical components on mass scale.
Advantages of mechanization
1. From the same floor area much higher production can be
achieved.
2. A large saving in labour and time is effected by doing
away with a number of laborious hand operations, like
sand preparation, mould making and material handling
etc.
3. It creates more hygienic and healthy working conditions
for the shop workers and effects an increase in their
earnings through higher production.

4. It improves the quality of the castings produced by
facilitating closer dimensional tolerances, minimising
defects and providing better surface finish.

5. Overall production cost is reduced due to faster rate
of production and elimination of a large number of
laborious hand operations.

Q.5. List the difference between Hot chamber and cold
chamber die casting.
Ans. Following points shows the differences between cold
chamber die casting(machine) and Hot chamber die
casting(Machine)
Cold chamber die Hot chamber die
casting(Machine) casting(Machine)
1. Heating chamber is not 1. Heating chamber is
integral part of machine integral part of machine
unit. Metals are melted in a unit.

self contained pot in an
auxiliary furnace.
2. Non-ferrous metals and 2. Metals and alloys having
alloys having high melting low melting point usually
point usually above 5000C below 5000C are cast.
are cast.
3. Require operating 3. Require comparatively low
pressure 300-1600 kgf/cm2 operating pressure below 150
kgf/cm2
4. Usually 75-150 casting/hr 4. Usually 300-350
can be produced. castings/hr. can be

produced.
5. Semi-solid metals and 5. Semi-solid metals and
alloys can be cast. alloys can’t be cast.
6. Usually Nickel-chrome 6. Usually hardened and
steel is used for die. tempered crome-vanadium or

chrome-tungsten steel is
used for die.
Q.6. What is permanent mould? Specify its advantages and
disadvantages?
Ans. When the mould made from metals like C.I. or steel
then, while casting such mould is not destroyed or
rebuilt after every casting. Since can be use for long
period such mould is known as permanent mould.
Advantages of permanent mould
1) Increases the speed of casting process.
2) Have very long life.
3) Results in better surface finish than sand casting.
4) Castings in large quantities can be produced
economically.
5) Casting method requires less skill and at same time
number of rejections are less.
Disadvantages of permanent mould
1) These moulds are much costlier than sand mould.
2) It can be successfully used for casting very high
temperature alloys
3) Gates, runners and risers can not be shifted and
positioned any where at will.
4) May produced several defects in casting like stress and
surface hardness due to surface chilling effect.
Q.7. Sketch cross section through permanent mould showing
its principal parts. Describe its construction in detail.
Ans. Construction of permanent mould:

Generally these moulds are made in two halves, parting
surface of which is in a vertical plane. Cores may be
designed as part of the mould itself known as fixed cores
or fitted separately known as movable cores. For easy
and quick removal of movable cores separate mechanism is
incorporated. Clamping arrangement is used to avoid

mould to open under the hydrostatic pressure of molten
metal.
Mould generally comprises of several blocks joined
together as shown in figure.

The form block and base block together form the
actual mould cavity whereas the runner block incorporates

the runner and riser. Runner and riser are generally
kept on parting line.
Q.8.What is gravity die casting? Explain with neat
sketch.
Q.9. Explain the difference between gravity die casting
and pressure die casting.
Ans. - In gravity die casting pouring is done simply due
to gravity and no external pressure is applied. But for
pressure die casting external pressure is applied to free
the molten or semi molten metal in to the die cavity.
- In P.D.C. the pressure is applied to the force the
fluid in die cavity. The fluid alloy fills the entire
die including all minute cavities. Hence intricate can
be produced successfully but as compared to G.D.C.
- We get better dimensional tolerance and better surface

finish in P.D.C. compared to G.D.C.
- P.D.C. can be made fully or semi automatic.
- P.D.C. metal in semi molten state can be cast which not

possible in G.D.C.
- As the arrangement to develop the pressure is needed in
case of P.D.C. it needs some costly equipments which
increases the build up cost for P.D.C. Hence the
equipments use for P.D.C. are costlier than G.D.C.
(i) Repair of castings
(ii) Pressed casting
Ans: (i)Repair of castings:- When casting gets damaged or

found defective particularly in case of large castings,
it is not economical to reject it and recast it. In such
case we can repair it by proper method mostly by welding

which save time as well as money. Depending upon the
casting material, type of defect, we can use proper
welding method to repair defect. In most cases, bend or
warped castings, if slightly out of shape also possible
to bring back to original shape by hammering with soft
hammers by hand, jacks or by presses.
(ii)Pressed casting :- In this type fixed amount of
molten metal poured into the permanent mould and then
close fitting cores are pushed in the cavity, by this

molten metal force into the mould cavity. Cores are
removed after metal sets into cavity. We get thin walled
hallow casting. This method is limited for ornamental

articles.
Q.10. Explain Jamming of cupola.
Ans. Jamming of cupola may be permanent or temporary.
If the molten metal is not taped out before its level
rises to high in the well, the slag which floats on the
surface of molten metal, will start flowing into wind

belt through the tuyeres and air passage will be choked
and the cupola jammed. Thus, the furnace is put to an
unusable condition then it is known as permanent jamming.
Iron and slag around the tuyeres openings get solidify.
Due to the low temperature at the tuyeres openings which
results in the closing of air passage and supply of air
is temporarily stopped termed as temporary jamming. This
can be prevented by frequent poking of this solidified
material by poking bar, through tuyeres.

Q.11. Explain the process of sand preparation and
conditioning.
Ans. Following steps are carried out for sand preparation
and conditioning :-
Sand found in nature doesn’t content all required

qualities in required extent necessary for proper
moulding. Hence some additives are mixed with sand.
Generally clay, lime, magnesia, potash, soda, horse
manure, saw dust, cow dug, coal dust etc. used in small
quantities.
This additives are mixed by hand or by mixing

machine which ensures uniform distribution of clay,
moisture and other constituent between sand grains.
Then adequate amount of water is poured over sand,
then the sand turned upside and downside by means of
shovel. This moistens the clay making it adhesive.
This mixture is riddled to remove the foreign

material.
Q.12. State the advantages and disadvantages of die

casting?
Ans. Advantages of die casting are
1) It requires less floor space as compared to other
casting processes.
2) Rate of production is high. 75 to 150 casts per hour
in cold chamber and 300 to 350 casts per hour in hot

chamber process.
3) Die casting dies retain their accuracy for a very long
time.
4) Very thin sections can be cast and holes upto minimum
of 1.6 mm diameter can be easily cored.

5) High surface finish is obtained and often no further
finishing is required.
6) Cost per unit is minimum hence economical.
Disadvantages of die casting
1) All metals and alloys can not be cast.
2) The cost of machines, dies and other equipment used is
high.
3) Not economical for small quantity production.
4) Heavy casting cannot be cast.
5) Special precautions are necessary for evacuation of air
from die cavity, otherwise cause porosity.

Q.12. State the differences between cold chamber die
casting machine and hot chamber machine.
Ans. Following points shows the difference between cold
chamber die casting (machine) and Hot chamber die casting
(machine).
Cold chamber die Hot chamber die
casting(Machine) casting(Machine)
1. Heating chamber is not 1. Heating chamber is
integral part of machine integral part of machine
unit. Metals are melted in unit.
a self contained pot in an
auxiliary furnace.
Non ferrous metals and Metals an alloys having low
alloys having high melting melting point usually below

point usually above 5000C. 5000C. are cast.
are cast.
Requires operating pressure Requires comparatively low
of 300 to 1600 kgf/cm2. operating pressure below 150
kgf/cm2.
Usually 75 to 150 castings Usually 300 to 350 castings

per hour can be produced. per hour can be produced.
Semi solid metals and alloys Semi solid metals and alloys
can be cast. can not be cast.
Usually nickel-chrome steel Usually hardened and tempered
is used for die. chrome-vanadium or chrome-
tungsten steel is used for
die.
Q.13. How permanent mould casting differ from sand

casting?
Ans.
Permanent Mould Casting Sand Casting
1. Mould is a permanent one 1. Mould is not permanent.

and is neither destroyed nor
remade after each cast.
2. Requires less floor space 2. Requires more floor space
area. area.
3. Moulds are costly. 3. Cost of mould is less.
4. Rate of production is 4. Rate of production is

high. slow.
5. Economical for large 5. Used for small quantity
quantity production. of production.
6. In order to enable and 6. The runner and riser can
easy and unrestricted removal be suitably positioned at

of casting, the runner and will.
riser are normally kept on
the parting line.
7. Better surface finish is 7. Surface finish inferior
obtained. than permanent mould
casting.
8. Less skill operator is 8. Comparatively more skill
required. operator is required.
9. Eliminates many defects 9. No need of such

found in sand casting but precaution against chilling
need greater precaution effect on casting surface.
against chilling effect on
the casting surface.
Q.14. What is gravity die casting? Explain with neat
sketch?
Q.15. Sketch and explain the construction and operation

of hot chamber die casting machine.
Ans. In the hot chamber die casting machine the metal
melting unit forms an integral part of machine. It
mainly consist of hot chamber and a goose neck type metal
container made of cast iron.
Construction
This type of machine having goose neck type
container which always remains immersed in the metal pot.
Cylindrical shape is formed at the end of goose neck, a
plunger acts inside the cylinder. A port is provided
near the top of the cylinder. Goose neck injector is
connected to stationary die by nozzle and movable die can

move to from die casting and injecting the casting. Die
is provided with proper injecting mechanism.
Operation
As the plunger move upward the port get open and
molten metal enters into cylinder. Downward movement of
plunger closes the port and forces the molten metal
inside die cavity through nozzle. After solidification

plunger moves upward at the same time movable die move
away from stationary die to inject the casting.
Injecting mechanism cause to inject the casting. Plunger
starts downward movement and movable die moves towards

the stationary die to form required casting. The cycle
is further repeated.
1) Slush casting
2) Pressed casting
Ans: Slush casting :- Slush casting is a method of
producing hallow casting by using permanent moulds
without the use of cores. In this method the molten
metal poured in to the mould and allowed to solidify upto
the required thickness, then remaining molten metal made
to fall out. Because of this we cannot precisely control
the thickness of casting, hence this method is adopted
for ornaments, statues, toys and other novelties were
controlled thickness is not too important.
Pressed casting :- In this type fixed amount of molten
metal poured into the permanent mould and then close
fitting cores are pushed in the cavities, by this molten
metal force into the mould cavity. Cores are removed
after metal sets into the cavity and we get thin walled
hallow casting. This method is limited for ornamental
articles.
Q.17. Explain with neat sketch, the construction and
operation of a die casting die?
Ans. Construction :-
Die castings are made into halves, one is stationary
and other is movable. These two halves when closed have
vertical parting surface. Dowel pins are provided for

perfect alignment. Provision of vent for escape of air
into parting surface is usually provided. A proper
ejecting mechanism is provided. The die is so designed
that after solidification the casting will always cling
to the ejector die.
Operation :- Movable die moves and comes in contact with

stationary die. Movable die perfectly aligned with
stationary die, which forms the required die cavity.
This cavity is usually the required casting. Then the
molten metal is injected into the die cavity. After
solidification, inserted cores are firstly withdrawn.
Then the die opens, casting cling to the movable die.
Then either the movable half is slighted backward
over the ejector pins or the ejector plate attached to
this is advanced to project the ejector pins beyond the
movable die to eject the casting from the die.

Q.18. What are the common forms in which the die casting
dies are designed? Describe.
Ans. Die casting dies are generally designed in three
forms.
1) Single impression dies :- In this form die have single
cavity by this die only one casting at a time can
produce.
2) Multi impression dies :- In this form die have more
than one die cavities. These die cavities are alike.
By this die, castings equal to the number of cavities

in them can be produced at a time.
3) Combination dies :- In this form die have more than
one die cavities, but these die cavities are not

alike. By this die, casting equal to the number of
cavities in them can be produced.
Q.18. Explain the working of a cold chamber machine with
the help of a diagram.
Ans. The working principle of a cold chamber machine is
illustrated in Fig.15.3. The word ‘cold chamber’ is used
to denote horizontal cylinder into which the injection
plunger work. For these machines the metal is melted
separately in a furnace and transferred to these by means
of a small hand ladle. After closing the die the molten
metal is poured into the horizontal chamber through the

metal inlet. The plunger is pushed forward hydraulically
to force the metal into the die. After solidification,
the die is opened and the casting is ejected. The
plunger is again drawn back and the cycle repeated as
usual for next casting. These machines are widely used

for casting a good number of alluminium alloys and
brasses which cannot be cast in hot chamber machines as

they require higher melting points. Moreover, the
chances of iron pick up by alluminium are almost finished
in these machines as it takes place only at elevated
temperatures, and also because the molten alloy remains
in contact with the steel cold chamber and plunger for a
very small period.
Q.19. State the advantages and disadvantages of die
casting?
Ans. Advantages of die casting are
1. It requires less floor space as compare to other
casting processes.
2. Rate of production is high. 75 to 150 casts per hour
in cold chamber. 300 to 350 casts per hour in hot
chamber process.
3. Die casting dies retain their and more accuracy for a
very long time.
4. Very thin sections can be cast and Holes upto minimum

of 1.6 mm.
5. High surface finish is obtained and often no further
finishing is required.
6. Cost per unit is minimum hence economical.
Disadvantages of die casting are
1. All metals and alloys cannot be cast.
2. The cost of machine dies and other equipment used is
high.
3. Not economical for small quantity production.
4. Heavy castings cannot be cast.

5. Special precautions are necessary for evacuation of air
from die cavity, otherwise cause porosity.
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Q.1 What are master patterns? How does their size differ
from other pattern’s? Explain
Ans : Master patterns are used for preparing
the moulds for metal castings which are later used as
patterns for further moulding work, called metal
patterns. The master patterns are accurately finished
wooden patterns, which carry double shrinkage allowance
and the required machining allowance. For example, an
alluminium pattern is to be made which is to be used
further for making moulds for brass castings. The

alluminium pattern should, obviously, be larger than the
desired brass casting by an amount equal to shrinkage
that will take place during solidification of this

casting. For making this alluminium pattern a wooden
pattern is to be used which should be larger than the
alluminium pattern by an amount equal to the alluminium

shrinkage, added with proper machining allowance for
finishing the alluminium casting. Mathematically, it can
be represented thus :
Let Sb represent the size of the desired casting in
brass.
And Let Sa represent the size of alluminium pattern.

And Let Cb represent the contration allowance for brass.
Then Sa=Sb+Cb
Again, let S represent the size of the master
pattern.
And let Ca represent the contraction allowance for
alluminium.
Also let Am represent the machining allowance
required to finish the alluminium casting to the required

size of pattern and to give smooth surface finish.
Then S = Sa+Ca+Am
= Sb+Cb+Ca+Am or
Size of master pattern = Size of the final casting to be
Made + shrinkage allowance for
the material of final
casting+shrinkage allowance
of the metal of which the
pattern is to be made
+ Finishing allowance for the
metal pattern.
Q.2. What considerations are necessary while designing a

pattern?
Ans. The following points should be considered, while
designing a pattern :
1. Proper allowances should be provided, wherever
necessary.
2. The parting line should be carefully selected so as to
allow as small portion of the pattern in the cope as
possible.
3. A proper material should always be selected for the

pattern after carefully considering the factors
mentioned in Art.9.4.
4. An endeavor should always be made to employ full cores
instead of jointed half cores as far as possible. This
will reduce cost and ensure greater dimensional
accuracy.
5. The wall thickness and sections should be kept as
uniform as possible. Abrupt changes should invariably
be avoided.
6. The use of offset parting, instead of cores, should be
encouraged to as great an extent as it is possible.

7. For large-scale production of small castings, the use
of gated or match-plate patterns should be encouraged

wherever the existing facilities permit.
8. All sharp corners and edges should be invariably
provided with suitable fillets or otherwise rounded to
enable an easy withdrawal of pattern, smooth flow of
molten metal and ensure a sound casting.
9. All those surfaces of the casting which are
specifically required to be perfectly sound and clean
should be so designed that they will be molded in the
drag.
10. The pattern should be given a high-class surface
finish as it directly effects the corresponding finish
of the casting.
11. If gates, runners and risers are attached to the
pattern, they should be properly located and their
sudden contraction or enlargement should be avoided.

12. Shape and size of the casting and that of the core
should be carefully considered to decide the size and
location of the core prints.
Q.3. Shortly explain the following :
(1) Segmental patterns
(2) Core prints
Ans: Segmental patterns:-These patterns are used for
preparing moulds of large circular castings, avoiding the

use of a solid pattern of the exact size. In principle
they work like a sweep, but the difference is that a

sweep is given a continuous revolving motion to generate
the desired shape, whereas a segmental pattern is a
portion of the solid pattern itself and the mould is
prepared in parts by it. It is mounted on a central
pivot and after preparing the part mould in one position,
the segment is moved to the next position. The operation
is repeated till the complete mould is ready. A typical
example is shown in Fig.
(2) Core prints :

When a casting is required to have a hole, through
or blind, a core is used in the mould to produce the
same. This core has to be properly seated in the mould

on formed impressions in the sand. To form these
impressions, extra projections are added on the pattern
surface at proper places. These projections are known as

core prints.
Q.4.(a) What do you understand by acid and basic cupolas?

Where each type is preferred and why?
Ans : Cupolas are termed as basic or acid according to
the type of refractory lining used inside them. The
refractory lining is provided by setting bricks, made of
refractory material all along the inside surface of the
cupola shell. Basic cupolas find their specific use in

the production of ductile cast iron. They help in the
reduction of sulphur content in iron to the tune of 0.005
percent. They also enable a higher carbon pick-up than

acid cupola, with the use of same raw material. This
enables use of a higher proportion of steel scrap in the

metal charge. However, if higher percentage, say upto
0.1 percent of sulphur is admissible in the cast metal

the acid cupola proves to be relatively cheaper.
(b) Write a short notes on following casting defects.
(1) Metal penetration
(2) Warpage
Ans.: (1) Metal penetration :
This defect occurs as a rough and uneven
external surface on the casting. It takes place when the
molten metal enters into the spaces between the sand

grains and holds some of the sand tightly with it even
after fettling. The principal causes for the promotion
of this defect are the use of coarse sand, having high

permeability and low strength, and soft ramming. Use of
fine sand with low permeability and hard ramming will
minimise this defect.
(2) Warpage :
It is an undesirable deformation in the casting,

which may occur during or after solidification. The
deformation takes place due to the internal stresses
developed in the casting due to differential
solidification in different sections. Such stresses are
also developed and differential solidification occurs in
case of castings having very large and wide flat

surfaces. Both the causes can be attributed to faulty
design of the casting, which needs modification to ensure
proper directional solidification.

(c) Explain, how the grain size and shape effect the
performances of a foundry sand.

Ans. Sand Grain :
The shape and size of the sand grains has a
remarkable effect on the physical properties of the
foundry sand. The sand grains may have smooth,
conchoidal or rough surfaces. Out of these the first
type i.e., smooth, is preferred for moulding for the
reason that such a surface renders higher permeability,
sinter point and plasticity to the sand mass, but the
percentage of binder required is also equally high.

Similarly the sand grains may have different shapes.
The commonly formed shapes are rounded, sub-angular,
angular and compound. The rounded grains do not bind

together two well when rammed and, hence, render the sand
mould highly permeable but the strength of the mould is
also reduced.
Sub-angular grains give a relatively stronger bond
than above but the permeability is reduced. Angular or
sharp grains produce a much stronger bond and a low

permeability when rammed. Thus they enable a mould of
greater strength. Sand grains which are cemented
together such that they do not separate when screened are
called compound. They may consist of one, two or a
combination of all the above three shapes. They are not
much preferred.
Like the shape the size of sand grains also effects
the mould structure and its characteristics. Large,

regular and uniform grains increase permeability.
Smaller grains increase smoothness on mould surfaces.
Q.5. What are the common materials used for pattern
making? Discuss their relative merits and demerits.
Ans.: Pattern materials
The common materials of which the patterns are made
are the following:
1. Wood. It is the most common material used for

pattern making because of the following advantages :
(i) It is cheap and available in abundance.
(ii) It can be easily shaped into different forms and

intricate designs.
(iii) Its manipulation is easy because of lightness
in weight.
(iv) Good surface finish can be easily obtained by only
planing and sanding.
(v) It can be preserved for a fairly long time by

applying proper preservatives like shellac varnish.
On the other hand, it has certain disadvantages also
as follows:
(i) It wears out quickly due to its low resistance to
sand abrasion. As such, a wooden pattern cannot
stand a long constant use.

(ii) It is very susceptible to moisture, which may lead to
its warping or splitting. This needs its careful
storing in a dry place and the application of

preservatives.
(iii) Its life, owing to the above reasons, is short as
compared to other pattern materials. This confines its

use to such cases only when a small number of castings
are required.
2) Metals :- Metals are used with advantage, as pattern
material, only when the number of castings to be made
is very high and a closer dimensional accuracy is
desired. They have a much longer life than wooden
patterns and eliminate the inherent disadvantages of
wood to a great extent. But they also carry the
following
Disadvantages :
(i) They are costlier than wood and, therefore, cannot
be used with advantage, where a smaller number of

castings is to be made.
(ii) For giving different shapes and fine surface
finish they need machining. This again adds to their

cost.
(iii) Most of them are very heavy and in case of
large castings the weight of the pattern always poses

a problem in its manipulation.
(iv) A large number of them have a tendency to get
rusted.
3) Plaster :- Plaster of Paris or gypsum cement is
advantageously used as a pattern material since it can be
easily casted into intricate shapes and can be easily

worked also. Its expansion can be easily controlled and
it carries a very high compression strength. Its
specific use is in making small patterns and core boxes

involving intricate shapes and closer dimensional
control. A marked feature of this cement is that contrary

to the action of metals, it expands on being solidified.
Thus, if a cement of proper coefficient of expansion is

selected, the effect of shrinkage of casting can be
automatically neutralised.
4) Plastics :- Plastics are gradually gaining favour as
pattern materials due to their following specific
characteristics :
1. Lightness in weight.
2. High strength.
3. High resistance to wear.
4. High resistance to corrosion due to moisture.

5. Fine surface finish.
6. Low solid shrinkage.
7. Very reasonable cost.

The plastics used as pattern materials are thermo-
setting resins. Phenolic resin plastic and foam plastic
suit best for this purpose. For making the pattern,

first the moulds are made, usually from plaster of Paris.
The resin is then poured into these moulds and the two
heated. At a specific temperature, the resin solidifies

to give the plastic pattern.
5) Wax :- Wax patterns are exclusively used in investment
casting. For this a die or metal mould is made in two
halves into which the heated wax is poured. The die is
kept cool by circulating water around it. As the wax
sets on cooling, the die parts are separated and the

wax pattern taken out.
Q.6. Explain the process of ‘Sand preparation and

conditioning.
Ans.: None of the natural sand possesses the required
qualities to the required extent. They may lack in one

or more of these properties which we have to make up by
artificial means to make the sand suitable for use. Sand
mixing is the process through which we add those
materials to the sand which are rich in such
characteristics, which the sand lacks.
Sand to be used in moulding should be properly
conditioned before use in order to obtain good castings,
since most of the defects, which occur in castings, are
due to improper conditioning of the sand. It holds good

equally for the new as well as old or used sand. Proper
conditioning means the uniform distribution of the clay
bond over the sand grains, even distribution and proper

control of the moisture content in the sand and sorting
out the foreign materials like nails, gaggers and other
metal pieces from the sand by ridding and a thorough

mixing of the entire sand mass.
Even today the above operation is carried out by
hand in most of the small foundries. Since no testing

equipment is normally available in such foundries, the
sand condition is judged by the moulders themselves by
virtue of their practical experience only and the quality
of the castings produced in such foundries entirely
depends upon this factor. A common physical test, which
is generally followed by most of the moulders, for

judging the sand condition is to grip a handful of the
prepared foundry sand and then relieve the pressure of
the fingers. The sand mass thus produced is broken into

two pieces by hand and the edges formed at the broken
section are carefully observed. If there is no

deformation in the edges the sand is supposed to be
properly conditioned. If the upper surface of the broken

pieces appears to be setting down gradually, as if it is
being compressed, it indicates a high moisture content.
Gradual separation of sand grains, as if they are being
sprinkled from the parted surfaces, indicate a weak bond
and low moisture content. Mixing of sand by hand is
performed by first collecting the sand, together with the
other constituents to be mixed in it, in the form of a
help and then pouring adequate amount of water on to it.
After keeping it as such for some time it is turned

upside down by means of a shovel and the operation
repeated several times to ensure through mixing of
different constituents. It is then riddled to remove the

forming material from it and thus it is ready for use.
Q.7. Write short notes on :-
(1) Mould hardness test
(2) Core hardness test
Ans.: (1) Mould hardness test.
The hardness of a sand mould can easily be tested by
means of a hardness tester. It is a very handy
instrument working on the principle of dryness hardness
testing machine. It carries a hemispherical ball or tip
at its bottom, which is penetrated into the mould
surface. A spring-loaded shaft inside the hollow body of
the instrument actuates the needle of the dial gauge
fitted at the top. The dial of this gauge provides
direct reading of the mould hardness.
(2) Core hardness test. It is also a very simple and
handy instrument used for testing the hardness of dry

sand cores, especially of the dried oil-sand cores. It
carries a cutter at its bottom, which is provided with a

pre-determined pressure, by means of a spring inside the
instrument, when it is pressed against the surface of the
core. Corresponding to the penetration the hardness is
directly given by the scale provided on the tester.
Q.8. What are crucible furnaces? Where are they preferred
and why?
Ans.: These are the simplest of all the furnaces used in
foundries. They are sparingly used in most of the small

foundries where melting is not continuous and a large
variety of metals is to be melted in small quantities.
In these furnaces the entire melting of metal takes place

inside a melting pot, called crucible, which is made of
clay and graphite. The sizes of these crucibles vary
from No.1 to No.400 each number representing a definite

quantity of metal that can be held conveniently by the
crucible.
Q.9. How is the thermal efficiency of cupola is

determined?
Ans. The thermal efficiency of the cupola is given by the
ratio of heat actually utilised in melting and
superheating the metal to the heat evolved in it through
various means. This ratio can be expressed
mathematically as follows:
ηderecent cupola
= Heat utilised in melting and superheating the metal
x 100
Cal. Value of coke + heat evolved due to oxidation of
iron,Si & Mn
In case of a hot blast cupola the above expression will
change as follows:
ηpercent cupola
= Heat utilised in melting and superheating the metal x
100
Cal. Value of coke + Heat evolved due to oxidation of
iron,Si and Mn + Heat supplied by the air
Blast
Experiments reveal that the thermal efficiencies of
different cupolas normally range between 30 to 50 per
cent.
Q.10. Explain in brief causes and remedies of the
following casting defects

Ans. (1) Blow holes:- They appear as cavities in a
casting. When they are visible on the upper surface of
the casting, they are called open blows. These blows are
normally rounded and have smooth walls. When they are
concealed in the casting and are not visible from
outside, they are known as blowholes. They are due to

the entrapped bubbles of gases in the metal and are
exposed only after machining.
Possible causes :
1. Excess moisture content in moulding sand-leading to
the production of too much of steam and thereby
rendering the permeability of the mould as inadequate.
2. Cores not sufficiently baked.
3. Use of rusted or highly moistened chills, chaplets
or other metal inserts-giving rise to the production of

a high amount of steam and gases.
4. Excessive use of organic binders-resulting in the
production of high amount of gases.

5. Cores not adequately vented-resulting in their low
permeability.
6. Moulds inadequately vented resulting in their low
permeability.
7. Moulds rammed very hard-more addition to low
permeability.
Remedies :
1. Moisture content in the moulding sand should be
properly controlled.
2. Cores should be adequately backed.
3. Chills, chaplets and metal inserts used should be clean
and free from rust or any other gas producing

substance.
4. Organic binders should be used with restraint.
5. Cores and moulds should be adequately vented.

Moulds should not be rammed excessively hard.
(2) Shrinkage :- During solidification of metal, there is
a volumetric shrinkage. This should be adequately

compensated by feeding failing which voids will be
produced in the casting. These voids may exist on the
surface as depression, called surface shrinkage, or
within the casting called internal shrinkage. Too much
shrinkage may lead to crack, known as hot tears. This
defect occurs on account of inadequate and improper

gating, risering and chilling so that proper directional
solidification does not take place. As such it can be
remedied by adopting corrective measures in respect of

the above factors.
(2) Hot tears :- They are also known as pulls or hot
cracks. The main reasons of their occurrence is the

low strength of metal after solidification, causing
the metal to fail in coping up with the excessively
high stresses set up by the solid shrinkage of the
metal. These cracks may be external or internal.
They are supposed to be more harmful when they are
present internally, because in that case their
occurrence is not revealed without machining or
radiographic testing. Their presence is identified by
an oxidised surface showing an irregular and ragged

appearance on fracture. The main reasons of their
occurrence are lack of collapsibility in the core and
mould, faulty design leading to exceptionally high

residual stresses at certain portions in the casting
and very hard ramming of sand resulting in restricted
contraction of casting. An improvement over these

shortcomings will help elimination of hot tears.
Q.11. Describe the following types of sands in respect of
their composition, particular properties and uses

Ans: Loam Sand :- It is a mixture of clay and sand with
water to a thin plastic form and from which moulds are
built. It contains moisture 18-20% and the loam is dried
very slowly. It is used for producing larger castings.
A typical mixture of loam sand consists of
Floor coke 10 Vol

Loam sand 10 Vol
New sand 6 Vol 80% mixture + 20% moisture
Silica sand 22 Vol

Clay 5 Vol
Other gradients 5 Vol

1. Parting Sand :- Conventionally, mould is prepared into
two or more boxes. These boxes are to be separated

without adhering to each other’s sand. For this
purpose parting sand is used. One of the parting
compounds is lycopedium, which is used when oil is
mixed with moulding sand. Very fine brick powder can
also be used.
2. Green Sand :- It is the sand in green condition and
after preparing the mould, casting (pouring of molten
metal) is done in moist state. While preparing the
mould, the rammed sand is dense but porous and further

the structure is made porous by venting. Green sand is
generally used for small or medium sized casting.
(a) Mixture of green sand for light work purpose

contains –
Floor sand………… 80%
New sand………… 13.5% 95% mixture + 5% moisture

Super fine coal dust… 6.5%
(b) Mixture of green sand for general purpose contains
Floor sand………….. 60%

New sand ………… .. 30% 95% mixture + 5% moisture
Coal dust ………….. 10%
(c) Mixture of green sand for high finish castings
contains –
Floor sand ………… 51%
New sand ………… 23%

Coal dust … 8.5% 95% mixture + 5% moisture
Carbon blacking … 8.5%
Talc ……… 2.8%

3. Backing Sand :- Backing sand or floor sand is used to
back up the facing sand and to fill the whole volume of

the flask. Old, repeatedly used moulding sand is mainly
employed for this purpose.

The backing sand is sometimes called black sand
because of the fact that old, repeatedly used moulding
sand is black in colour due to the addition of coal dust
and burning on coming in contact with molten metal.
Q.12. Describe the utility of following moulding tools
and give neat sketches of each.
Ans. Bellows :- A hand operated bellow is shown in Fig.
It is used to blow but the loose or unwanted sand
from the surface and cavity of the mould.
Hand Riddle :- It consists of a wooden frame fitted
with a screen of standard wire mesh at its bottom. It is
used for hand ridding of sand to remove foreign
material from it.(See Fig.)
Rammer:- A hand rammer is a wooden tool used
for packing or ramming the sand into the mould. One end,
called the peen, is wedge shaped, and the opposite end,
called the butt, has a flat surface. Floor rammers are
similar in construction
but have long handles. Pneumatic rammers are used in
large moulds saving considerable labor and time.
Q.13. What do you understand by casting? List the merits
and demerits of casting process.

Ans. Casting is one of the most versatile form of
mechanical process for producing components; casting is a
replica of pattern, in metal which is obtained by pouring

molten metal into the mould.
Principal of casting consists of introducing the
molten metal into a cavity or mould of the desired shape

and allowing it to solidify. When it is removed from
mould, the casting is of same shape but slightly smaller
due to contraction of metal. The molten metal passes
through the four stages i.e. liquid stage, musy stage,
plastic stage, and solid stage till the solidification
takes place.
Today we have a variety of moulding processes and melting
equipments, thus we are capable to produce castings of
different, materials and their alloys. Though, there is

a tremendous improvement in the production methods, but
the basic principles are still the same. One can realise
the importance of castings and their role in modern

development. It is difficult to visualise any product
which do not have one or more casted parts in different

sizes. Though there are other metal shaping process such
as metal-machining, metal-forging, stamping which can

fulfil the needs of the community. But casting caries
inherent advantages, which have made it as the backbone
of industrial production.
Design Advantages
(a) Size – Casting can be prepared upto 200 weight and
the least size that can be made is weighing few grams.
Its advantage lies with the production of massive
objects in one piece.
(b) Complexity – Most simple/complex shaped products can
be prepared by casting easily. Such production depends
on the preparation of pattern and mould. Complicated
shapes cannot be easily produced by other shaping

methods.
(c) Weight Saving – Since the metal can be placed at the
exact location where it is needed, thus lot of metal

can be saved by adopting this process.
(d) Production of Prototype – It is capable to produce
prototype models/exact product as desired.

(e) Wide Range of Properties – This process offers a
large range of mechanical and physical properties in
the castings as per requirement. Usually the use the
metal-alloys is one variable.
Advantages of Casting Process
(a) Low cost – It is usually found to be the cheapest

method of metal shaping.
(b) Dimensional Accuracy – Tolerances as close as ±0.1
mm can be achieved depending on metal to be casted,
casting process, shape and size of casting. Surface

finish can also be controlled from 5 microns to 50
microns.
(c) Versatility in Production – This process is
adaptable to all types of production.
Metallurgical advantages
(i) Fibrous structure.
(ii) Controlled grain size,
(iii) Uniform density.
Merits of casting:-
1. Versatile form of mechanical process for producing
components.
2. There is no limit to the size and shape of the articles
that can be produced by casting.
3. Casting offers one of the cheapest methods and gives

high strength and rigidity even to intricate parts,
which are difficult to produce by other methods of
manufacturing.
Demerits :-
1. Casting is not always the best method of the various
production techniques.
2. Metals having good fluidity and small shrinkage can
only be casted in a best way.
Q.14. Which factors need to be considered in selecting a
particular type of pattern? Explain split pattern, sweep
pattern and match-plate pattern with the help of neat
sketches
Ans. Factors affecting selection of a particular tape of
pattern.
The type of pattern to be used for particular
casting depends upon many factors like

1. The bulk of casting i.e. whether a small or large
number of casting is wanted.
2. Ease or difficulty of moulding operation.
3. Type of moulding process.
Split pattern :- Many times the design of casting offers
difficulty in mould making and withdrawal of pattern, if
a solid pattern is used. For such castings, split or two
piece patterns are employed. They are made in two parts,
which are joined at the parting line by means of dowels.

While moulding one part of the pattern is contained by
the drag and the other by the cope.
Match plate patterns :- These patterns are used where a

rapid production of small and accurate castings is
desired on a large scale. Their construction cost is
quite high, but the same is easily compensated by a high

rate of production, greater dimensional accuracy and
minimum requirement for machining in the casting. These
patterns are made in two pieces; one piece mounted on one
side and the other on the other side of a plate, called
match-plate. The plate may carry only one pattern, or a
group of patterns mounted in the same way on its two

sides. The plate may be of wood, steel magnesium or
alluminium. Gates and runners are also attached to the
plate alongwith the pattern.

Sweep pattern :- Sweeps can be advantageously used for
preparing moulds of large symmetrical castings,
particularly of circular cross-section. This effects a

large saving in time, labour and material. The full
equipment consists of a base, suitably placed in the sand
mass, a vertical spindle and a wooden template, called
sweep. The outer end of the sweep carries the contour
corresponding to the shape of the desired casting. The
sweep is rotated about the spindle to form the cavity.

Then the sweep and spindle are removed, leaving the base
in the sand. The sweep and spindle are removed, leaving
the base in the sand. The hole made by the removal of
spindle is patched up by filling the sand.
Q.15. What is pattern? How does it differ from the actual
product to be made from it?
Ans. A pattern may be defined as a replica or facsimile
model of the desired casting which, when packed or

embedded in a suitable moulding material, produces a
cavity called mould. This cavity, when filled with

molten metal, produces the desired casting after
solidification of the poured metal. Since it is a direct
duplication, the pattern very closely conforms to the
shape and size of the desired casting, except for a few
variations due to the necessary allowances. The ways in
which a pattern differs from an actual component are :
1. It carries an additional allowance to compensate for
metal shrinkage.
2. It carries additional allowances over those portions,

which are to be machined or finished otherwise.
3. It caries the necessary draft to enable its easy
removal from the sand mass.

4. It carries additional projections, called coreprints,
to produce seats for cores.
Q.16. What is permeability? What is the effect of
Moisture and clay content permeability?
Ans. It is also termed as porosity. It is that property

of the sand, which allows the gases and steam to escape
through the sand mould. When the hot molten metal is
poured in the mould a very large volume of gases and
steam is formed due to heating to moisture, coal dust,
oil and similar other materials present in the sand. If
these gases are not allowed to go out they will either

make the casting unsound or blast the mould. Therefore,
this is very important property required in the moulding
sand. It largely depends upon the same grain size and

shape and the proportion of moisture and clay present in
the sand. Rounded grains of uniform size lead to a high

permeability. This property is also effected by ramming
of sand. A soft ramming will increase the permeability

and hard ramming will reduce it. In practice it is
further increased by applying vent wires in the prepared
mould.
Q.17. Write note on Skeleton pattern
Ans. Skeleton pattern :- When the size of the casting is
very large, but easy to shape, and only a few numbers are
to be made, it is uneconomical to make a large solid
pattern of that size. In such cases, a pattern
consisting of a wooden frame and strips is made, called
skeleton pattern, it is filled with loam sand and rammed.
The surplus sand is removed by means of a strickle. The

core can be prepared separately, either with the help of
a core box or another skeleton made for that, and
assembled in position in the mould.
Q.18. Give reason for Rat-tails or buckles in casting.
Ans. 1) Continuous large flat surface on casting.
2) Excessive mould hardness.
3) Lack of combustible additives in moulding sand.
Q.19. What care is to be taken in operating cupola?
Ans. The following considerations should be made for
operating the cupola successfully:

1. A superior refractory lining should be used to
withstand high temperature produced inside the furnace.

2. The man who fires the coke and charge should place the
metal charge in the centre.
3. The molten metal should be tapped out well before its
level rises too high in the well.
4. The tap hole should be property closed by means of a
well-prepared clay bolt or plug.
5. In closing the tap hole care should be taken to press
the plug downward in the hole so that the splash of the
molten metal does not fall on the hands.

6. The amount of air supply should be property controlled.
An excess amount of air will result in lowering to
temperature inside.
Q.20. Define
(a) (i) Pattern
(ii) Mould
(iii)Casting
(b) Write different stages in core making.
(c)Explain non-destructive inspection method of casting -
any three methods.
Ans: (a) (i)Pattern : Pattern is a model of anything
which is used to prepare moulds by placing it in sand.
(i) Mould : A mould is a cavity so prepared that it can
be used to make castings by molten metal into it.
(ii) Casting : The molten metal poured into mould, on
cooling is known as casting.
(b) Core making consists of the following operation.
i) Core sand preparation : The first consideration in
making a core is to mix and prepare the sand properly.

The mixture must be homogeneous so that the core will
be of uniform strength throughout. The core sands are

generally mixed in (1) roller mills, and (2) core
mixers. In the case of roller mills, the action of the
mullers and ploughs gives a uniform and homogeneous
mixing. Roller mills are suitable for core sands
containing cereal binders, whereas the core sand mixer
is suitable for all types of core binders.
ii) Core making : Cores are made separately in a core
box made of wood or metal. The various steps in core
making are ramming of core sand in the box, venting,

reinforcing, removing of core from box, baking,
pasting, sizing etc. This work of producing cores can
either be done by hand or by some machines designed for

this purpose. In machine moulding, the core-sand
mixture is rammed by jolting, squeezing or blowing by
means of suitable machine. Venting, reinforcing and

other operations are carried out by hand.
Types of cores
iii) Core Baking : Generally baking is carried out in

ovens equipped with drawers, shelves or other holding
devices. The operation is generally continuous and
cores are put either in batches or continuously over or

moving shelves. The heat in oven is produced by
burning oil or coke or by electric resistance. Core-
baking time depends upon the types and quantity of

binder used, the amount of moisture used in sand, and
size of core. The temperature for baking depends on
the core material used. When cores are baked, they are
more easily supported on a flat surface, which should
be incorporated in the design.
iv) Finishing : After receiving them from ovens, the
cores are properly finished by rubbing or filing, etc.
to bring them to correct dimensions, remove extra sand
projections from their surfaces and provide a good

surface finish. Then only they become suitable for
being placed in the moulds.
(c) (i)Sound test : It consists of suitably suspending

the casting, free of floor and all other abstractions,
and then gently striking it with hammer. The sound
produced is carefully noted. Tapping by the hammer is

done at different points and a change in the pitch and
quality of sound indicates a discontinuity within the
mass of the castings. However, it is difficult to locate

the discontinuity and the extent to which it is present.
(i) Magnetic particle testing : This method can be used
only for those metals and alloys, which can develop
magnetic properties, e.g. iron and steel. The
principle involved in this test is that in a magnetised
metal if its magnetic field is interrupted by a crack

its continuity is broken. Due to low magnetic
permeability of air some magnetic flux lines leak out
of the metal, and if a magnetic material is spread over

that portion some of it is held there by the flux lines
to show the presence of a crack or void there. So, for

this test, the casting is first magnetised and then
fine particles of iron or steel are spread over its

surface. The presence of cracks is revealed by the
help up particles on the surface.
(ii) Penetrant testing : This method is used to detect
small surface cracks and can be conveniently used for
all metals and alloys. It consists of applying a thin
penetrating liquid over the surface of the casting,
allowing it to penetrate into the cracks by capillary
action and then cleaning the whole surface which draws
back some of the liquid on to the surface. The

surface is then exposed to an ultraviolet light where
the presence of liquid is clearly seen, indicating a
crack there.
Q.21. What do you understand by gravity die-casting?
State its advantages.

Ans. Advantages:
1) It is a very speedy process and each cast takes
between 2 to 4 minutes time only.

2) Permanent moulds have a very long life in as much as
one mould can be conveniently used for producing
between 3,000 to 10,000 castings in cast iron and
between 10,000 to 25,000 castings in alluminium.
3) Surface finish through this method is better than
sand castings but inferior than pressure die-

castings.
4) Dimensional tolerances of the order of ±0.508 per 100
mm. can be conveniently obtained.

5) For the same amount of production it requires less
floor area than sand casting.

6) Less skill is required of the operator than in sand
casting.
7) Many of the defects found in sand castings are
eliminated totally.
8) Castings produced through this method are found to
have a finer grain structure.
9) Castings in large quantities can be produced more
economically.
10) A minimum thickness of 2.4 mm. Can be easily
cast.
Q.22. Explain with the help of neat cross sectional sketch
of cupola, indicating its various zones.
Ans. Various zones of cupola are shown in Figs.

A number of chemical reaction take place in these zones
which are explained below :
1. Well :- It is the space between the bottom of the

tuyeres and the sand bed. The metal, after melting,,
trickles down and collects in this space before it is
tapped out.
2. Combustion zone :- It is also known as oxidising zone.
It is located between the top of the tuyeres and a
theoretical level above it. The total height of this
zone is normally from 15 cm. To 30 cm. The actual
combustion takes place in this zone, consuming all
free oxygen from the air blast and producing a lot of

heat, which is sufficient enough to meet the
requirements of other zones of cupola. More heat is
evolved due to oxidation of silicon and manganese. A

temperature of about 15400C to 18700C is produced in
this zone. The exothermic reactions taking place in
this zone can be represented thus.

3. Reducing zone :- It is also known as the protective
zone. It is located between the top of the combustion
zone and the top level of the coke bed. CO2 is reduced
to CO in this zone through an endothermic reaction, as
a result of which the temperature falls from combustion
zone temperature to about 12000C at the top of this

zone. The reaction is as follows :
Nitrogen, the other main constituent of
the upward moving hot gases does not participate in the
reaction. This zone, on account of the reducing
atmosphere in it, protects the charge against
oxidation.
4. Melting zone :- The first layer of metal charge above
the coke bed constitutes this zone. The solid metal
charge changes to molten state in this zone and
trickles down through the coke to the well. The molten
metal picks up sufficient carbon content in this zone
as represented by the following reaction :

5. Preheating zone :- It extends from above the melting
zone to the bottom level of the charging door and
contains a number of alternate layers of coke and metal

charges. The function of this zone is to preheat the
charges from atmospheric temperature to about
10930C before they settle downwards to enter the
melting zone. This preheating takes place due to the
upward advancing hot gases, from which the solid metal
also picks up some sulphur content.

6. Stack :- The empty portion of cupola above the
preheating zone, which provides the passage to hot

gases to go to atmosphere, is known as stack.
Q.23. Explain the common allowances provided on patterns.
Ans. Pattern Allowances
(i) Shrinkage:- When any metal cools, it naturally
shrinks in size. Hence, if the actual object itself is
used for the pattern, the resulting casting would be
slightly smaller than desired. To compensate for this
possibility, a shrink rule is used in laying out of

measurements for the pattern. A shrink rule for cast
iron is 10 mm per meter (the average shrinkage for cast
iron) longer than the standard rule.

When metal patterns are to be cast from the original
patterns, double shrinkage must be allowed.
(ii) Draft :- When a pattern is drawn out from a mould,

the tendency to tear away the edges of the mould in
contact with the pattern is greatly decreased if the
surfaces of the pattern are given a slight taper in a

direction parallel to which it is being withdrawn.
This tapering of the sides of the pattern, known as
draft, is done to provide a slight clearance for the
pattern as it is lifted up. The amount of draft on
exterior surfaces is about 10 to 20 mm per meter. On
interior holes, which are fairly small, the draft

should be around 30 mm per meter.
(iii) Finish :- When a draftsman draws up the details of a
part to be made each surface to be machined is

indicated by a finish mark. The mark indicates that
additional metal must be provided at this point so that

there will be some metal to machine. The amount that
is to be added depends upon the size, shape of casting,

but in general, the allowance for small castings and
average sized castings is 3 mm.
(iv) Distortion :- This allowance applies only to those
castings of irregular shapes, which are distorted in
the process of cooling as a result of metal shrinkage.
Such an allowance depends on the judgment and
experience of the pattern maker, who understands the
shrinkage characteristics of the metal.
(v) Shake :- When a pattern is rapped in the mould

before it is withdrawn, the cavity in the mould is
slightly increased. In an average sized casting this
increase in size can be ignored. In large castings or

in one that must fit without machining, however, shake
allowance must be considered by making the pattern
slightly smaller.
Q.24. Discuss the advantages split and multi-piece
patterns.
Ans. Following are the advantages of split and multi-
piece patterns.
1. Complicated designs can be constructed in these types
of patterns.
2. They facilitate easy withdrawal from cope and drag
box.
3. These pattern are easy to contact as compared to solid
or single piece pattern.
Q.25. Why testing of foundry sand is necessary? What are
the common tests performed on foundry sands?

Ans. In progressive foundries it is recognized that the
foundry sand deserves as much attention as the casting

metal. The foundry sand may account for one-third of the
cost of the finished casting. In modern mass production
of sand castings, the moulding sand, which constitutes
the chief moulding material, is therefore, required to be
tested periodically in order that control of its
composition and properties may be maintained. Test may
be either chemical or mechanical. Chemical tests are
used only to determine the undesirable elements in the
sand, and in most cases mechanical tests are employed.

The essential mechanical tests include fineness,
moisture content, clay content, permeability, strength in
compression, and mould hardness.
Q.26. What are the factors, which should be considered
before designing a casting?

Ans. The important factors to keep in mind when designing
a casting to obtain maximum strength and minimum casting
include :
1. Design for directional solidification.
2. Design for minimum stresses.
3. Design for metal flow.
4. Cast-well design.
5. Design for minimum casting.
6. Design for expected tolerances.

7. Functional design.
Q.27. Write short notes on the following casting defects.

1) Cuts and washes
2) Drops
Ans. 1) Cuts and washes :- These defects occur due to the
erosion of sand from the mould or core surfaces by the

molten metal. The cavities formed on the mould and core
surfaces due to this erosion are filled by the molten
metal and the same appear on the casting surface as an
surface as an excess metal in the form of ragged spots.
These spots are called scabs. The eroded sand appears as
a sand inclusion some-where else in the casting. These
cuts and washes take place due to insufficient strength
of mould and core, lack of binding material in the facing
and core sand and faulty gating. Obviously, the remedy

of the defect lies in adequate ramming, additional of
sufficient binders in facing and core sands and improved
gating system.
2) Drops :- This defect appears as an irregular
deformation of the casting. It occurs on account of a
portion of the sand breaking away from the mould and

dropping into the molten metal. The above breaking takes
place due to low green strength in the sand, too soft
ramming, insufficient reinforcement of the cope or other

sand projections. Increase in green strength of the sand
by suitable modification in its composition, hard ramming
and adequate reinforcing of cope and other sand
projections by means of bars, nails and gaggers etc. are
the principal remedies of this defect.
Q.28. What are the factors which govern the selection of a

proper material for pattern making.
Ans. Factors effecting the selection of pattern
material:- The selection of a particular material for

making the pattern is influenced by the following factors
1. Number of castings to be made.
2. Method of moulding to be used, i.e., hand or machine.

3. Type of casting method to be used.
4. Degree of accuracy in dimensions and the quality of
surface finish required on the castings.
5. Design of casting.
Q.29. How are the patterns classified ? Explain the use
of solid pattern.
Ans: On the basis of material used in construction of
patterns, they are classified as :
(1) Wooden patterns

(2) Metal patterns
(3) Plaster patterns
(4) Plastic patterns

(5) Wax patterns
(1) on the basis of number of pieces used in
construction, patterns are classified as

(1) Solid or single piece pattern
(2) Two piece or split pattern
(3) Multi-piece pattern

(4) plate pattern
Solid or Single piece pattern :-
A single piece pattern is the simplest of all the
patterns, is made in one-piece and carries no joint,
partition or loose pieces. Depending upon the shape, it
can be moulded in one or two boxes. This pattern is the
cheapest but its use can be done to a limited extent of
production only since its moulding involves a large
number of manual operations like gate cutting, providing
runners and risers and the like.

Fig.
1) Functions of a pattern
2) Core boxes
Ans. 1) Functions of a pattern :-
The main functions of a pattern are :
(i) To produce the mould cavity of appropriate shape and

size in which the molten metal can be poured to
obtain desired casting.
(ii) To produce seats for cores in the mould in which

cores can be placed to produce cavity in the
casting. These seats in the mould are called
coreprints and the corresponding projections on the

pattern, which produce these seats, are also known
as coreprints.
(iii) To establish the parting surfaces and lines in the
mould.
(iv) To establish distinct locating points in the moulds
of which the corresponding points on the casting are
used as reference points, for checking the casting
dimensions and relative location of machined and
other surfaces.
(v) To minimise defects in castings.
(vi) To enable production of green sand or rammed-up
cores within the mould itself.
(vii) To minimise the cost of casting.

2) Core boxes :-
Core boxes are used for making cores. They are

either made single or in two parts. Their classification
is, generally, according to the shape of the core or the
method of making the core. The common types of core
boxes are the following :-
(i) Half core box :- To prepare the core in two halves
which are later on cemented together to form the
complete core.
(ii) Dump core-box :- Used to prepare complete core in
it. Generally, rectangular cores are prepared in
these boxes.(See fig.)
(iii) Split core-box :- It is made in two parts, which can
be joined together by means of dowels to form the

complete cavity for making the core.(See fig.)
(iv) Strickle type core-box :- It is used to form cores

of irregular or unsymmetrical shapes, as shown in fig.
(v) Loose piece core-box:- It is used to prepare, in
the same core box, the two halves of a core of which
the halves are not identical in shape and size. (See

fig.)
Loose piece core box
Q.31. What are the factors which govern the choice of a
particular type of furnace for melting a particular
metal?
Ans. The choice of a particular type of furnace is
largely based on the following factors :-
1. Rate of melting desired, depending upon the quantity of
metal required to be melted per hour.
2. Type of metal to be melted.
3. Temperature required.
4. Capability of melting medium for absorbing impurities.
5. Method of pouring the molten metal.

6. Economic considerations, i.e. initial investment to be
made as cost of equipment and its installation,
maintenance cost and cost of fuel to be consumed, etc.
Q.32. What is a hot blast cupola? What are its
advantages?
Q.33. Explain the causes and remedies of following casting
defects.
Ans.
Sr. Possible courses

Defec Remedies
No
ts
1 (a)Low (a)Improve refractoriness.

Fusion
refractoriness in (b)Modify gating system.
moulding sand. (c)Use lower pouring
(b) Faulty temperature.

gating. (d) Improve quality of facing
(c) Too high sand.
pouring
temperature of
metal.
(d) Poor facing

sand.
2 Short (a)Too low pouring (a) Use higher pouring
metal temperature. temperature.
(a)Excess (b) Reduce sulphur content.

sulphur (c) Modify gating system.
Content in metal. Reduce moisture content.

(a) Faulty gating.
(b)High moisture
content in
moulding sand.
3 Shift a) Worn-out or (a)Repair or replace the
s bent Clamping pins.

pins. (b) Repair of replace dowels
b) Misalignment causing misalignment.
of Two halves (c) Provide adequate support

of pattern. to core.
c) Improper (d) Locate the core properly.
support of (d) Repair or replace the

core. core boxes.
d) Improper (e) Increase strength of
location of moulding sand and core.

core.
e) Faulty core
boxes.
f) Insufficient
strength of
moulding sand
and core.
Q.1. (a) Explain the method of carbon dioxide moulding
with its neat sketch.
Ans. In this method silica sand and 3.5 to 5 % Sodium
silicate liquid base binder, mixed for 3 to 4 minutes in
a muller. Silica sand should be clean, dry and free from

clay. To obtain collapsibility property some additives
like, wood, coal dust, flour, graphite etc are added.
Moisture content should not exceed 3%. This
prepared sand is put in to the mould (around the pattern)
by any convenient method.
After packing CO2 gas is forced into mould at a

pressure of about 1.41 kg/cm2, called gassing. CO2 reacts
with sodium silicate, following reaction takes place and
silica jel is formed.
Na2SiO3 +H2O+CO2 Na2CO3 +(SiO2+ H2O)
(Sodium silicate)(Sodium (Silica jel)
carbonate)
Silica jel binds the sand grains together to
provide the strength and hardness to the Mould. Steps of
carbon dioxide moulding shown below.
Q.2.Describe the process of true centrifugal casting with
the help of neat diagram.

Ans. In this process, the castings are made in a
hollow, cylindrical mould rotated about an axis, common

to both casting and mould, the axis may be horizontal,
vertical or inclined. The mould used may be either of
permanent type or a sand lined mould usually end cores
are used to prevent the molten metal, thrown out from
end.
Fig shows horizontal true centrifugal casting
machine. Having a large cylindrical mould for casting
cast iron pipes. The mould consists of an outer metallic

flask provided with rammed sand lining inside. The mould
is rotated between two sets of rollers, mounted on a
shaft driven by a variable speed motor. Pouring basin is

formed on the body of a trolley.
Molten metal is poured while Mould is
rotating, due to the centrifugal force metal is directed
towards the periphery. While pouring Mould is rotated at
slower speed, after pouring, speed is increased to effect
even distribution of the metal all along the inside
surface of the mould and proper directional
solidification. After solidification flask is replaced
by new one and the process is repeated.
The use of this process is limited only for
symmetrical shaped objects, such as pipes, rolls,
cylinder sleeves and liners, piston-ring stock, bearings

bushing etc.
Q.3. Explain the ‘core’ with the use. What are the
characteristics of a good core?

Ans. A core can be defined as a body of sand,
generally prepared separately in a core box, which is
used to form a cavity of desired shape and size in a
casting. However, there are some exceptions to this
definition. For example in a pattern can be used to form
a core as a part of the mould, this being known as a
green sand core. Similarly, in permanent moulds or dies,
the cores are formed by the metallic moulds themselves as
an integral part of them. Cores which are prepared

separately in core boxes are called dry sand cores, and
held and located in the moulds in the seats formed by the
core prints provided on the patterns. The main

characteristics required in a good core are the
following :
1. It must be sufficiently permeable to allow an easy

escape to the gases formed.
2. It should be highly refractory to withstand the
intense heat of molten metal.

3. It should be enough hard and strong to bear its own
weight and the force of molten metal.
4. It should have high collapsibility i.e.; it should be
able to disintegrate quickly after the solidification
of the metal is complete.
5. It should not carry such constituents, which will give

rise to excessive gases on coming in contact with the
molten metal.
(The main ingredients of core sand mixtures

and their essential characteristics have already been
discussed in the last chapter.)

Q.4. What is investment costing? What are its main
advantages and disadvantages?

Ans. Following are the steps of investment casting:
1.First of all master pattern is made from wood or metal.
2 By using gelatin or an alloy of low melting point and
master pattern, master mould is formed.
3.The master Mould is filled with liquid wax or by thermo
plastic polystyrene resin which when solidified forms a
wax pattern.
4. The wax pattern is coated with slurry consisting of
silica flour and small amounts of kaolin and graphite

mixed with water. This process referred to as the
investment of the pattern.
5. The pattern is then used to make up moulds similar to

those used in the conventional moulding process, but
the pattern within the mould is not taken out of the
mould, which is not opened after this moulding process.

6. Finished mould is dried in air for 2 to 3 hrs. and then
baked in an oven about 2 hrs. to melt out the wax or
remove the wax with the help of a solvent degreaser.

7. After this the mould is sintered at about 10000C to
improve its resistivity. Finally it is cooled down to
a temp. between 800 and 7000C for casting. The
castings are obtained by gravity, pressure vacuum or
centrifugal operations. After the metal is cooled the
plaster is broken away and gets feeders are cut out.

The castings so obtained are finally cleaned by sand
blasting, grinding or other finishing processes.
Advantages
1. Better dimensional accuracy, the normal tolerance
being ± 0.005 mm.

2. Better surface finish
3. Thin sections of the order of 0.75 mm can be cast

4. Intricate machining of the casting is avoided
5. Castings are sound and have large grains as the rate
of cooling is slow.
Disadvantages
1. Moulds used are single purpose, i.e.they can be used
only once.
2. It is expensive process and hence is adopted only
where small number of intricate and highly accurate
parts are to be manufactured.
3. This process is suitable for small size parts.
4. They present the same difficulty where cores are to be
used.
5. Process is slow.
Q.5. Which are the moulding machines used in practice?

Describe any one with the help of sketch if required?
Ans. Types of moulding machines:
The large variety of moulding machines that are
available in different designs can be classified as:
1. Jar or Jolt machine. This machine consists of an air-
operated piston and cylinder. The air enters from the

bottom side of the cylinder and acts on the bottom
face of the piston to raise it up. At the top of the
piston is attached the platen or table of the machine

which carries the pattern and moulding flask with sand
over it. When the piston, and hence the table, has
been raised to a certain height the air below the
piston is suddenly released, resulting in an even

packing of sand around the pattern in the flask. The
operation is repeated several times and quite rapidly.

It is known as jolting.
2. Squeezer machine: These machines may be hand operated
or power operated. The pattern is placed over the
machine table, followed by the moulding flask. In hand-
operated mechanism whereas in power machines it is lifted
by the action of air pressure on a piston in the cylinder
in the same way as in jolt machine. The difference is
that the table is not dropped from height but is raised
gradually. On the top of the machine column is provided

an overhead plate and the sand in the flask is squeezed
between this plate and the upward rising table. This
enables a uniform pressing of sand in the flask. A

specific advantage of power operated machines over hand-
operated ones is that more pressure can be applied in the
former which facilitates handling of a wider range of

jobs.
Pin lift or push-off type machines. In these
machines the mechanism is almost similar to the above

except that the supporting ram is stationary and four
pins are suitably incorporated passing through the
machine platen and the pattern plate. No stripping plate
is, however, required. After the ramming is over the
moulding flask is lifted off the pattern by the four pins
which are mechanically operated by a mechanism suitably

incorporated in the machine.
Q.6. Describe centrifugal casting and state its

advantages and limitations. Draw a sketch of the same.
Ans. Centrifugal casting is casting method in which,
molten metal is poured while mould is rotating, due to

the centrifugal force metal is directed towards the
periphery.
The cold metal is forced towards the outer side of
the casting by the centrifugal force, where as the hotter
metal remains on the inner side of the casting to provide
the required feeding of metal during solidification.
Although many different shapes can be cast through
this process, but those with symmetrical shapes are best
suited for it.

Centrifugal casting methods can be classified as
follows: -
a) True centrifugal casting

b) Semi centrifugal casting
c) Centrifuging
Advantages: -
1. Due to the forced movement of the molten metal
castings are dense sounds and free from porosity.
2. The use of gates, feeders and central core is

eliminated, making the method less expensive
3. Mass production is possible with less rejection.
4. Mechanical and physical properties of castings are
improved.
5. Parts are produced closer to finished dimensions with
consequent saving in machining.
Disadvantages: -
1. Need heavy initial investment.
2. Need skilled labour.
3. Economical only for mass production.

4. Expensive maintenance cost.
5. The process is limited to only cylindrical and circular

parts with a limited range of sizes.
Q.7. What is meant by felting and why is it required?
Explain in brief
Ans. Castings, when taken out of the mould, are not in
the same condition in which they are desired since they
have sprue, risers, gates, etc. attached to them.
Besides, they are not completely free of sand particles.
This operation of cutting off the unwanted parts,
cleaning and finishing the casting is known as felting.

This includes:
1. Removal of cores from the castings.
2. Removal of gates, risers, runners, etc. from the

castings.
3. Removal of fins, and other unwanted projections from
the castings.
4. Removal of adhering sand and oxide scale from the
surface of the castings (surface cleaning).
5. Repairing castings to fill up blowholes, straightening
the warped or deformed castings.
Q.8. What do you understand by design of casting?
Ans. Design of casting includes following: -

1. Design for directional solidification.
2 Design for minimum stresses
3. Design for metal flow.
+4.Cast-well design.
5.Design for minimum casting.
6. Design for expected tolerances.
7. Functional design.
Q.9. Describe shell moulding in terms of the following :-
(i) Its principal
(ii) Patterns for it.
(iii) Materials used in making shell
(iv) Steps in the process
Use sketches at appropriate places.
Ans. Shell moulding :- Shell moulding is a method of

metal casting, in which conventional rammed sand moulds
are replaced by relatively thin, rigid shells of
approximately uniform wall thickness. By the same

technique, hollow cores can be made to replace the
traditional solid rammed and baked cores normally used in
green sand moulds.
The main steps in shell moulding are as follows :-
1. A metal pattern usually of cast iron having the same
profile as that of the required casting is heated to
1500-2500C in an oven. It is taken from the oven and a
stripping agent, usually silicon 5 to 10 % solution in
paraffin or water, is sprayed on the pattern to
facilitate the subsequent withdrawal of the shell from
the pattern.
2. As shown in figure,(b),the pattern is clamped to the
dump box which is mounted on trunions. In the box, the

dry sand resin mixture is the shell forming medium.
3. The dump box is inverted, as shown in figure (c), so
that the dry sand mixture falls on to the hot pattern
face. The hot pattern face causes the resin to soften
and flow. After about 30 seconds, the resin component
of the sand-resin mixture softens and fuses to form a
fairly uniform shell about 60 cm thick on the pattern
face.
4. The dump box is returned to its original position as

shown in figure (d), and excess of sand-resin mixture
falls back to the bottom of the box leaving a shell
adhering to the hot pattern surface. The partly cured

shell is then placed in an oven for final curing.
This is carried out at about 4000C and may take about
two minutes.
5. When curing is complete, the shell becomes rigid and
is stripped from the pattern by spring loaded ejector
pins, which pan through the pattern plate as shown in

figure (e).
6. Two such shells are fixed together to form the
complete mould, with the help of bolts, clips or glue

and placed in a suitable box with proper backing and
to receive the molten metal as shown in figure (f).
Sand for shell moulding.
Usually zircon sand of rounded grain shape, free
from organic impurities and having a grain size of 100 to
150 mesh (B.S.) is used. Coarser sands increase shell
strength but lower surface finish. Finer sands improve
the surface finish but weaken the shell. Although zircon
sand is costlier than silica sand, it gives, a stronger
shell for a given percentage of resin binder and a good
surface finish.
Binder for shell moulding:
The binders used are resins of thermosetting type
and the most common resin are phenol formaldehyde, urea

formaldehyde, and polysters. The resins are used in the
powdered form and when subjected to about 2000 to 2500C,
they melt instantly and turn into a rubbery state and

harden after one or two minutes. The usual amount of
resins in the sand moisture varies from 3 to 10 per cent.
Q.10. Explain the method of CO2 moulding with its neat
sketch. 4
Ans. In this method silica sand and 3.5 to 5% Sodium
silicate liquid base binder, mixed for 3 to 4 minutes in
a muller, silica sand should be clean, dry and free from
clay. To obtain collasibility property some additives

like, wood, coaldust, flour graphite etc. are added.
Moisture content should not exceed 3%. This
prepared sand is put in to the mould (around the pattern)
by any convenient method.

After packing, CO2 gas is forced into mould at a
pressure of about 1.41 kg/cm2, called gassing. CO2 reacts
with sodium silicate, following reaction takes place and
silica jel is formed.
Na2SiO3+H2O+CO2 Na2CO3+(SiO2+H2O)
(Sodium (Sodium (Silica
Silicate) Carbonate) jel)
Silica jel binds the sand grains together to provide

the strength and hardness to the Mould. Steps of carbon
dioxide moulding shown below.
Q.11. What is centrifuguring? Describe the process
stating its differences with other centrifugal casting
method?
Ans. This is also sometimes known as pressure casting.
It mainly differs from true centrifugal or semi-
centrifugal casting methods in that unlike the latter
two, the axis of rotation and that of the moulds do not
coincide with each other, as the moulds are situated at a
certain distance from the central vertical axis or
rotation all around the same. Shapes of castings do not
carry any limitations in this method and a variety of
shapes can be cast. A number of small mould cavities are
made around a common central sprue and connected to the

same through radial gates. For a higher rate of
production the stacked moulds can be used with advantage.

As in semi-centrifugal force used to force the molten
metal from the central sprue into the mould cavities
through the radial gates. Sectional view through a
typical mould for centrifuging is shown in Fig.
Q.12. What are the factors to be considered while
selecting the method of casting?
Q.13. Specify and explain the method of casting used to
manufacture pipes. 7
Ans. ** Write the process of centrifugal casting**
Q.14. Explain in detail investment casting?

Q.15. What is mercast process of casting?
Ans. In this process frozen mercury is used for the
production of precision castings. In this case, the
metal mould is prepared of the necessary shape with gates
and sprue-holes. It is then placed in cold bath and
filled with acetone (which acts as a lubricant). Mercury
is poured into it and freezing of mercury takes place at
200C after about 10 minutes of pouring. The patterns are
then removed and are given dippings in a cold ceramic
slurry bath, until a shell of about 3 mm is built up.
Mercury is then melted and removed at room temperature.
The shell is dried and heated at high temperature to form
a hard permeable shape. The shell is then placed in a
flask, surrounded by sand, preheated and filled with

metal. After solidification of metal, the castings can
be removed.
Q.16. What is core? What is its use? What are the
characteristics of a good core?
Ans. A core can be defined as a body of sand, generally

prepared separately in a core box, which is used to form
a cavity of desired shape and size in a casting. However,
there are some exceptions to this definition. For

example in a pattern can be used to form a core as a part
of the mould, this being known as a green sand core.
Similarly, in permanent moulds or dies, the cores are
formed by the metallic moulds themselves as an integral
part of them. Cores which are prepared separately in
core boxes are called dry sand cores, and held and
located in the moulds in the seats formed by the core
prints provided on the patterns. The main

characteristics required in a good core are the
following:
1. It must be sufficiently permeable to allow an easy
escape to the gases formed.
2. It should be highly refractory to withstand the
intense heat of molten metal.
3. It should be enough hard and strong to bear its own
weight and the force of molten metal.
4. It should have high collapsibility i.e., it should be
able to disintegrate quickly after the solidification
of the metal is complete.

5. It should not carry such constituents which will give
rise to excessive gases on coming in contact with the
molten metal.
The main ingredients of core sand mixtures and their
essential characteristics have already been discussed
in the last chapter.
Q.17. Explain hot chamber die casting machine?
Ans. The main parts of a hot chamber machine are shown
Fig. This is operated by a hydraulic plunger. This

plunger acts inside a cylinder formed at on end of the
goose-neck type casting submerged in the molten metal. A
port is provided near the top of the cylinder to allow
the entry of the molten metal into it. When the bottom of
the plunger is above the port the cylinder is connected
to the melting pot through this port. The down stroke of
the plunger closes this port, cuts off the metal supply
and applies pressure on the molten metal present in the
goose neck to force the same into the die cavity through
the injecting nozzle. After a certain period of time the

plunger is raised up, causing the remaining molten metal
in the nozzle and channel to fall back into the goose

neck casting. Just before the end of its upward stroke
the plunger uncovers the port, through which more molten
metal enters into the cylinder. The dies are then opened
and the casting ejected. Zinc based low melting point
alloys are generally cast in these machines.
Q.18. State its advantages and disadvantages?
Ans. Advantages
1. Surface finish a good

2. Dimensional accuracy is high
3. Thin sections upto 2 mm can be cast
4. Sand handling is minimum

5. Permeability of the shell is high
6. Surface chilling of the castings is absent and
the castings are free from skin hardening
7. Less floor area is required
8. It is highly adaptable for mechanisation
9. Cost of cleaning the casting is low
10.Casting defects are minimum
11.Shells can be stored
12.It allows for greater detail and less draft
13.Unskilled labour can be employed.
Disadvantages
1.Higher pattern cost
2.Higher resin cost
3.Not economical for small runs
4.Dust-extraction problem
5.Complex jobs cannot be shell moulded.
Shell moulding machines are of two types, (1) Semi
automatic (2) Automatic.
Q.19. Illustrate and desirable the process of Semi-
Centrifugal casting. 7
Ans. This process, which is also known as profiled
centrifugal casting is widely used for relatively large
castings which are symmetrical in shape, such as discs,
pulleys, wheels and gears etc. In this method the mould
is rotated about vertical axis and the metal poured
through a central sprue. It is not necessary to cast

only one mould at a time. Several moulds can be stacked
together, one over the other, and fed simultaneously
through a common central sprue, as shown in Fig. This

provision increases the rate of production considerably.
The centrifugal force is used to feed the metal outwards
to fill the mould cavities completely. The centre of the

castings is usually solid, but, if required, a dry sand
central core may be used to produce the central hole.
The speed of rotation of these moulds is much lower than

that in true centrifugal casting. With the result the
pressure developed is too low and the impurities are not
directed towards the centre as effectively as in true
centrifugal casting. The speed of rotation of these
moulds is such that a linear speed of about 180 meters
per minute is obtained on the outer edge of the casting.

The moulds used may be of green sand, dry sand, metal or
any other suitable material.

Q.20. Describe the complete procedure of investment
casting. What are the main advantages and disadvantages?
Ans. INVESTMENT CASTING :- It is also known as Lost was
or Precision casting. The castings produced by this
method are within very close tolerances and do not
require subsequent machining. The procedure adopted for

investment casting is as follows.
1. First of all, a metal die for casting the wax pattern
is made.
2. The wax patterns and gating systems are produced from
the metal dies by injection. The wax is injected into
the mould at 500C to 800C and at pressure of 35 kg/cm2 to

kg/cm2.
3. The wax assembly is dipped into a slurry of a
refractory coating material. A typical slurry consists of
silica flour suspended in ethyl silicate solution of
suitable viscosity to produce uniform casting after
drying. After dipping, the assembly is coated by

sprinkling it with silica and allowed to dry.
4. The coated wax assembly is now invested in the mould.
This is done by inverting wax assembly on a table,

surrounding it with a paper-linked steel flask and
pouring the investment moulding mixture consisting of

either sand 95%, water 27 to 31% and 5% alumina cement.
The mould material settles by gravity and completing
surrounds the pattern as the work table is vibratech the
moulds are then allowed to dry in air for 2 to 3 hours.
5. The wax is melted out of the hardened mould by heating
it in an invested position at 900C to 1800C. The melted
wax may be collected and re-used.

6. The mould is again heated at the rate of 400C to 700C
per hour from about 1500C to 10000C for ferrous alloys and
6500C for alluminium alloys. The temperature is
controlled so that the mould is at a temperature
desirable for pouring the particular alloy. The
investment moulds may be poured under simple
gravitational force or under the force of applied out
pressure or by centrifugal force.
(a)
(b) (c) (d)
HEAT
(e) (f)
Following are the advantages and disadvantages
investment casting.
Advantages :
1. The close tolerances (±0.05 mm) are easily maintained
in average work.
2. It produces extremely smooth surfaces.
3. It eliminates post machining operations including
thread cutting and gear tooth ferming.
4. It is adaptable to all metallic alloys.
Disadvantages :
1. The investment moulds as well as the materials from

which they are made an single purpose, therefore they
can not be reused. This increases cost of production.
2. The larger objects are impractical for investment

casting due to equipment size limits.
Steps involved in making investment casting.
(a) Wax injected into die to make pattern.

(b) Pattern have been gated to central sprue.
(c) Placing a metal flask around the pattern assembly.
(d) Investing the wax pattern assembly.

(e) Removing wax pattern from investment mould.
(f) Pouring molten metal into the mold.
(g) Removing casting from the mold by breaking the mold
material.
Q.21. What do you understand from ‘Centrifugal castings’?

How are the centrifugal casting methods classified?
Ans. The process of centrifugal casting is also known as
liquid forging. It consists of rotating the mould at a

high speed as the molten metal is poured into it. Due to
the centrifugal force the molten metal is directed

outwards from the centre, towards the inside surface of
the mould, with considerable pressure. As a result of

this a uniform thickness of metal is deposited all along
the inside surface of the mould, where it solidifies, and
the impurities being lighter remain nearer to the axis of
rotation. This process enables the production of
castings with greater accuracy and better physical
properties as compared to sand castings. It also enables
the production of distinct surface details and dense
metal structure. Although many different shapes can be
cast through this process, but those with symmetrical

shapes are best suited for it. The better physical
properties of the castings are the result proper
directional solidification of the metal inside the mould.

It is achieved because the denser(or cold)metal is
automatically forced towards the outer side of the
casting by the centrifugal force, whereas the hotter

metal remains on the inner side of the casting to provide
the required feeding of metal during solidification. The
centrifugal casting methods can be classified as follows:

1. True centrifugal casting.
2. Semi-centrifugal casting.
3. Centrifuging.
Q.22. What are the main methods of casting applied to
investment casting?
Ans.
1. Gravity casting method.
2. Centrifugal casting method.

3. Vaccume casting method.
Q.23. What are the materials commonly used for making the
moulds for centrifugal casting?

Ans. The moulds used in centrifugal casting methods are
made of sand, metal or graphite. Sand moulds are
generally preferred for slender castings where the metal
has to flow a long distance. The use of these moulds
minimises chilling effect. For quantity production metal
moulds are preferred. Metal moulds are made from cast
iron, high carbon steel or alloy steel. Graphite moulds
are largely used for non-ferrous castings.
Q.24. With the help of neat diagram describe the process
of true centrifugal casting. How this method can be used
for production of pipes?
Q.25. Describe step by step, the process of shell
moulding. What are its advantages and disadvantages?
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
This ‘notes’ is useful for the students of

Chemical, Polymer, Textile Engg.
For This Notes students of A.E.C. Chikhali

J.D.I.T. Yeotmal, and U.D.C.T Amravati
Contact
Siddhivinayak Computers
(0724)422684
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

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Mech Tech – Unit 1 1

Q.1. What are the sources for obtaining magnesium? OR

Q.1. What are the non ferrous metals ? State their

advantage in Engg. works. OR

Q.1. Describe the extraction method, properties and uses

of the following Non-ferrous Metals.

1) Copper 2) Lead 3) Magnesium

Ans:- Extraction, properties and uses(advantages)of non-

Aluminium:-Aluminium ore is found as a hydrated aluminium

oxide, called bauxite. The impurities present in it are

therefore, is to separate aluminium oxide from these

impurities For this purpose, bauxite is fused in an

electric furnace and carbon is added to reduce the

impurities, which form a sludge and can be removed, As a

result of this refining, pure aluminium oxide is

is used to reduce the aluminium from its oxide. As the

electrolytic processes proceeds the oxygen escapes

through the bath and molten aluminium collects at the

bottom (cathode), from where it is periodically tapped

Properties and uses

1.High electrical conductivity. Used for heavy conductors

and busbar work.

2. High heat conductivity: Used in various domestic

utensils and other heat conducting appliances.

containers for chemical industry and window frames etc.

4. It can be readily worked extruded, rolled, drawn and

5. It has high ductility and is extremely light in

weight. Widely used in aircraft industry.

6. Its corrosion resistance can be considerably increased

7. It becomes hard by cold working and, therefore,needs

8. Its low tensile strength can be sufficiently improved

Copper:- The copper ore is first roasted to driven off

water, CO2 sulphur. It is followed by melting in a

Silica is added to the charge to form slag with

impurities like iron and alumina etc. The molten metal

is tapped and transferred to a converter where air is

blown through it to burn the impurities. This result in

the production of a crude form of copper, known as

blister copper,containing 68% purity. Final refining is

done by an electrolytic process, pure copper depositing

on the cathode. This gives a highly pure(99.96%) copper

which is remelted and cast into suitable shapes.

properties and uses

1.High electrical conductivity:- Used-as electrical

conductor in various shapes and forms viz., wire, sheet

and contacts etc.

heating vassels and appliances.

3. Good corrosion resistance. Used for providing base

coating on steel prior to nickel and chromium plating.

4. High ductility:- Can be easily cold worked, rolled,

drawn and spun. Loses ductility in cold working,

5. Light in weight. Used in various appliances where

light weight with good corrosion resistance is desired.

Magnesium. Principal sources for obtaining magnesium are

natural salt brines, sea water, water liquors obtained

from potash industry and ores.The principal ores are

magnesite, dolomite and dolomite and carnallite, Various

processes have been developed for its extraction, but the

Properties and uses

1. It is the lightest of all metals, weighing about

2. It may be sand, gravity and pressure die-cast.

3. Its castings are pressure tight and obtain good