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Metal cutting
operation involves three basic requirements. (1) There must be a cutting tool that is
harder and wear resistant than the work piece material, (2) there must be interference
between the tool & the work piece as designated by the feed and depth of cut, and (3)
There must be relative motion or cutting velocity between the tool & the work piece
with sufficient force and power to overcome the resistance of work piece material. As
long as above three conditions exist, the portion of the material being machined that
interferes with free passage of the tool will be displaced to create a chip.
Metal Forming
In chip removal processes the desired shape and dimensions are obtained by separating
a layer from the parent work piece in the form of chips. During the process of metal
cutting there is a relative motion between the work piece & cutting tool. Such a relative
motion is produced by a combination of rotary and translatory movements either of the
work piece or of cutting tool or of both. These relative motions depend upon the type of
metal cutting operation. The following table indicates the nature of relative motion for
various cutting processes.
Center less)
In chipless processes the metal is given the desired shape without removing any
material from the parent work piece.
1.4.1 Cutting Speed (V) – It is the travel of a point on cutting edge relative to surface
of cut in unit time in process of accomplishing the primary cutting motion. It is denoted
by ‘V’. The unit of cutting speed is m/min.
In lathe work for turning a blank of diameter ‘D’ mm, (The diameter of
machined surface is ‘Do’ mm.) rotating at a speed ‘N’ (rpm) the cutting speed at
periphery (maximum) is given by.
V = π D N /1000, m/min ........………………………….. 1.41
SPEED
β K
M β N N
N P
P
L
Fig. 1.2 Force acting on an indenting wedge Fig. 1.4 Force triangle at the wedge
check
in fig.1.3. The body resists the motion of the wedge. The reaction N.N. appear at the
cheeks of the wedge. The forces N.N. are perpendicular to the cheeks in absence of
friction. From the equilibrium of forces (fig.1.4)
N KM 1 1
= = =
P KL KL / 2 2 sin β
2
KM 2
Thus, the mechanical advantage in force is dependent on the wedge angle B . The
smaller the angle of wedge, the greater will be the gain in force. In other words, the
wedge angle 'β' determines the resisting force of the cutting edge.
The cutting edge must be oriented at certain required angles with the work
surface depending on nature of operation to be performed. Fig.1.5 shows that the
wedge must be set at right angles to the work surface, so that the driving force "P" is in
the direction of parting. Fig.1.6 shows during chipping the wedge must be set at an
angle inclined to work surface so that separation of chip can be done.
Thus for the wedge two geometric parameters can be defined i.e. (1) The wedge
angle 'β' and (2) the axis of symmetry along which 'P' acts. In addition to above, two
more parameters are introduced to confirm conditions of chipping action. These
parameters are set with respect to velocity Vector, 'V' and are defined as (3) cutting
angle 'δ' and (4) clearance angle;, as shown in fig.1.7. The sign convention for
describing these angles are set wr.t. left handed cork screw rule with "Z" axis coinciding
with the direction of the velocity vector, V, and the cutting edge lying along 'Y' axis.
Hence, 'δ' & 'α' are measured positive, when moving from 'Z' to 'X' axis as shown in
fig.1.7. The parameter ' γ ' defines the indination of the top face of the wedge (called
Rake face) w.r.t. velocity vector V, while the parameter 'α' describes the relief provided
from the bottom face of the wedge (called flank), often another derived parameter,
called (5) Rake angle 'γ', is used to describe the indination of the top face of the wedge.
This is derived parameter given by
γ = 900 - δ .
However if δ > 90 , then ' γ ' is negative. Thus from this equation it may be seen
that while 'δ' is always positive the rake angle can become positive or negative
depending an value of angle 'δ'.
v
δ
δ
β
β
β < 90 0 β > 90 0
1.6 Types of metal cutting processes:
The metal cutting processes are classified in to two types, on the basis of angular
relationship between cutting velocity vector V, & the cutting edge of the tool.
(1) Orthogonal cutting process (two dimensional cutting)
(2) Oblique cutting process (three dimensional cutting)
In orthogonal cutting the cutting edge of the tool is perpendicular to cutting
speed
direction. In oblique cutting, the angle between the cutting edge & cutting velocity
vector is different from 900. fig 1.9 & fig.1.10
Fig1.9 Fig1.10
a b c d
Fig1.12
whole chip slides up the tool face. The distorted layers now by means of phenomenon
of slip & the layers are called slip planes. The number of slip planes depends upon the
lattice structure of parent workplace material. The distortion of layers tends to
strengthen them (work hardening or strain hardening) & therefore the hardness of chip
is much greater than the hardness of the parent material.
Thus in simple language the mechanism of chip formation in any machining
operation is a rapid series of plastic flow & slip movements ahead of the cutting edge.
The degree of plastic flow ahead of the cutting tool determines the type of chip that will
be produced. If the w/p material is brittle & has little capacity for deformation before
fracture the chip will separate along the shear plane to form what is known as a
discontinuous segmental chip. Material that are more ductile & have capacity for
plastic flow will deform along the shear plane without rupture. The planes tend to slip
& weld to successive shear planes, & the result is a chip that flows in a continuous
ribbon along the face of tool. This is known as a continuous chip & is usually much
harder than the parent material because of its strain hardened conditions.
1) Discontinuous Chips: These chips are in the form of small individual segments,
which may adhere loosely to each other to form a loose chip. These chips are formed as
result of machining of a brittle material such as gray cast iron or brass castings, etc.
These chips are produced by actual rupture or fracture of metal ahead of the tool in
brittle manner. Since the chips break up into small segments and also shorter chips
have no interference with work surface. The friction between chip & tool reduces
resulting in better surface finish. These chips are convenient to collect, handle &
dispose of during production runs. The conditions favorable for formation of
discontinuous chips are:
1) Brittle & non ductile metals (like cast iron brass castings Beryllium, titanium etc.)
2) Low cutting speed.
3) Small rake angle of the tool.
4) Large chip thickness.
2) Continuous Chips: These chips are in the form of long coils having uniform
thickness throughout. These chips are formed as result of machining of relatively
4) Small chip thickness.
5) Sharp cutting edge.
6) Efficient cutting fluid.
7) Low friction between chip tool interfaces.
3) BUE Chip (or continuous Chip with BUE): These chips are also produced in the
form of long coils like continuous chips, but they are not as smooth as continuous chips.
These chips are characterized by formation of built up edge on the nose of the tool
owing to welding of chip material on to tool face because of high friction between chip
tool interfaces. Presence of this welded material further increases the friction leading to
building up of the edge, layer by layer. As the built-up edge continuous to grow, the
chip flow breaks a portion of it into fragments. Some of them are deposited on the work
piece material while the rest are carried away by the chips. The hardness of this BUE is
two to three times higher than the work piece material. This is the reason why the
cutting edge remains active even when it is covered with built-up edge. The only point
in favor of BUE is that it protects the cutting edge from wear due to moving chips and
the action of heat. This brings about an increase in tool life. These chips normally
occur while cutting ductile materials with HSS tools with low cutting speeds. Chips
with BUE are under desirable as they result in higher power consumption poor surface
finish and higher tool wear. Generally speaking any change in cutting conditions that
will eliminate or reduce BUE is desirable, since high friction between chip & tool face
is major cause of BUE. Any means of reduction of friction such as use of lubricant &
adhesion preventing agent is often effective to reduce BUE, especially when it is
necessary to operate at low cutting speeds. Tool material with inherent low coefficient
of friction or a high polish on tool face can also reduce friction & hence BUE. The
conditions favorable for BUE chip are.
1) Ductile material
2) Low cutting speed.
3) Small rake angle of tool.
4) Dull cutting edge.
5) Coarse feed.
6) Insufficient cutting fluid.
7) High friction at chip tool interface.
4) Inhomogeneous Chip: These chips are produced owing to non uniform strain set up
in material during chip formation and they are characterized by notches on the free side
of chip, while the side adjoining the tool face is smooth. The shear deformation which
occurs during chip formation causes temperatures on shear plane to rise which in turn
may decrease the strength of material & cause further strain if the material is poor
Table 1.1. : Factors responsible for the formation of different types of chips.
Factors Types of chips
Discontinuous Continuous With BUE Inhomogeneous
1. Material Brittle Ductile Ductile Which Shows
decreased in
Yield Strength
with temp. &
Thermal
conductivity
medium.
2. Cutting speed Low High Low -
3. Tool Small rake Large rake Small -
geometry
4. Friction - Lower Higher -
5. Chip Large Small Small -
thickness
6. Cutting fluid - Efficient Poor -
7. Feed - - Coarse -
8. Cutting edge - Sharp Blunt -
Thus, Cutting ratio, r = t/tc
Where t = undeformed chip thickness (i.e. before cutting) and
tc = mean thickness of chip ( i.e., after cutting )
Chip reduction coefficient K = 1/r
The following methods can be used to determine cutting ratio
1) The cutting ratio "r" can be obtained by direct measurement of "t" & "tc". However
since underside of chip is rough the correct value of "tc" is difficult to obtain and hence
tc can be calculated by measuring length of chip (1c) and weight of piece of chip "W".
tc = W/ (bc .1c. ρ )
Where, bc = length of chip
1c = width of chip
ρ = Density of material assumed to be unchanged during chip
formation.
2) Alternatively, the length of chip (1c) & length of work (l) can be determined.
The length of work can be determined by using a work piece with slot, which will break
the chip for each revolution of work piece. The length of chip can be measured by
string.
It can be shown that r = 1/1c as under. When metal is cut there is no change in
volume of metal cut. Hence volume of chip before cutting is equal to volume of chip
after cutting i.e.
1.b.t. = 1c.b.tc
or l.t. = 1c.tc (assuming b = bc)
l/lc = t/tc = r
3) Cutting ratio can also be determined by finding chip velocity (Vc) and cutting
speed (V). The chip velocity (Vc) can be accurately determined by determining length
of chip with a string for a particular cutting time measured with the help of a stopwatch.
It can be shown that r = Vc/V, as under. From the continuity equation, we know that
volume of metal flowing per unit time before cutting is equal to volume of metal
flowing per unit time after cutting.
i.e. V.b.t. = Vc .b.tc
or Vc/V = t/tc = r (assuming b = bc)
t1 = AB sin φ
t2 = AB sin cos (φ - γ )
t2 1 cos (φ − γ )
= =
t 1 rc sin φ
cos φ cos γ + sin φ sin γ
=
sin φ
1
= cot φ cos γ + sin γ
rc
1
− sin γ
r 1 − r sin γ
c c
cot φ = =
cos γ rc cos γ
rc cos γ
tan φ =
1 − rc sin γ
BA = BE + AE
BA = ∆x cot φ +∆x cot {90 - (φ -γ)}
BA
ε= = cot φ + cot (90 − (φ − γ ) )
CE
= cot φ + Tan (φ − γ )
t= f sin φp b=
sinφ p
φp
φp=900
can be evaluated as
R = (Px + Py + Pz )1/2 = PX 2 + PY 2 + PZ 2 ........ 1.14.1
This three-dimensional force system can be reduced to a two-dimensional force
system if in orthogonal plane π 0 the forces are considered in such a way that the entire
force system is contained in the considered state, when
R= Pz2 + Px2 y ..... . . . 1.14.2
Tan β = F/N
(b) Analytical Treatment [See fig 30.16 (b)]
F = GH + HB = AI + HB
Or F = Ff. cos α + Ft. sin α ………….30.17
N = AG = DH - DI
= Ft.cos α - Ft. sin α …………..30.18
F Ff cos α + Ft sin α
Now =
N Ft cos α − Ff sin α
Dividing R.H.S. by cos α
F Ff + Ft tan α
= …………..30.19
N Ft − Ff tan α
s t f
Fc = AO + OE
Fc = Ff. cos φ + Ft. sin φ
τ s A1 cos (β − α )
F1 = × (30.38)
sin φ cos (φ + β − α)
Eq. (30.38) may be differentiated w.r.t. φ and equated to zero to find the value of
shear angle, φ for which F1 is a minimum.
d F1 cos φ. cos (φ + β − α) − sin (φ + β − α )
= − τ s A 1 cos (β − α). = zero (0).
dφ sin 2 φ. cos 2 (φ + β − α )
or cos φ .cos (φ +β - α ) – sin (φ + β - α ) = 0
or cos ( φ + φ + β - α ) = 0
cos (2 φ + β + α ) = 0
π
2φ+β-α= (30.39)
2
π β α π 1
or φ= − + = − (β − α)
4 2 2 4 2
π 1
∴ Shear angle, φ = − (β − α) (30.40)
4 2
-Merchant found that the above theory agreed well with experimental results obtained
when cutting synthetic plastics but agreed poorly with experimental results obtained for
steel machined with a sintered carbide tool.
-It should be noted that in differentiating equation (30.38) with respect to φ, it was
assumed that A1, α and ι should be independent of φ. On reconsidering these
assumptions, Merchant decided to include in a new theory the relationship.
τ s = τ so + k σ s (30.41)
The energy consumed during cutting process is primarily utilized at the shear
plane, where plastic deformation takes place and at chip tool interface where friction
resists the flow of chip. The total energy per unit time (E) is approximately equal to the
sum of shear energy (Es), Friction energy (Ef) and negligible amount of energy required
Similarly specific shear energy (es) & specific friction energy (ef) can be defined by the
following relations.
SOLVED PROBLEMS :
Example :
1) In an orthogonal cutting operation, following date have been observed :
Determine : Shear angle, the friction angle, shear and normal stress on shear plane,
shear strain, shear strain rate, cutting power, specific shear energy, friction energy,
cutting energy.
Solution :
(i) Shear angle : φ
Solution : = 8, = 70
Uncut chip. thickness = sin
= 0.18 sin 70 = 0.169 mm.
chip reduction coefficient k =
= 0.42
Now = tan-1 ( r.cos / ( 1 - r sin ), = 23.980
Example 4 : In orthogonal turning process the feed is 0.25 mm/rev. at 50 rpm. The
thickness of chip removed is 0.5 mm.
(a) What is the cip thickness ratio ?
(b) If the wok diameter is 50 mm before the cut is taken what is the approximate length
of chip removed in the minute. Assume a continuous chip is produced in process.
Solution : Uncut chip thickness, t = f = 0.25 mm & ctc = 0.5 mm
8. What is cutting ratio (or chip thickness ratio) and chip compression factor (or chip
reduction coefficient) ?
9. What are the various methods of estimating cutting ratio ?
10.What is shear angle ? How it can be measured ?
11. Prove that
tan φ = r cos ν/(1 - r sin ν) Where, φ = Shear angle.
r = Cutting ratio.
ν = Rake angle.
12. Prove that
Vc = Vsin φ/cos (φ - ν ) and Vs = Vcosν/cos (φ - ν )
Where V, Vc, Vs are cutting, chip & shear velocities respt.
"φ" is shear angle & ν is rake angle.
13. Prove that shear strain "∈" in orthogonal cutting is given by ∈= tan (φ - ν ) +
cosφ, where φ is the shear angle and ν is the rake angle.
14. How is the thickness & width of undeformed chip estimated in turning operation
15. What is metal removal rate ? What is specific metal removal rate ? How can
"MRR" be increased ?
16. What is meant by the orthogonal cutting system of first & second kind ?
Illustrate with neat sketchs.
17. What are the components of resultant force in an oblique cutting operation ?
18. What are the assumptions of Merchant's theory ?
19 Prove that φ = π/4 + ν/2 - β/2 where φ is shear angle, ν is rake angle & β is
friction angle.
20. What is the modified Merchant's theory of metal cutting ?
21. What is meant by power consumed in metal cutting ? What are it's various
components ?
22. What is total specific energy, specific shear energy, and specific friction energy
23. How can the resultant force in orthogonal cutting be estimated by graphical
method ?
24. What is metal cutting ? What are the basic requirements for metal cutting ?
How are the metal cutting processes classified.
25. What is the effect of setting up of the cutting edge on rake & clearance angle ?
26. In an orthogonal cutting operation the following data is obtained.
1) Cutting force = 180 Kg.
2) Feed force = 100 Kg.
3) Chip thickness ratio = 0.32 Kg.
Find graphically or otherwise shear force on shear plane, normal force on shear plane,
Frictional force, Normal force, and resultant Force.
Determine : shear angle, friction angle, shear stress along shear plane, chip
velocity, shear strain in chip, cutting power and specific cutting power.
29. A tool making an orthogonal cut has a rake angle of - 100. The feed is 0.10 mm,
the width of cut 6.5 mm. the speed 160 mpm, and a dynamometer measures the cutting
force to be 180 kg and normal thrust force to be 140 kg. A high speed photograph
shows a shear angle of 200. Estimate,
(a) Chip thickness (b) coefficient of friction. (c) Shear and normal stress on shear
plane (d) shearing strain, (e) H.P. to shear the metal (f) H.P. lost in friction.
-000-
either replaced or reground resulting in loss of production due to machine down time.
Thus, study of tool wear is important from standpoint of satisfactory performance &
economics. However it is very difficult to find out exact cause and nature of tool wear,
the phenomenon being very complex & dependent on many aspects, viz, tool work pair,
environment, temperature of interfaces etc.
Tool wear causes the tool to lose its original shape. So that in time the tool
ceases to cut efficiently or even fails completely. After a certain degree of wear, the
tool has to be resharpened for further use. The following basic causes, which can
operate singly or in various combinations, produce tool wear.
At low cutting speeds the flow of material past the cutting edge is irregular or
less laminar & contact between the two becomes less continuous due to built up edge
formation. Under such condition fragments of tool are torn intermittently from the tool
surface. This phenomenon is called Attrition or Adhesion. This wear progresses,
slowly in continuous cutting, but rapidly in interrupted cutting or in cutting where
vibrations are severe due to lack of rigidity. As the cutting speed is increased, the flow
of metal becomes uniform & attrition disappears. Such wear is prominent in cutting
with carbides at low cutting speeds where B.U.E. is likely to form.
Diffusion wear occurs because of the diffusion of metal and carbon atoms from
tool surface into work material & chips. It is due to high temperature and pressures
developed at the contact surfaces in metal cutting & rapid flow of chip on tool surfaces.
The rate of diffusion wear depends upon the metallurgical relationship between the tool
& work material. It is one of the major causes of wear and is of special significance in
the case of carbide tools diffusion is a phenomenon strongly dependent upon
temperature. For example diffusion rate is approximately doubled for an increment of
the order of 200 C. in the case of machining steels with HSS tools.
The abrasive action of the work on tool is basically due to two principal effects.
tool reducing the relief or clearance angle. This is a deformation rather than a wear
process but it accelerates other wear processes, which reduce life of the tool. The
deformation leads to sudden failure of the tool by fracture or localized heating. The
occurrence of plastic deformation is in itself an indication of the overstressing of the
tool material.
In compression
In compression
Fatigue wear
When two surfaces slide in contact with each other under pressure, asperities on
one surface interlock with those on other. Due to the frictional stresses compressive
stress is produced on one side of each interlocking asperity and tensile stress on the
other side. After given pair of asperities have moved over or through each other, the
above stresses are relieved. New pair of asperities is, however, soon formed and the
stress cycle is repeated. Thus the material of the hard metal near the surface undergoes
cyclic stress. This phenomenon causes surface cracks, which ultimately combine with
one another & lead to crumbing of the hard metal. Further the hard metal may also be
subjected to variable thermal stress owing to temperature changes brought about by
cutting fluid, chip breakage & variable dimensions of cut, again contributing to fatigue
wear.
This type of wear may occur when ions are passed between the tool & work
piece-causing (an oxidation of the tool surface & consequent) breakdown of the tool
material in the region of the chip-tool interface. It has been argued that since
sufficiently high temperatures exist on the chip tool interface, a thermoelectric E.M.F. is
set up in the closed circuit due to the formation of a hot junction at chip tool interface
between dissimilar tool & work materials. This current may assist the wear process at
2.3. Types (Geometry) of Tool Wear:
These wear produces wear lands on the side & end flanks of the tool on account
of the rubbing action. In the beginning, the tool is sharp & the wear land on the flank
has zero width. However very soon, the wear land develops & grows in size on account
of abrasion adhesion & shear.
A typical case of flank wear development is shown in fig. 2.3.a. This figure can
be divided into their definite regions A, B & C. In the region A, the wear grows rapidly
within a short period of time because during the initial contact of sharp cutting edge
with work piece; the peaks of the micro-unevenness at the cutting edge are rapidly
broken away. In the region C, the wear rate is rapid and may lead to catastrophic failure
of the tool. In general it has been found that the most economical wear land at which to
remove the tool & re sharpen is just before the start of rapidly increasing portion of the
The wear land on flank will not be generally uniform along the entire cutting length of
cutting edge. Depending on machining conditions, the following types of wear lands of
combinations of these are generally observed.
1. Excessive wear at the nose end of the flank (fig. 2.4a) is brought about by plastic
deformation, which reduces relief in the area, thus increasing the rate of wear.
This can also be brought about if the crater on the rake face breaks through the
nose area.
2. Irregularities in the wear along the whole cutting edge length due to minute
chipping or attrition of the cutting edge (Fig. 2.4 b).
3. Excessive wear at the line of depth of cut (Fig.2.4 c). This can be either due to
the work hardened surface by the previous cut or heat treat scales or by abrasive
materials on the work-piece.
2.3.2 Crater Wear:
It occurs on the rake face of the tool in the form of a pit called as crater. The
crater is formed at some distance from the cutting edge. As the cutting speed is
increased the tendency of the cutting tool to fail by cratering is increased. The tool chip
interface temperature increases with cutting speed & at these higher temperatures the
rate of material removed from the tool increases. The careful measurements have
shown that the location of maximum cratering & maximum chip tool interfacial
temperature coincide with each other. It may there fore be assumed that cratering is a
temperature dependent phenomenon caused by diffusion & adhesion etc. fig.2.5 shows
how the radius of curvature 'Rc', the depth of crater 'dc', the width of crater and the
distance of start of crater from the tool tip 'a', change with time. The crater significantly
reduces the strength of the tool & may lead to its total failure.
Rc
a b Rake face
dc
Tool
The time for which a cutting edge or a cutting tool can be usefully employed
without regrinding ( eq HSS) or replacement (eg. Throw away carbides tip) is called
the tool life. It is not economical to continue to use the tool beyond its useful life. This
is because increased bluntness of cutting edge causes increase in cutting forces & as a
result tool temperature also increases. Consequently affecting the dimensional accuracy
& quality of machined surface, ultimately leading to rejection. Also, the rate of flank
wear-after certain critical value increases rapidly. The progress of crater wear is also of
similar nature. Continued use of worn out tool would ultimately cause catastrophic
failure or total loss of tool & even damage of the component. If tool is ground or
replaced prior to catastrophic failure; the volume of material ground off the tool
(therefore the regrinding cost) would not be excessive. Hence certain tool failure
criteria have been devised to specify maximum wear of the tool that can be tolerated
before regrinding or changing it. The tool failure criteria (or tool life criteria) can be
classified as direct & indirect.
nose portion middle portion rear portion
TH hf hf max
flank
FLANK WEAR LAND
ELEVATION
Dc
RC
CROSS SECTION OF AA B A B
These depends upon the measurement of effects produced by tool wear and
chipping etc.
3) Limiting value of increase in cutting forces: With increase in wear the tool forces
increases (However, cutting forces tend to decrease some - what with increase in crater
wear on account of increase in effective rake angle). A tool dynamometer or a power
meter can therefore be used to monitor changes in cutting forces or rate of power
consumption. When their increase exceeds predetermined amount, the tool life is said
to have been exhausted.
4) Limiting value of Volume of metal removed: If the cutting conditions are kept
constant (eg feed, speed; depth of cut) the progress of tool wear is directly proportional
to actual machining time or volume of metal removed. Thus limiting value of volume
of metal removed can be related to limiting value of width of wear land on flank & can,
therefore be used as tool failure criterion.
The tool life equation is an empirical relationship between the tool life and one
or more variables of cutting process, e.g. cutting speed (V), feed (f), and depth of cut (d)
etc. The most famous tool life equation is due to F.W. Taylor. On the basis of
experimental work, Taylor showed the tool life 'T' and cutting speed 'V' is related to
each other as follows.
V. Tn = C . . . . . . (eqn. 2.5.1)
Where the constant 'n' is called the tool life exponent and the parameter 'C' is known as
Taylor’s constant. Making T = 1 in the above equation, we find that C = cutting speed
for 1 min tool life. The constants n & C depends upon the tool and work materials, feed
and depth of cut, type of coolant and tool geometry etc. Equation 2.5.1 can be written
as
LogV + n Log T = log C or log T = (1/n) log C - (1/n) log V . . . . . (eqn 2.5.2)
Cutting speed - Tool life curves can be graphically expressed as shown in fig.2.7.
From the graph it can be seen that 'n' is the negative inverse slope of the curve and C is
the intercept velocity at T = 1. The following values may be taken for 'n'.
V
The equation 2.5.1 can be generalized or modified to include the effects of feed
and depth of cut one such relationship is of the form
Where the exponent n, n1, n2 and constant C1 depend upon tool and work materials,
tool geometry and type of coolants etc.
Following comments can be made from the tool life equation.
(1) Smaller the values of exponent, n, (as in HSS) the steeper is the slope of log
V - log T line and more is the sensitivity of tool life to changes in cutting speed. Thus
the ideal tool material is one, which can be used at any cutting speed without affecting
tool life. i.e. when n=1. From this point of view ceramics are superior to carbides and
HSS.
(2) The larger the value of 'C' the greater is the tool life and superior is the tool
material.
(3) Even under constant cutting conditions values of ‘n’ and 'C' are found to
vary widely.
(4) In some cases, the tool life criterion changes with change in the predominant
wear mechanism at different cutting speeds. For example in cutting steel with carbide
tools, the predominant mechanism changes from adhesion wear at lower cutting speeds
to diffusion wear at higher cutting speeds. Consequently the tool life criterion has to be
changed from limiting width of flank wear land to limiting depth of crater wear. Since
the values of exponent are different for different wear mechanisms the log T - log V
graph has two straight-line segments as shown in fig 2.7. (C).
The various variables, which affect the tool life, are as under -
1. Tool material
2. Work material
3. Process variables - speed, feed, depth of cut
4. Tool geometry
5. Cutting fluid
6. Vibration behavior of machine tool work system
life) at all cutting speeds. Thus for a given cutting speed cemented carbide will have
better tool life than HSS. Hence tool life is dependant on type of tool material.
2. Work material:
The properties of the work material that tend to increase the tool life are as
follows, (a) softness (or lack of hardness) to reduce cutting forces, cutting temperature
& abrasive wear, (b) absence of abrasive component such as slag inclusions, surface
scale & sand, (c) presence of desirable additives like lead to act as boundary lubricants
and sulphur to reduce cutting forces & temperatures by acting as stress raiser, and (d)
lack of work hardening tendency that tend to reduce cutting forces and temperatures and
also abrasive wear and (e) occurrence of favorable microstructure, e.g. presence of
spheroidized pearlite instead of lamellar pearlite in high carbon steel improves tool life.
Similarly in cast irons, a structure that contains large amount of free graphite & ferrite
leads to greater tool life than one, which contains free iron carbide.
The cumulative effect of speed, feed & depth of cut can be seen from the
modified Taylor’s tool life equation. Increase in any one of the above reduces the tool
life, but cutting speed has more impact on tool life followed by feed & depth of cut.
Tool life is a direct function of temperature. At higher feed, the cutting force per unit
area of chip tool contact on rake face & work tool contact on flank face is increased
there by increasing the temperature and hence wear rate. Similarly, at higher depth of
cut, the area of chip tool contact is increased roughly in proportion to change in depth of
cut (such is not the case with feed change where the chip tool contact area changes by
larger proportion than change in depth of cut), increasing the temperature &
consequently the wear rate.
4. Tool geometry:
Rake angles, cutting edge angles, and relief angles & nose radius affect the tool
life by varying degree.
I) The cutting forces, tool temperatures & tool wear decrease with increase in rake
angle (fig.2.8 a) consequently tool life improves when rake angles are increased.
However larger rake angles make the cutting edge sharper reducing the mechanical
strength & making the tool liable to chipping. Therefore there is an optimum rake angle
associated with every tool work pair.
optimum
Tool li
rake
Negative Positive
rake rake
Effective Rake Angle
(a)Effective rake angle versus tool life
ii) Large relief angle increases volume of wear required to reach a particular width
of flank wear land as seen from fig. 2.8 (b) and also reduces the tendency of rubbing
between flank & work piece surface, there by increasing the tool life. However, on the
other hand, larger the relief angle smaller is the mechanical strength of cutting edge &
more liable the tool is to chipping fracture. Thus there is maximum tool life for
optimum relief angle as seen for fig.2.8 (c).
f f
hf hf
tool tool
Relief
angle Relief Angle
(C)
T
The cutting fluid cools the tool & work piece, acts as lubricant and reduces
friction at chip tool interface. Therefore the cutting temperatures are decreased & the
use of cutting fluid in the tool materials with low value of hot hardness (e.g.) shows
appreciable increase in tool life. However in carbides & oxides, which have high value
of hot hardness, the cutting fluid has negligible effect on tool forces or tool life.
If the machine is not properly designed, if the work piece is long and thin or if
the tool overhang is excessive, chatter may occur during cutting. It is known that
chatter may cause fatigue failure or calas tropic failure of tool due to mechanical shock.
2.7. Machinability: -
Tool life is usually the most important of the three main criteria used for
assessing machinability. This is due to the fact that the tool life can be conveniently
expressed in terms of cutting speed (which being the direct function of cutting speed
when all other variables are kept constantly. Thus the cutting speed for producing a
predetermined value of tool life, termed as specific cutting speed, could be assessed on
basis of comparison of machinability of materials. For example if "Vs" is the cutting
Al. alloys - 300-1500
Mg. alloys - 600-2000
According to this criterion, the work material will have better machinability if
under a given cutting conditions, it takes on a better surface finish (Polish or is less
rough) than the other. This criterion is used in situations where surface finish is the
cause of rejection of machined parts. In such case the first two criteria may not be
helpful, because in spite of particular work material permitting the use of higher cutting
speeds without an excessive number of tool changes or power consumption, satisfactory
finish may not be achieved.
4. Other Criteria: -
Several other criteria have been put forward to assess machinability of different
work materials. Prominent among these are (a) Temperature developed at chip tool
interface, (b) depth of hole cut out in a given time by a standard drill that rotates at a
standard speed and specified downward thrust (penetration test), and (c) depth of cut
produced by a power hacksaw on a standard bar of given material under standard
sawing conditions of speed and downward pressure (sawing test). Even physical
properties like hardness, tensile strength, shearing strain per unit shear stress in plastic
range, and different combination physical, properties ( eg. hardness, specific weight,
ductility etc.) have been correlated with tool life in order to use them as machinability
measures.
In spite of availability of several machinability criteria, a wholly satisfactory
unit of machinability has still not been found. For example, if different tool materials,
different cutting conditions or different operations are used to assess the relative
machinability for the same set of work materials, different machinability ratings are
obtained. Therefore the tables of machinability ratings are used only for general
guidance during process planning.
dry
H refined kerosene
100
(MICRONS)
emulsion
(MICRONS)
A
H(RMS)
activated
B kerosene
v1 v2 v3 v
m/min 0
0.075
(a)Effect of cutting speed
0.10
0.14
f
0.2
(b) Effect of feed
b) Feed: Increase in feed deteriorates surface, finish. It is observed that a rate of feed
(f) in the range 0.12 mm/rev. to 0.15 mm/rev. has a negligible effect on the height of
irregularities but further increase in feed rate increases surface roughness Fig.2.10 (b)
shows effect of feed for different coolants on height of surface irregularity.
c) Depth of Cut: Increase in depth of cut deteriorates the surface finish.
hrms =
∑ yi 2
n
c) Roughness Width: It is the distance parallel to the nominal surface between
successive peaks or ridges, which constitute the predominant pattern of the roughness.
d) Roughness width cut off: It is the greatest spacing of the repetitive surface
irregularities to be included in the measurement of average roughness height. It is
always greater than the roughness width in order to obtain the total roughness height
rating.
e) Lay: It is the direction of predominant surface pattern produced & reflects the
machining method.
Lay: The direction of predominant surface pattern. A typical surface is shown in Fig.
14.9. The identification of the macrogeometrical of microgeometrical errors is based on
(l/h) ratio as shown in Fig.14.10. When (l1/h1) > 1000, the deviation is
macrogeometrical denoting out-of-roundness, taper or barrerl form. When
500>(l2/h2)≥150 the deviations denote waviness. When (l3/h3) ≤ 50, the
microgeometrical deviations are characteristic of surface roughness.
Waviness (secondary texture other definition): - The surface irregularities, which are
of greater spacing than the roughness. On machined surfaces such irregularities may
result from machine and work deflections, vibrations, etc.
h) Flaws: Cracks, scratches & ridges are called flaws. They are not regularly recurring
& are imperfections outside the regular pattern of surface texture.
other definition FLAWS: Irregularities, which occur at one place or at relatively
infrequent intervals in the surface, e.g., a scratch, ridge, hole, crack, etc.
PEAKS
ROUGHNESS SPACING
CENTRE LINE
VALLEYS
The surface finish is dependent upon tool geometry, feed rate & other
irregularities or contributing factors in the machining process. Such roughness is called
natural surface roughness. If the other contributing factors are entirely eliminated them
the surface roughness produced will depend entirely on tool geometry such surface
roughness is called ideal surface roughness.
2 4
Where "h" is the height of the geometry of the surface roughness.
Now from geometry:
f
h = ----------------------------------- . . . . . . . Eqn 2.8.4
tan "SCEA" + Cot "ECEA"
from Eqn 2.8.4 & 2.8.3. we have
Ra = f/4.(tan "SCEA" + Cot "ECEA")
or Ra = f/4.(tan "Cs" + Cot "Ce") . . . . . . . Eqn. 2.8.5.
For rounded corner tool, the ideal value of surface roughness is
d
ECEA
TOOL
(a)
SCEA
f
h/2
I II
(b)
1S0 have recommended a series of roughness values & corresponding roughness
symbols as shown in the following table.
D hononing
C
Machining cost
grinding
linear variation
A
finish turning
1/h CLA
REAMING
ELECTRON BEAM
LASER
ELECTROCHEMICAL
BORING, TURNING
ELECTRONIC GRINDING
GRINDING
HONING
ELECTROPOLISH
POLISHING
LAPPING
SUPER FINISHING
In the figure the inverse of surface roughness (i.e. surface finish) is plotted
against machining cost. The increase in cost with reduction in roughness is gradual in
rough turning (up to points). But for finish turning it increases exponentially. The
surface roughness produced by various machining operations is given in 2.14 (a)
During the metal cutting heat is generated. The heat is generated due to the
plastic deformation of the chips, friction between the rake face & chips & friction
between clearance face & work piece. The heat generated increases the temperature of
both cutting tool & work piece. The increase in temperature of tool decreases hardness
& hence wear resistance & life. The effect is more pronounced in H.S.S. tools than in
carbide tools. Fig.2.16 (a) shows zones of heat generation. In shear zone maximum
heat in generated (i.e. 60 %). In chip - tool zone, 30% heat is generated, whereas in
tool-work zone minimum heat (i.e. 10%) is generated. In fig. (2.1% (b) it can be seen
that at higher cutting speeds the distribution of heat in chips, tools & work piece is
nearly in the ratio 80:10:10
Moreover, apart from heat generation the chips also create problems in metal
cutting such as bad surface finish due to abrasion of chips to the tool or finished work
piece. On these aspects the functions of cutting fluid can be summarized as follows.
1) Lubrication at chip tool interfaces & work tool interface & hence preventing welding
between contact surfaces.
2) Cooling action or heat dissipation to avoid loss of hardness & wear resistance &
hence improve tool life.
3) Flushing of chip to protect surface finish & improve tool life. Cutting fluids, besides
fulfilling the above functions should have following properties.
1) It should be stable & non-foaming.
Fig 2.17 Effects of cutting fluid in metal cutting
a) Neat Oil: - is mineral oil, vegetable oil or blends of these oil straight mineral oil i.e.
without additives is not suitable for high loading & speed & hence used only in light
machining of non ferrous metals like Aluminum & magnesium. Compounded oils (i.e.
mineral oil blended with fatty acids like lard oil, oleic acid, sperm oil etc) have high
b) Soluble Oil or Water emulsion: -
Soluble oil is blend of mineral oil, emulsifying agents & coupling
agents. Emulsion is formed by mixing soluble oil with water in the ratio 1:10 to 1:40
for general machining & up to 1:80 for grinding. Conventional emulsions are milky in
appearance. Translucent emulsions are made by reducing oil droplet size of emulsion
with a high ratio of emulsifier to oil. They have higher film strength & better
anticorrosive properties than opaque emulsions. They also provide improved tool
lubrication due to fine dispersion of oil globules. Heavy-duty soluble oils i.e. soluble
oils blended with fatty acids & EP additives, can withstand heavy cutting pressure &
temperature. Heavy-duty soluble oils are used in rich concentration with ratios ranging
from 1:5 to 1:15.
c) Synthetic Coolants: - They are usually non petroleum products, though sometimes a
small percentage of mineral oil is added, many chemical agents blended in water form
synthetic coolants. Basically they are coolants, though some are also lubricants. They
are used in grinding than in other operations & they are mixed in the ratio 1:50 to 1:250
parts of water. The main problem associated with use of synthetic coolant is its
compatibility with the other lubricants, seals metal parts. Because they are chemically
active, they react easily with paints, other metal parts, etc. Before deciding on the use
of these coolants, this aspect should be thoroughly looked into comparative
performance of these three fluids is given in the Table 2.1.
d) Gaseous Fluid: The high cost restricts use of gaseous fluid. Mist is commonly used
gaseous fluid. Mostly compressed air is used to atomize the coolant & carry it to the
point of cutting in the form of mist. Gases like carbon dioxide, Freon, and helium are
used for special applications.
6. Drilling-deep-hole 5 5 5 5 9 9
SOLVED PROBLEMS:
Example 1:
Tool life test has been carried at two different cutting speeds. The width of flank
wear land has been measured after every 10 minutes at each cutting speed. The width
of flank wears land at V = 150 m/min were noted as 0.10, 0.15, 0.22, 0.25, 0.30, and
0.35, min after 10,20,30,40,50,60,70 minutes of cutting respectively. Similarly at the
cutting speed "V" = 200 m/min the values of width of flank wear land were noted as
0.20, 0.25, 0.30, 0.40, 0.50, 0.85 mm for cutting time of 10,20,30,40,50,60,70 minutes
respectively. If the criterion of tool failure is selected, as 0.30 mm, width of flank wear
land, calculate values of "n" & "c" of the Taylor's tool life equation.
Solution:
As the tool failure criterion is 0.3 mm, the value of cutting time corresponding to
this value will be the tool life at that cutting speed. From the above data we have,
Tool life T1 = 60 min. for V1 = 150 m/min., and
T2 = 30 min. For V2 = 200 m/min.
Therefore putting these values in the Taylor's T.L. equation we have.
Example 3 :
In a laboratory test on turning operation, the following data have been
recorded,
S.No. V, m/min f mm/rev. d, mm T, min.
1 100 0.10 2.0 120
2. 130 0.10 2.0 50
3. 100 0.12 3.0 70
4. 100 0.12 3.0 65
Putting values of n in (iii) & (iv) & dividing (iv) by (iii) get.
(65/70) x (3/2) n2 = 1 or
n2 log [3/2] = log 1.66, Therefore n2 = 0.38
Putting values of n in (ii) & (iii) & dividing (iii) by (ii). We get
(100/130) x (70/50) n x (0.12/0.10) n1 = 1
n1 log (0.12/0.10) = log (1.18), Therefore n1 = 0.885
Example 4: The tool life equation for a turning operation is given as 36.5 = V. T0.13,
f0.60.60 d0.3 .A 60 min. tool life was obtained using the following cutting conditions; V =
40 m/min, f = 0.25 mm/rev. d=2.0 mm. Calculate the effect on tool life if speed, feed,
and depth of cut are together increased by 25% and also if they are increased
individually by 25%
Tool life T = [36.50/50 x (0.25) 0.3 x (2.0) 0.3] 1/0.13 = 10.78 min.
Similarly, for, V = 40m/min, f=0.3125 mm/rev & d = 2.0 mm, we
get T = 21.42 min
and for V = 40 m/min, f = 0.25 mm/rev & d = 2.0 mm, we get T = 35.85 min.
If all these values are increased together i.e. for V = 50m/min, f=0.3125 mm/rev.
and d = 2.5 mm, we get T = 1.26 min.
It can be seen that the impact of increase in cutting speed on tool life is
maximum.
Example 5. The tool life for H.S.S. tool is expressed by the relation V.T.0.14 = C1 and
for tungsten carbide is VT0.2 = C2. It at a speed of 24m/min tool life for both the tools
is 128 minutes; compare the life of tools at a speed of 30 m/min.
Solution
For HSS tool, V x T0.14 = C1 . . . . . . . . . . . . (i)
i.e. 24 x (128)0.2 = C2
Thus, at higher cutting speed of 30 m/min. WC Tools gives better tool life than HSS
tools or the tool life of HSS tool T1 = (29/38) x T2 or 0.7 x T2 at V = 30m/min.
Example 6: The cutting speed and tool life relationship for a tool is given by V.T.0.2 = C.
During machining, 18 mm bar on a lathe at a cutting speed of 110 m/min. the tool life is
found to be 60 minutes. Calculate spindle speed to give a tool life of 5 hours. If length
of cut per component is 50 mm, what is the cutting time per piece and how many pieces
can be produced between tool changes at a feed of 0.15 mm/rev?
QUESTIONS
1.What are the various causes or mechanisms of tool wear? Explain.
2.Explain what is meant by the terms - (Explain with neat sketches)
1.Attrition wears
2.Diffusion Wear
3.Abrasive Wear
4.Fatigue Wear
5.Plastic deformation
6.Electrochemical wear & chemical wear.
CHAPTER-III
CUTTING TOOL MATERIALS AND NOMENCLATURE
3.1 Introduction:
Before 1990, machining had been carried out with plain carbon steel tools or air
hardening alloy steel known as Mushet steel. The machining speeds were low due to
failure of cutting tool to maintain hardness at high temperature generated due to high
cutting speeds. A big break-through has been achieved when F.W. Taylor developed a
tool material (called high speed steel), which can operate at relatively higher cutting
speeds. The cast cobalt base alloy tools appeared on the scene in 1915. They have
higher hot hardness; wear resistance & fewer tendencies to form BUE. In 1926,
Germans introduced a new material called sintered tungsten carbide tools, manufactured
by the powder metallurgical technique. They can operate at comparatively very high
cutting speeds than HSS tools. Addition of carbides of titanium, tantalum & niobium to
basic tungsten carbides enhanced range of application of the carbides. Later on coating
of titanium carbides has been applied on cemented tungsten carbide increasing the
permissible speed by about 50-80% over the conventional carbides. Ceramic tools (or
cemented oxide tools) were produced & developed in 1960's. The permissible speed
with cemented oxides is two three times higher than those with cemented carbides.
However, the brittleness restricts their use to only on rigid or (more of less vibration
free) machine tools. In 1971, Union carbide (USA) developed a new material UCON,
consisting of columbium, tungsten & titanium, permitting increase in cutting speed
compared to carbides. In 1972, a new tool material called cubic boron nitride,
(Borozon) with hardness next to diamond has been developed. Consequently,
permissible machining speed with these tools is five to eight times that of carbides &
can he used to cut hardest materials. Polycrystalline diamond bonded to carbide base
has been used as a tool material.
3.2. Desirable Properties of Cutting tool materials:
The three most important desirable properties of tool materials are wear
resistance, hot hardness & Toughness. This is because during machining, the tool tip is
subject to relatively high temperature, intense normal pressure, frictional stress at chip
tool contact & work tool contact, impact & vibrations.
Apart from these three important properties some other properties such as
thermal conductivity for removal of heat from chip tool interface, low coefficient of
thermal expansion, weldability, hardenability, dimensional stability, freedom from
distortion after heat treatment etc are also desired.
a) Wear Resistance: It is also called as abrasive wear resistance (or AWR). Wear
resistance, is necessary to enable the cutting tool to retain its shape & cutting efficiency.
Wear may be caused due to various mechanisms such as attritition or adhesion,
diffusion, abrasion etc. Wear resistance refers to the ability of tool material to retain its
sharpness & shape for sufficiently long time while machining a given material at a
relatively low cutting speed. Wear resistance & toughness are two independent
properties. The gain of one results in loss of other.
The basic desirable properties namely RBF, HTS & AWR do not always have
concurrent high attributes in any given tool material. Generally, if a material is made
more refractory to gain "HTS", it becomes more brittle with low "RBF". If it becomes
more abrasion resistant, it also becomes brittle fig.3.31 (a) shows relative "HTS",
"AWR", & "RBF" for two arbitrary materials in a ternary plot. Such a plot may be used
AWR
TERNARY PLOT
3.3. Carbon Tool Steels:
These are plain carbon tool steels to which no appreciable amounts of alloying
elements are added. The carbon percentage varies from 0.6 to 1.5% in these steels.
Increase in carbon percentage increase toughness and shock resistance whereas decrease
in carbon content increases hardness & abrasion resistance. Very small quantities of
Silicon, manganese, chromium or vanadium are added for increasing the hardness and
grain refinement.
Carbon tool steel is broadly classified into two categories water hardening steel
(W type) & oil hardening steel (0 types), depending on the quenching media employed
during heat treatment. The W-type should be quenched in water or brine for obtaining
full hardness. The O-type does not require such a drastic quenching to reach full
hardness due to addition of manganese & other alloying elements.
The carbon tool steel has good toughness but relatively very rapidly drops after
2000C & their recovery hardness is also poor. These tools are cheaper compared to
other tool materials. They have better machinability & Grindability.
They are used for manufacturing various tools such as milling cutters, twist
drills, turning tools, reamers etc, for use on easy to machine materials like wood,
magnesium, brass & aluminum due to their less wear resistance & high toughness. In
these cases the chip tool interface temperatures are low (below 2000C) & hence better
tool life can be obtained even with carbon tool steels. Form tools of special shapes for
small number of work piece are often made of carbon tools steel for reasons of
economy. High carbon tool steel are also used for manufacturing tool operating at low
cutting, speeds & at lighter cuts viz. hand taps, threading dies, razor blades engraving
tools, files, reamers, hand & hack saws. Carbon tool steel with relatively low
percentage of carbon are used in hand chisels, hammers, swages etc., where a
combination of hardness & shock resistance is required.
The functions of the various alloying elements used in HSS are given below.
i) Carbon (C): - If combines with iron to form carbide which makes it respond to
hardening, thus increasing hardness, strength & wear resistance.
ii) Tungsten (W) & molybdenum (Mo) - These are strong carbide formers and
produces fine structure adding to both toughness & hardness. But to produce the
desired effect "W" is added in larger quantity compared to "MO". It also improves hot
hardness.
iii) Chromium (Cr): It improves hardenability & forms various carbides of Chromium,
which are very hard. Grain refinement due to addition of chromium improves both
toughness & hardness as in case of "MO" or "W". The alloys of “Cr” improve abrasive
wear resistance.
iv) Vanadium (V): It is strong carbide former & hence used in small amounts. It
increases the hot hardness & abrasive wear resistance.
v) Cobalt (Co): It is usually added to increase hot hardness to permit use of higher
cutting speeds.
2) Conventional HSS of grades M33, M36, T4, T5, T6, with cobalt are used for heavy
duty. They have better hardness & wear resistance but are less tough compared to M2.
- Grades T4, T5, T6, are used as tool bits for planning & heavy-duty turning.
- Grades M33 & M36 is used for interrupted cuts in tough & scaly forging, for drilling
& milling hard alloy steels, titanium, stainless steels & heat resistant materials.
3) High vanadium high speed selects (represented by grades M3, M4, T15). They have
higher hot hardness but are less tough than M2 grade & are more difficult to grind.
They are used for single point lathe tools, screw machine tools, flat & circular form
tools broaches drills etc. for machining of conventional alloys super alloys & refractory
metals.
4) High hardness Cobalt steel (represented by grades M41 to M46) have exceptional
secondary hardening properties and have very good hot hardness their hardness is much
higher than conventional HSS. They are used for machining heat-treated steels,
titanium alloys, and high hardness aerospace materials like cobalt & nickel base alloys.
3.5.1 Applications:
i) They are used for machining cast & malleable iron, stainless steels, non-ferrous
metals, nitroloy, bronze, monel, graphites plastics.
ii) Due to high shock resistance there performance is better than, carbides an interrupted
cuts.
iii) Due to castability used for making form tools.
iv) Cast alloys can be used at cutting speed. 25-30% higher than for HSS for roughing
cuts (Group A & B) & for speeds 30 to 50% higher (than for HSS for finishing cuts
(Group C)
v) They are used for machining plastics (which contain corrosive curing agents) because
of their anticorrosive property (due to high chromium content).
vi. They are suitable for operations where wide range of cutting speeds are encountered
in a single cut e.g. parting,
vii. They can be used in multiple tooling on automats where operations require surface
speeds between HSS & carbides. In multiple tooling carbides are used on larger
diameters where on the cast alloys are used on smaller diameters cast alloy tool are also
used to small diameters jobs where a wide range of speeds are encountered in a single
cut as in case of parting.
materials like cast iron. Later on additions of carbides of titanium; tantalum, niobium
etc. extended their range of applications.
3.6 Manufacture:
The basic manufacturing process of cemented carbides is shown in fig.3.4 and
consists of following.
i. Refining the ore & reducing in the hydrogen to get powder of W, Ti, Ta, Nb, etc. &
Cobalt.
'K' - grade carbides are essentially straight tungsten carbide with cobalt as binder. 'P'
grade carbides are combined carbides, tool materials (Wc, Tic, Tac, Nbc) with Cobalt as
binder.
i. Carbides are used for applications employing higher cutting speeds due to high hot
hardness on machine tools having sufficient power.
ii. Due to good hardness & wear resistance used for work rest blades, lathe centers, seal
rings, nozzles, measuring gauges, scribers etc.
iii. Due to low coefficient of thermal expansion. Used for making slip gauges & gap
gauges.
3.7.3 Applications:
1) Ceramics provide good surface finish and quality, eliminating finishing operations
like grinding, cast iron, known for its abrasive characteristics, can be machined to
smooth bright finish using ceramics.
2) Heat treated steels up to 65 Rc can be finished up to 5 µm surface finish, often
eliminating the grinding operations, with a considerably improved tool life vis-à-vis
carbide.
3) High temperature alloys such as hastelloy, stellite & Monel can also be machined by
ceramic tools.
4) Ceramics are used for roll turning, long tube boring, cylinder liner boring, etc.
3.8.1 Applications:
i) The diamonds of various forms are used in industrial application such as in grinding
wheels, dressing tools, dressing dies, hones, lapping compounds, core drills etc.
ii) As a cutting tools single crystal diamonds is used for machining non ferrous metals
like aluminum, brass, copper & bronze etc. especially where high silicon content is
involved.
iii) It is also used for non-metallic materials like plastics, epoxy resins, hard rubbers,
glass & also precious metals like gold silver & platinum.
iv) Polycrystalline diamond is widely used for machining glass, reinforced plastics,
eutectic & hyper – eutectic alloys etc.
3.9.1 Appications:
1) It is recommended for roughing semi finishing & finishing cuts in turning, facing &
boring.
2) It is not generally applied to milling, parting off, or for operations, using form
tools,
3) It Is basically steel machining grade & not recommended for machining of Iron,
stainless steel & super alloys having nickel, cobalt & titanium base.
chemically inert, but an atmosphere of steam it breaks down chemically to boric acid
and ammonia 9000 C. (But it has no reaction with oxygen like diamonds at 8000 c)
3.10. Application:
(1) CBN is successfully used as a grinding wheel, on HSS tool providing
good surface finish, precision high output also on titanium, nitronic, stainless steel
stellities.
2. It is used in grinding of hardened steel in the form of lead screws bores, splines,
thereales, ball & roller bearing part .CBN cut cool & grinding affects such as burrs of
thermal shocks are net produced.
3. They are also used for grinding the sideways of cast iron beds of housing type
components.
TOOL MATERIALS
′ = (1 / n − 1).Tc
Topt . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6
The cutting speed for maximum production rate can also be found by
differentiation of rate of production w.r.t. Cutting speed & equating to zero as under
from eqn.4.2 we have
The high efficiency range may be wideVopt or narrow depending on job conditions.
V'opt
If tool cost is relatively low for a given job the Vopt may be 5% to 10% higher. Where
tool cost is high end points of this range can have 30% to 40% differential. It is always
preferable to operate at a cutting speed greater than Vopt instead of a slightly, smaller
value because at least with slightly higher production cost than Cp corresponding V ′ ,
we get higher production rate. The increase in production rate and hence increase in
revenue may offset the increased unit costs. To investigate this effect, an alternative
model based on maximum profit criterion has been developed.
In the earlier sections we have seen the two criteria viz. minimum cost criterion
& maximum production rate criterion. At the cutting speed for minimum cost
production rate may be too low to maximize profit rate. While at cutting speed for
maximum production rate the cost of production may be too high and hence profit
margin too low. Therefore, the cutting speed for maximum profit rate would be
different from that for minimum cost speed and maximum production rate speed.
38.3 ECONOMIC CUTTING SPEED (additional material)
An increase of cutting speed has two main effects upon the economics of
cutting; the metal removal rate is increased, the too] life is decreased. An increase in the
metal removal rate will lower the direct cost of metal removal; a reduction in the tool
life will increase the costs of servicing and replacing worn-out tools. The two separate
effects, and their combined influence upon the total cost of machining, are best
illustrated graphically as shown in Fig. 38.1.
The following deductions can be made from Fig. 38.1
(a) As V increases, the time required to remove the metal (and hence the cost of its
removal) will fall. The cost of cutting ∝ 1/V.
38.4 ECONOMICS OF METAL REMOVAL
When a manufacturing process consists of removing metal with a single point tool, the
type of tool used or cutting speed chosen can have an effect upon the total cost of the
product. It is worth considering this because the removal of metal in this manner is still
a major process in the engineering industry. In a roughing operation the object is to
remove a certain volume of material at minimum cost or minimum time, or maximum
profit, and the type of tool and cutting speed should be chosen accordingly. In a
finishing operation the object is to improve a certain area of material until it is of the
desired quality of finish. In the following discussion the chosen criterion is the removal
of certain volume of material at minimum cost. Again it should be emphasized that the
analysis used to obtain the optimum conditions is worthless unless the cost information
used is relatively accurate.
F. W. Taylor introduced the well-known relationship between the cutting speed used in
a metal removing operation and the life of the tool, viz.,
VT" = C ...(1)
where V = cutting speed
T= tool life
(Although in basic SI units meters and seconds should be used, meters and minutes are
the practical units)
n = an index closely related to the cutting tool material, and the following values
may be used :
0.1 to 0.15 for high speed steel tools
0.2 to 0.4 for tungsten carbide tools
0.4 to 0.6 for ceramic tools
C = a constant
The slope of the straight line will give the value of n, and hence a value for C
can be obtained.
—It can be seen that if cutting speed V is increased, then tool life T will decrease.
Hence, metal is removed faster and therefore more cheaply. But tool life is shorter and
therefore tools replacement and servicing are more costly. This cost situation is shown
in Fig. 38.4.
VT = Optimum cutting speed where the total cost of machining a batch of components y
is at a minimum.
In order to find an expression for VT the tooling cost and metal removal cost (or
machining cost) must be added to give the total cost. Then by calculus the turning point
of the curve and hence VE can be found.
Let H = machining cost/minute i.e., labour cost/minute + over- heads/minute.
Let J = tooling cost i.e., cost of changing tool + cost of regrinding + tool depreciation.
Let y1 = cost of machining metal/unit volume of metal cut.
Let y2 = cost of servicing tools/unit volume of metal cut.
Let y = total cost/unit volume of metal cut = y1+y2.
1
= Where d = depth of cut
dfV
f = feed in length/rev
V = cutting speed
Therefore y1 = cost of machining metal/unit volume of metal cut.
= (time to machine a unit volume of metal in minutes)
x (machining cost per minute)
1
or y1 = ×H
dfV
1 K
Since d and f are constants therefore = where K is a constant.
dfV V
HK
y1 =
V
K K
The number of tool changes in minutes = where T is tool life in minutes at
V TV
cutting speed V.
1/ n
JK C
∴ y2 = But T=
TV V
1− n
JK JK (V) n
∴ y2 =
1/ n
=
C C1 / n
×V
V
1- n
HK JK(V) n
∴ y = y1 + y 2 = + …..(2)
V C1/n
Differentiating
machining costs H
1/ n
1 1− n V
∴ = .
R n C
1/ n n
V n n
∴ = ∴ V = C …(4)
C R (1 − n ) R (1 − n )
=VT at the minimum
This expression will enable VT to be calculated so that the optimum cutting speed can
be found to give minimum cost YT for the batch. It should be noticed that n from
Taylor's equation is important in this equation, hence the need to obtain its value
accurately. In this analysis we have not included the costs of handling the tool.
From eq. (1)
1/ n
V 1
=
C T
1/ n
V n
and from eq.(4) =
C
R (1 − n)
1 n
Hence =
T R (1 − n )
R (1 − n )
Or T=
n
T (1 − n )
=
R n
J
Since R= (eqn .3)
H
T T.H 1 − n
∴ = . …..(5)
R J n
tm
Tool cost = CT . …(b)
T
tm
Tool changing cost = C0 t c . …(c)
T
Handling cost = C0 th
Where C0 = operating cost (Rs/min)
tm = time required to machine the work piece, (min)
Ct = tool cost per cutting edge, (Rs)
T= average tool life, (min)
tc = tool changing time (min/operation)
th = handling time (min) (for loading and unloading of work pieces).
Average unit cost (Cu) = (a) + (b) + (c) + (d) per piece
tm t
C u = C 0 .t m + C t . + C 0 .t c m + C 0 .t h
T T
tm
C u = C 0 .t m + + (C t + C 0 .t c ) + C 0 .t h …(6)
T
There are two cost factors in this basic model (C0,Ct) and three time factors (tm,tc,th) in
addition to the tool life factor. Each of these factors will be discussed briefly.
Operating Cost (C0). The operating cost equals the sum of the machine operator's rate
plus appropriate overhead.
Tool Cost (Ct). The tool cost is the Cost of the insert price and a prorated cost per
cutting edge of the complete tool holder and any other parts such as chip breakers, shim
remove a tool that has failed and replace it or index it, reset for size, and be ready for
the next cut.
Handling Time (th). The handling time is the time in minutes required to load and
unload the work piece from the machine. It includes the idle time and time necessary to
advance and retract the tool.
Tool Life Factor. Tool life is taken from Taylor's equation, VTn = C. The average tool
life (T ) in minutes per cutting edge is :
1/ n
C
T= …(8)
V
C
Vmin = n
…(9)
1 C 0 t c + C t
− 1
n C0
1 C 0 t c + C t
Tmin = − 1
…(10)
n C0
38.8 CUTTING SPEED FOR MAXIMUM PRODUCTION
There are times when it becomes necessary to speed production beyond the
point of the recommended minimum cost. In this case, it is necessary to know what the
1
Tmin = − 1 t c …(12)
n
The tool life at maximum production rate is a function only of n, the slope of the curve
in Taylor's equation, and the tool changing time. Thus for an HSS tool (n = 0.1) with a
tool changing time of 1 min, Tmax =9 min; that is, the tool should last only 9 min. A
carbide tool, where n= 0.25 and I min is needed for tool changing, should only last 3
min.
38.10 MAXIMUM PRODUCTION RATE
The unit time required to produce a work piece,
t
t p = t m + t c m + t h …(13)
T
The maximum production rate will correspond to the minimum production time per
piece as obtained by differentiating Eq. (38.13) w.r.t. Cutting speed after substituting
time-cutting speed relationship (refer back).
∴ Cutting speed for maximum production rate is given by Eq. (38.11) and Tool life for
maximum production rate is given by Eq. (38.12)
These optimum values are dependent on index, n, and tool changing time, tc .
38.11 MAXIMUM PROFIT RATE
Profit rate (PR) = Profit per piece ( P R × Q ) where g is production rate per unit time.
1
Now Q= (refer eqs. 38.13 and 38.14)
tp
1
=
t
t h + t m + t c m
T
The total cost (CT) per piece is
t t
C T = K 1 t h + K 1 t m + K 1 t c m + K 2 m
T T
…(15)
Where K1 is direct labour cost (Rs)
K2 is tool-grinding cost (Rs)
th is handling (idle) time per piece (minutes)
tm is machining time per piece (min)
tc is tool changing time (min)
Taking income per piece as I
PR
PR = = 1− CT
Q
1− CT
∴ PR = P R .Q = (1 − C T ).Q =
tp
Substituting the value of CT from eq. (15) above
PR = T −K
1
tm
tm + tc + th
T
πDL λ
Nothing tm = = 0
1000.f .V V
πDL
Where λ0 =
1000.f
VTn = C0 (Taylor’s equation)
Where D is diameter of machined part, mm
L is length of machining, mm
f is feed, mm/revolution
V is cutting speed, m/minute
C0 is a constant
The equation for profit (16) reduces to
K 2λ0
I− .V (1 / n ) −1
C10/ n
PR = − K1
−1 t cλ0 (1 / n ) −1
t h + λ0V + V
C10/ n
…(17)
To maximize the profit rate, let
dPR
=0
dV
from which the following condition is derived
(1 − n )[K 2 t h + I − t c ].V 1 / n + λ 0 K 2 V 1 / n −1 − nC10/ n .I = 0
…(18)
For a known value of Taylorian exponent, n, the Vopt for maximized profit can be
numerically obtained.
SOLVED PROBLEMS:
Problem 1:
Brass components 75 mm long x 50 mm diameter is to be machined on
an automat, using a depth of cut of 1.25 mm. Select speed that minimizes machining
cost and calculate the corresponding tool life. Also estimate the cutting speed for
minimum time of production. Assume that
Labour plus overhead rate = Rs. 5/hr.
Reconditioning cost of tool edge = Rs.0.25/edge
[(1 / 0.25 − 1) (5 + 0.25 / 0.8)]0.25 And
opt
[(1 / n − 1) (Te + C e / C u )]n
= 135.6m / min
Topt = (G / Vopt )1 / n = 24.0 min. Similarly,
′ = Vopt at C e = 0 = 152.4m / min and Topt
Vopt ′ = 50 min .
Problem 2:
Mild steel work piece 150 mm long x 100-mm. diameters are to be turned on the
lathe using a feed of 0.15 mm/rev. And depth of cut of 2.5 mm., using brazed carbide
tipped tool. Find out production cost per piece, cutting speed & tool life for minimum
cost of production and maximum production rate, minimum cost of production and
minimum production time. The following relevant data is available.
Cp = Idle cost + cutting cost + Tool changing cost + Tool cost + Tool grinding cost.
VT0.22 = 475
For above machining operation, two types of tools may be used : (1) brazed tool
and (ii) threaway carbide inserts. The following cost data have been collected.
a) Machine cost :
Machining cost = Rs. 1.00/hour.
Machine overhead = 100% of labour.
Grinding cost (labour) = Rs. 1.50/hour.
Grinding machine overhead = 200 % of labour
Idle time = 5 min.
b) Tool cost :
For brazed tool For throwaway inserts.
Initial tool cost . . . Rs. 8.00 Original cost Rs.3.00
Grinding time . . . . . 5 minutes/edge Tool changing time = 1.5 min.
Tool changing time . . . 2 minutes Total Cutting edges = 8
No. of possible regrinds . . . . . 9
i) Plot the cost per piece as a function of cutting speed and hence find the
cutting speed for minimum cost for each case.
ii) Computes and compare the tool life for minimum cost per piece and for
maximum production rate for both type of tools.
German System
The German (DIN) system also specified two rake angles, called back rake and side
rake (Fig), but in the German system the angles were related to the position of the
cutting edge. The German back rake was the slope of the cutting edge measured in a
plane containing this edge and perpendicular to the tool base; the German side rake was
the slope of the tool face measured in a plane that was both perpendicular to the plane in
which back rake was measured and perpendicular to the tool base. This system had
some physical meaning in relation to the cutting process because both angles were
specified in relation to the edge of the tool that performs the cutting operation.
—A difficulty arose, however, when the system was used for grinding a cutting tool.
The problem is similar to that occurring in the American system.
ISO System (NRS) :
In this system, the side rake angle is defined as the angle between the base plane
of the tool and the rake face of the tool measured in a plane normal to the side cutting
edge. The back rake angle is the angle between the base plane & the rake face
measured in a plane normal to the end cutting edge. Stabler suggested backs rake
system because he found a good correlation between the cutting forces & the normal
rake angle (i.e. side rake angle of NRS) in oblique cutting. He also showed that the tool
rake face could be ground by directly setting the angles specified in this system on the
tool-grinding fixture.
For cemented oxide tools the recommended tool geometry is BR (100 to 250),
SR (10 to 250), ERA (50 to 100), SRA (50 – 150) ECEA (50 – 150) & SCEA (200 – 600).
0
Usual values of these angles are 20, 15, 15, 5, 10, 45) for BR, SR, ERA, SRA, ECEA &
SCEA respectively.
3) Assigning cutting variables to the tool i.e., depth of cut, feed & speed.
i) Depth of cut: The value of depth of cut is determined primarily from the magnitude
of the machining allowance. If for example a shaft is to be turned to a diameter of 100
mm from a bar of 104 mm diameter, the machining allowance will be (104-100)/2 i.e., 2
mm. The nearer the blank is to the finished part in shape & size i.e., smaller the
machining allowance the lesser the amount of metal required to be removed the shorter
the time required for machining, the higher the productivity in manufacturing the given
part.
It is advantageous to remove the whole machining allowance in a single pass, or
cut, as is commonly done in rough machining (i.e. depth of cut equal to machining
allowance). If the machining allowance is large then it is divided into more than one
cut.
In semi-finish turning a depth of cut of 0.5 to 2.0 mm. is assigned for finish
turning the depth of cut is in the range from 0.1 to 0.4 mm. If the allowance is larger
than these values, then these depths of cut refer to the second (final) pass.
2) Feed: In order to reduce the machining time i.e. to increase the productivity, it
preferable to apply maximum possible rate of feed, taking into account all the factors,
which may influence this rate such as surface, finish, cutting forces available strength &
rigidity of work piece & mechanism.
In practice feed is usually selected from tables of cutting conditions contained in
various handbooks. Thus according to commonly applied tables for machining of free
tool (the nearest lower speed or maximum 5% higher speed. This will be actual
rotational speed (N) at which the machining operation is to be carried out. It is used to
calculate actual cutting speed (Va).
The values of the recommended cutting speeds for particular selected tool
material, depth of cut & feed can also be selected from standard data available in
handbooks or catalogues viz. for rough machining of free machining steels with HSS at
a depth of cut of 2.5 mm & feed of 0.4 mm/rev. as can be seen from the table 5.2) & for
the same parameters the value of cutting speed for carbide tools is 140 to 170 m/min
(table 5.3). These values however will be required to be modified according to
available speed (rpm) on the machine tool.
4) Calculation of shank dimensions from strength and
rigidity considerations (Tool Shank Design):
The shank of a cutting tool is designed for strength and rigidity.
The shank of a single point tool may be rectangular square or round in cross
section.
The rectangular cross section is most often used because the reduction in
strength of the shank, at section I-I Fig.33.1, is less than for a square shank when a seat
is cu for a tip. Rectangular cross sections with various H-to-B ratios are used. In most
cases, H/B = 1.25 or 1.6 for B = 10 to 40 mm. It is advisable to use H/B = 1.6 for semi
finishing and finishing operations & H/B = 1.25 for roughing.
Square shanks tools are used for boring, turret lathe or screw machine tools, as well as
in other cases when the distance from the base of the tool to the line of centers of the
machine tool is insufficient to accommodate a rectangular shank. Round shank tools
are used for boring and thread cutting. They can be turned in holder to make
adjustments.
The cross sections of the rectangular tool shank are:
B x H = 10 x 16, 12 x 16, 12 x 20, 16 x 20, 16 x 25, 20 x 25, 20 x 32, 25 x 32, 25 x 40,
32 x 40, 32 x 50, 40 x 50 mm.
To determine the maximum permissible size of the shank cross section on a
strength basis, it is necessary to equate the actual, bending moment to the maximum
moment permitted by the cross section of the shank i.e.
Mb = M’b …(33.1)
In turn Mb = F2 l kgf. mm …(33.2)
and M’b = σb Z kgf.mm …(33.3)
Where1 = tool overhang (see Fig.33.1)
σb = permissible bending stress of the shank material , kgf per mm2, for
Unhardened structural steel with σt = 60 to 70 kgf per mm2 , σb = 20 kgf per
2
mm , for shanks of carbon steel, but heat-treated by the procedure for high-speed steel,
the permissible bending stress can be approximately doubled.
Z = section modulus of tool shank, mm3.
The section modulus of a rectangular cross section is
BH 2
Z= mm 3
6
Where B and H are the width and height of the shank at the critical section, mm
Hence we can write from Eqs. (33.1), (33.2) and (33.3) above
BH 2
Fz l = σ b Z = σb
6
from which
6F l
BH 2 = z …(33.4)
σb
In rectangular shanks of a height H = 1.6B
6 Fz l
B (1.6 B)2 =
σb
Therefore
6 Fz l
B=3 mm …(33.5)
2.56σ b
Since in square shanks the width is equal to the height, then from (33.4)
6 Fz l
BB 2 =
σb
πσ b
The calculations given above for the plane bending of tool shanks are simple but not
entirely exact. Only the force Fz is taken into consideration and only the bending
deformation it causes. But three forces – Fz or Ft or Fc – the cutting force, Ff cutting
force, Ff - the feed force and Fr - the radial force (Fig. 30.10a and b) - act on the tool in
cutting and their action leads to additional stresses so that the shank is subject to
combined stresses.
Combined stresses are higher (in comparison to stresses in plane bending due to
force Fz) by about 100 per cent, and they are influenced by the plan approach angle and
the construction of the tool point. Table 33.1 lists permissible stresses when calculations
are based on plane bending, but the values take combined stresses into account.
TABLE 33.1 Permissible stress values σb for tool shanks of structural carbon
steel subject to plane bending (with combined stresses taken into account.)
Shanks Permissible stress σb kgf/mm2, in plane bending, depending upon
the plan approach angle, deg. and the shape of the tool point.
300 450 600 760 900 450 (Bent shank)
Unhardened 12 10 8 6.5 5.5 13
Hardened 24 20 16 13 11 26
3 fEI
Fz r = ….(33.8)
l3
Where f = permissible deflection of the tool, mm (f ≈ 0.1 mm for rough turning
and 0.05 mm for finishing)
E = Young's modulus of the tool shank material, kgf/mm2 (for carbon structural
steel, E= 20,000 to 22,000 kgf/mm2)
I = moment of inertia of the shank cross section (for a rectangular cross section
BH 3
I= and for a round cross section I=0.05 d4, where d is the diameter of the
12
shank, mm).
turret), the number of clamping screws (a tool should be clamped by at least two
screws) and the distance between these screws. In choosing the tool length, it is
desirable to take into account further utilization of the shank after complete wear of the
carbide tip in performing the given machining operation.
Problem 1:
In a parting off operation in mild steel with HSS tool the cutting force “FZ” is
given by FZ = 264.d.f., where “d” is depth of cut in mm & ‘f’ is feed in mm/rev. If feed
is 0.8 mm/rev. & depth of cut is not more than 5 mm, design a suitable cross section of
the parting tool, assuming the permissible shear stress of tool material as 40 kg/mm2 &
= 4, Young’s modulus for tool material = 2 x 104 kg/mm2.
If maximum deflection of tool point is limited to 0.05 mm, find the extent by
which the tool can be projected out of the tool post. The work piece and the tool post
are assumed to have sufficient rigidity.
Solution:
Cutting force, “FZ3” = 264 x 5 x 0.8 = 1056 kg.
and δt permissible = 0.05 mm.
Therefore 0.05 = 1056 x 13/ ( 3 x 2 x 104 x 4436 )
1 = 24 mm ≅ 25 mm.
Thus, maximum permissible length of overhang is 25 mm.
Problem: 2
0
A 10 back rake tool is used for machining on a lathe at a speed of 60 m/min.
The diameter of work piece is 100 mm. Find the cross section of rectangular tool shank
if maximum permissible deflection at tool point is 0.012 mm & maximum allowable
stress in the tool shank is 7.5 kg/mm2. Assume a rectangular shank with height to width
ratio 1.6 & tool overhang as 1.3 times the height. The recorded value of cutting force
under these processing conditions is 250 kg. Assurance the suitable value of young’s
modulus.
Solution:
We know that F2.1 = B.H.2σ/6/t Substituting the values,
7.5 x B.(1.6 B)2/6 = 250 x ( 1.3 x 1.6B)
or B = 12.7 mm & H = 20.32 mm. The dimensions may be rounded to next higher
preferred size i.e. B = 16 mm & H = 25 mm. These values must be checked for
maximum permissible deflection.
Assuming E = 20 x 103 kg/mm2, we have
δt = F2 .13d/(3..E.I.) Putting the values we get
δt = 0, 066 mm i.e. < 0.12 mm
As the actual deflection is less than permissible deflection the design is safe.
Cutting frequency = N = 1000 x V/(Π x D x 60) = 3.18 cycle/sec.
Natural frequency of cutting tool having deflection δt is given by
Natural frequency = 0.625/(δt)1/2, cycles/sec.
= 7.69 cycles/sec.
The natural frequency of cutting tool is much more than the cutting frequency
hence the designed cross section with required overhang is safe.
Problem 3 :
The cutting force component on a tool point while machining mild steel with 100
back rake angle, HSS tool is given by empirical formula is 103 kg. for feed = 0.6
mm/rev. depth of cut ≅ 2.2, mm, design a suitable cross section of the tool assuming
the shear strength of tool material to be 20 kg/mm2 & Eos of 2.5. The young’s modulus
of tool material is 20 x 103 kg/mm2. If the maximum permissible deflection of tool
point is 0.04 mm., find ‘δt overhang. Give a neat sketch of designed tool.
During high speed machining of ductile materials, long chips are continuously
produced which must be broken into small piece for easy disposal and to protect the
finished surface from coiling chips. Further the long chips, which may get entangled,
can cause machine stoppage besides being unsafe for the operator. The chip breaker
may be added to a cutting tool for this purpose.
DESIGN OF FORM TOOLS
FORM TOOLS FOR TURNING APPLICATIONS
A form tool is defined, as a cutting tool having one or more cutting edges with a
defined profile or contour that will be reproduced as the desired form on the work piece
surface. Form tools for turning applications are classified according to type of cross-
section, such as flat tools or circular tools or end-form tools as shown in Table 20.1.
Flat or block tools are further classified according to setting of the tool with respect to
work piece like radial-fed or tangential-fed type. Further form tools are also classified
with respect to orientation of tool axis in relation to work piece axis.
Classification of Form Tools
Form Tools
According to cross-section
Fig.20.1 shows flat tool applications while Fig. 20.2 shows a circular form tool
and Fig. 20.3 shows an end-form tool. Fig.20.4 shows the case of angular setting of
tool axis of a circular form tool with respect to work axis. When the surface to be
formed is accessible only with orientated axis, angular setting is used. Usually such
settings are avoided.
to the clearance face. The amount of X is less than the actual depth of form
AB produced on the work piece because of the clearance angle a. From the geometry of
Fig.20.6,
X = AB .cos a .. Eqn. 20.1
Therefore,
l 2 = ( R 2 − h 2 ) - r cos y = ( R 2 − r 2 sin 2 y - y cos y … Eqn. 20.2
Now, X = l 2 cos(a + y )
Hence, X = { ( R 2 − r 2 sin 2 y ) - r cos y}cos(a + y) … Eqn. 20.3
Introduction of rake angle to facilitate cutting action modifies the profile on the
tool. Consider, as an example, the case of a single point V-notch tool shown in Fig.20.8
where ξ is the included angle to the produced. Let ξ 1 be the included angle ground on
the form tool. From the geometry of Fig.20.8,
ξ1 S ξ S
tan = and tan =
2 2X 2 2m
ξ m ξ
Hence, tan 1 = tan
2 X 2
ξ
( R − r ) tan
2
=
{ }
(R − r sin y ) − r cos y cos(a + y )
2 2 2
… Eqn.20.4
-Refer above Fig. which shows the graphical method of determining the profile of a
circular form tool.
(1) The profile of the work piece is, first, drawn.
Point O2, the intersection of line II-II with the arc drawn from point 1, is the center of
the circular form tool.
(5) Next, draw line aM along the tool face. For this purpose, draw a line from point 1 at
an angle γ to line I-I.
By connecting points 1, 2 and 3 (points of intersection of the line representing the tool
face with the corresponding circles of radii r1, r2 and r3) with center O2 of the form
tool, obtain the corresponding radii R1, R2 and R3 of the form tool.
(6) Next, to construct the tool profile in a radial cross-section, it is necessary to draw
radial line N/N and to lay off dimensions l1 and l 2 to the right on a line perpendicular to
line NN (in the case when the axis of the work piece and circular tool are parallel to
each other).
The dimensions l1 and l are equal to the corresponding axial dimensions of the work
piece.
(7) From the end point 1′ of the axial dimensions, lay off dimensions P2 and P3 in a
direction parallel to line NN.
Dimensions P2 and P3 are equal to the differences between the corresponding
radii of the form tool ( R1- R2 and R1 – R3, respectively).
On the intersections of the lines corresponding to dimensions P2 and P3 with the
lines determining dimensions l1 and l 2 , obtain points 2” and 3”.
By connection points 1” , 2” and 3” by straight lines, one obtains the profile of the
form tool in a radial cross-section.
Problems
1) How are the single point tools classified?
2) With a neat sketch explain geometry of single point tool in ASA system?
3) What are the various systems of tool nomenclature?
4) What is tool signature?
5) Explain how will you proceed for designing single point cutting tool ?
6) What is the significance (a) Rake angle (b) Clearance angle?
(c) and cutting edge angle ?
7) What is chip breaker? What is the significance of volume ratio of chips in metal
cutting ?
8) Explain the various methods of chip breaking with neat sketch.
9) What are form tools? How are they classified?
10) How in the distance “X” to be machined perpendicular the flank of the tool
calculated for a zero rake flat form tool?
11) What is the effect of rake and clearance angle on the distance “X” to be machined
(Perpendicular to flank) on a form tool? Derive the relation for the same.
12) A 300 clearance angle is to be produced on a work piece by end turning tool with
100 clearance angle and 00 rake angle end form tool? Will the value of angle to be
produced on the flank be same? If not explain why?
13) Explain a mounting arrangement for circular form tool with heat sketch?
a) Cutting force FZ = 1105 kg.
b) Permissible shear stress of tool material = 40 kg/mm2
c) Young’s modulus for HSS tool material = 20,000 kgf/mm2
d) Permissible deflection of tool = 0.06 mm.
Also select the various angles and draw neat sketch of the designed tool.
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CHAPTER 6
DESIGN OF BROACH
6.1. Introduction:
Broaching is used for machining through holes of any cross sectional shapes,
straight and helical slots, external surfaces of various shape, external and internal
toothed gears. A Broach is a multiple point tool used in broaching, usually secured to
the main slide of the broaching and travels with the slide. Since the teeth gradually
increase in size from front to rear end of the broach, each successive tooth removes a
layer of material, thereby increasing size of the hole in internal broaching (or removing
production.
The total cross sectional area of the under formed chip is given as –
A = a.Z, mm2
Where m , Z = number of teeth simultaneously in operation.
All the phenomena of the cutting process occur during chip formation in broaching;
deformation, heat generation, formation of BUE, friction and wear. The cutting process
is often accomplished in broaching with very thin chips, especially in internal broaching
where SZ may be as small as 0.015 mm. The chips formed in broaching are
accumulated between the chip spaces or gullet. The chip breakers or notches are
usually provided in the cutting edge to produce narrower chips that fill easier in the chip
spaces.
The cutting force ‘FZ’ depends upon physic-mechanical properties of work material,
broach tooth geometry, cut per tooth ‘SZ’ and the number and shape of tooth that are in
operation simultaneously.
Where,
Types of Broaches:
Broaches are broadly classified, based on their purpose into internal broaches (for
machining holes) and external or surface broaches (for machining ruled surface of open
contour). The internal broaches can further be classified as under
i) Solid broach : In which the desired profile of breach is produced from a solid piece
(Fig.6.5 a)
ii) Sectional broach : in which the desired profile of broach is produced from a solid
piece (Fig.6.5 a)
iii) Helical cut broach : in which the teeth are positioned along the same helix as in
work piece. If the helix angle is less than 15 degrees the axial pull or thrust will be
sufficient to rotate the broach provided broach’s pull or push head are made free to
revolve on antifriction bearings. If the helix is greater than 15 degrees, the broach head
is to be rotated positively with the help of lead screw and gear box (Fig.6.5.c)
iv) Burnishing broach : in which non cutting teeth carry out compression, cold work or
burnishing a thin layer of metal. These broaches can enlarge the hole by small amount
(Fig.6.3.d)
v) Spleen broaches : such as straight spleen broaches (Fig.6.5.e) helical spleen broach
(Fig.6.5 g), serration spleen broach (Fig.6.5.h),
vi) Keyway broach : which is used for producing keyway in a hole. This broach is of
rectangular shape and is guided through a bushing (called horn) with a rectangular slot
to guide and support the keyway broach to avoid wear of (Fig.6.5.k, bushing called
horn) with a rectangular slot to guide & support the keyway broach. To avoid wear a
hardened wear strip may be provided.
Large external broaches are designed as separate sections, or inserts damped in a
special holder, several methods of clamping the inserts in the holder are illustrated in
Fig. 6.6. Some broaches are made up with separate inserted blades. All the fastening
elements of built up broaches with either inserts or inserted blades should be checked by
calculating their strength.
There is no way of expending internal broaches and one or more finishing teeth
are converted into cutting teeth in each sharpening. The size of external broach on the
contrary can be adjusted by means of gibs or spacers. Such spacers are shown in
Fig.6.6.
The broaches are sharpened mainly by grinding the tooth faces. Less frequently,
the backoff clearance is ground. The grinding of the tooth face in sharpening a round
broach is illustrated in fig. 6.7. To avoid wheel edge interference in which the tooth
face is ground square with the broach axis, entirely, eliminating the face angle, the
radius of the wheel in section N-N should be less than the radius of curvature of tooth in
this section. The backoff clearance of a round broach can be ground in a cylindrical
grinder.
6.8. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN BROACHING :
The following considerations are done in design of internal broaches.
1. Study of geometry & other features of work piece for getting the necessary
information for broach design. The following information is normally obtained in
designing a circular or internal broach
a) Tolerance on the hole to assign the tolerance to the broach.
b) Quality of surface finish to check necessity of burnishing teeth.
c) Wall thickness of the component to estimate size variations after broaching.
d) Quantity of production to study feasibility of broach design
A factor to be kept in mind while selecting broach pitch is that commonly at least three
teeth should be in contact with work piece at one time. It is permissible to have two
teeth in contact for short parts. Very small parts are broached in stacks of several pieces
and the pitch of the broach is determined for the total length of stack.
The pitch of sizing teeth ‘t’ (semi-finishing teeth) is taken as ts = 0.6 to 0.8 for round
broaches and for other type of broaches ts = t.
The pitch of cutting teeth is made variable from t + (0.2 to 1mm) to t – (0.2 to 1 mm).
The other parameters of the tooth profile can also be estimated by empirical formulae
given below.
h = 0.4 t, r = 0.5 h,
b = 0.3 t, r = 0.7 t,
The value of pitch is required to be reduced if the maximum number of teeth in contact
with work piece (i.e. 2 max) at a time is less than three.
i.e. Z max = L/t + 1 , should be minimum three.
PROBLEMS
1. What is broaching ? What are its advantages and disadvantages over boring ?
2. What are the geometric elements of broach teeth ?
3. Explain the constructional features of broach teeth with a neat sketch.
For variants of the problem see following table.
1) Lips: These are main cutting edges of the drill and are formed by the intersection of
the flank and flute surfaces. For efficient cutting, the lips should be straight, equal in
length and symmetrical with the axis of the drill.
2) Chisel edge: This is the point end of the web and it is formed by the intersection of
flank surfaces.
3) Helix angle: Helix angle practically determines the rake angle at the cutting edge of
the drill. As the H. A. decreases, the rake angle also decreases and makes the cutting
edge stronger. With the lower H. A. the chip election through the flutes is not efficient.
However, low helix drills are recommended for hard materials like marble, slate, carbon
and hard rubber. With increase in helix angle, the rake angle increases and the cutting
edge becomes weaker. High helix drills, which are also known as fast helix drills, are
recommended for soft material like copper. All alloys, Zinc alloys, molded plastics, etc.
4) Point angle (2ϕ) : The most commonly used point angle is 1180. Reducing the point
angle leads to an increase in the width of cut, and it is generally adopted for brittle
between the tangent to the flanks and the tangent to the surface of revolution at that
point. The actual value of the relief angle during drilling also depends on the feed. A
higher feed results in reduced working clearance. This is explained by the fact that the
drill not only rotates but also travels axially during cutting. (Fig.7.2.a)
7) Rake angle : (γ) Rake angle is the angle, the flute surface makes with the normal to
the surface of revolution described by the lip. The rake angle acquires its maximum
value at the periphery of the drill, where in a plane parallel to the drill axis (plane A-A),
it is equal to the helix angle w of the helical flutes. (Fig. 7.2.b) The minimum value of
the rake angle is at the apex of the point. The rake angle at the chisel edge is negative
so that the cutting angle exceeds90 degree and the cutting conditions are unfavorable.
A larger rake angle, however, reduces the lip angle, leading to more rapid heating of
this part of the drill and consequently, to maximum wear.
In deep-hole drilling with a large diameter drill, a wide chip is formed that is
difficult to dispose of through the flutes. Such a chip also increases friction and
impedes cutting fluid delivery to the drill lips. The width of the chip can be reduced by
providing special chip-breaker grooves or notches either on the face (Fig.8.3.b) or on
FORCES ACTING ON DRILL
The feed s (mm per revolution) is the amount the drill advances axially in one
revolution (or in one revolution of the work if it rotates and the drill only advances). A
drill has two main cutting edges (lips) and the feed per lip is
s
s z = mm per rev
2
As in turning operations, the feed can also be measured in millimeters
per minute :
sm = sn mm per min
The thickness a of the undeformed (uncut) chip (Fig.182a) is measured in a
direction perpendicular to the drill lip
s
a = sz sin ϕ = 2 sin ϕ mm
The width b of the undeformed chip is measured along the lip and is equal to
the length of the lip :
D
mm
b = 2 sin ϕ
The cross-sectional area of the unreformed chip per lip is
ns ns
l = hole length or depth, mm
∆ = over travel ( l or 2 mm), mm
y = length of travel required before the drill cuts the full diameter, mm.
7.6 REAMING:
High feeds tend to reduce the accuracy of the hole and the quality of the finish.
Reaming is one of the important operation used in the manufacturing of interchangeable
parts of mass production and provides the most economical means of achieving
precision fits and interchangeability.
The maximum diameter of reamer must be equal to the maximum diameter of
the hole minus (0.15 x Hole tolerance). The minimum diameter of reamer must be
equal to the maximum diameter of the hole minus (0.35 x Hole tolerance).
The reamers usually have even number of teeth to facilitate diameter
measurement . Use is made of non-uniform angular pitch “W” which helps is
improving surface finish. The value of “W” for a particular number of teeth can be
selected from standard table.
The reamers may be straight flutes or helical fluted (with helix grooves directed
against direction of rotation.
QUESTIONS
Elements of cutting
process in straight flute
, amax = Sz ‘sin; δ
The cross sectional area of uncut chip removed by one tooth of a straight flute
cutter is (denoted by f)
F = a.b = B.Sψ. sin
To find total cross sectional area of all uncut chips it is necessary to know the
number of teeth that are simultaneously in operation and instantaneous tooth constant
angle for each tooth.
The number of teeth that are simultaneously in operation on a straight flute
cutter is
m = δ.Z/(Angle between adjacent teeth) = δ.Z/360.
or
t / D − t / D 2 ) / 360
m=Z. Sin-1( 2
If 1 < m < 2, then maximum two teeth are simultaneously in operation, if 2 < m < 3,
then maximum three teeth are in operation simultaneously.
Since,
Sin δ = 1 – cos2δ = 2 t / D − t / D
2 2
Thus, the value of number of teeth simultaneously in operation depends upon (1) ratio
t/D, (ii) D, (iii) Z. The larger t & Z, and the smaller D is, the greater ‘m’ will be for any
cutter (Specified with D and Z), m will depend only on the depth of cut.
The number of teeth in operation for a helical flute cutter can be determined by
graphical method or by the formula given below.
m = δ.Z/360 + B.Z/(Π.D.cot w)
The larger t, z, B and w are, and the smaller ‘D’ is, the greater the number of teeth in
operation, simultaneously.
The machining time in peripheral milling is
Tm = ( 1 + y + ∆ )/ Sz . Z.N.) min.
Where, ‘1’ is length of milled surface, ‘y’ is cutter approach and ‘∆’ is over travel.
QUESTIONS
In addition to the reciprocating and rotary motions, the shaping cutter is also in
fed to the depth of the teeth of the gear being cut. This process has following
advantages over the hobbing process.
1) Gears with adjacent shoulders can easily be produced.
2) The gears produced by the method are of very high accuracy.
3) Both internal and external gears can be cut by this process.
4) Cluster gears can be manufactured.
However with this process worm & worm wheels cannot be produced.
If a tap is used to cut thread in a hole with longitudinal slots or recesses (the
tapping of a threading die with a die tap can serve as an example) the number of flutes
should not be a multiple of the number of clearance holes in the threading die for vice
verse), since otherwise the tap lands may drop into the clearance holes.
To ensure productive operation, the tap flutes should be of a shape that provides
sufficient chip space (without appreciably weakening the tap) and enables the tap to be
necked out of the hole without damaging the thread with the heel of the lands.
Three of the more widely used shapes of flutes are shown in Fig.9.10.c. In Type
a (Fig. 9.10.c the flute is milled with a convex half-circle cutter profiled to a single
radius. In backing out the tap the heel of the lands may cut a chip and spoil the thread.
This shape of flute is used only in exceptional cases and then only for hand master taps.
Most taps have straight flutes. Certain special taps have helical flutes.
The direction of chip flow can be changed by changing the hand of the helical
flutes on the tap. Taps with helical flutes of different hands are illustrated in Fig.
Flutes of the type shown in Fig. Drive the chips forward, ahead of the tap, and can
be used for tapping through holes. Chip flow is forward the shank for a tap with flutes
of the opposite hand (Fig.9.11.b.). This is applicable for tapping blind holes.
A straight-flute tap will also direct the chips forward, ahead of the tap, if a spiral
point is ground on the cutting face of each land at the chambered end. It is formed at an
angle λ (Fig.9.11.c) with the tap axis.
In hand tapping, the work is usually distributed between two or three taps (a set
of taps is used). Only the finishing (No.3) tap has a full thread profile. The roughing
and middle (Nos. 1 and 2) taps have reduced major diameters. The chamber length
differs on three taps. It is longest on the roughing tap (4S) and shortest on the finishing
tap (1.5S to 2S).
The most commonly applied stock removal distribution has 50 to 60 per cent
removed by the roughing tap, 28 to 30 per cent by the middle tap, and 16 to 10 per cent
by the finishing tap.
Taps are made of high-speed steel or, more frequently, of carbon tool steel.
9.5. Thread-Cutting Dies
A threading die is an internally threaded tool used to cut external screw threads
by screwing on the work piece. Threads are usually cut in one pass.
Threading dies may be solid or split; they may be round, square or hexagon
(Fig.9.13 a, b and c ), spring (Fig.333d) or two-piece adjustable dies for a hand stock.
A threading die operates in a manner resembling the operation of a tap, except
that it cuts external and not internal, thread.
Parts and constructional elements of round threading dies (Fig.9.14). The
elements associated with the cutting process are: rake angles γ and γN and angle λ; die
lands (land width B and width of gap between lands H1); clearance holes; chamber
length l1; chamber angle ϕ; die thickness H; number of lands z; chamber relief K and
relief angle a.
Elements associated with the dimensions of the formed screw threads are; major,
minor and pitch diameters of the thread; angle of thread and thread pitch.
Elements which provide for mounting the die in a machine tool or die stock are :
outside diameter D1 rim thickness e and e1, adjusting slot, spot holes for clamping
screws and spot holes for adjusting screws.
Round thread-cutting dies are used to cut threads and to size previously cut
threads.
Thread cutting is accompanied by the removal of a considerable amount of
chips, and the clearance holes must be large enough to avoid being clogged by the
chips.
Only a very thin layer of metal is removed in sizing screw threads and therefore
dies for this purpose do not require large clearance holes. Such dies may also be of
lower strength.
PROBLEMS
1. What are various types of gear cutting processes?
2. What are the various gear cutting tools operating by form cutting principle?
Give geometric details of an/one.
3. What are the various types of gear cutting tools operation by the Generating
principle ? Explain the geometric element any one.
4. What is gear shaping? What are it’s advantages of hobbling?
5. What are the advantages of gear hobbling?
6. What are the various methods of thread production?
7. What are the various types of flutes widely used in taps?
8. How can the direction of chip flow be changed?
9. Draw a neat sketch of a tap showing various elements?
10. Draw a neat sketch of a die, showing various elements?
11. Explain the difference between milling a spur gear manufacturing on hobbling
Machine tap ?