Ajay Kumar Garg Engineering College, Ghaziabad

ISTE-STTC on Industrial Automation and Robotics, Jan 8-12, 2007

FLEXIBLE AUTOMATION
PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLERS

Ashiv Shah, Sr.Lecturer

Department of Mechanical Engineering,
AKG Engineering College, Ghaziabad

INTRODUCTION :

Programmable logic controllers ( or PLCs) are microcomputer-like instruments designed to

control industrial equipment. Producing on-off voltage outputs (but also analog signals), they can
actuate elements such as electric motors (and thus pumps, conveyor belts, or any other motor-
driven equipment),solenoids (and thus pneumatic or hydraulic solenoid valves), fans heaters,
alarms (such as warning lights or horns), and other electric equipment. PLCs are vital
components of modern automation systems. The first Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) was
developed by a group of engineers at General Motors in 1968, when the company were looking
for an alternative to replace complex relay control systems. They were first applied in
automobile assembly plants about 20 years ago but, by now, they have penetrated almost every
industry.

In its most basic and original form, the PLC is a software-based general purpose
equivalent of a relay panel; however, the typical PLC can do many things that electromechanical
relays cannot do, such as timing and counting. Since PLCs are programmed like
microcomputers, using an easy-to-learn programming Language-Ladder Logic Diagram, a given
PLC can be programmed to control a variety of machines or systems. Most important, the
program can easily be changed for new jobs or changes, in production routines. PLC are thus
much more flexible than hard-wired relay panels.

PLCs generally take up much less space and cost less than medium-or large-size relay
panels, since a single PLC can often replace several hundred relays. Using a PLC also eliminates
the often-appreciable cost of wiring the relay panel it replaces. On the other hand, there might be
little economic justification in purchasing a PLC to solve a small control problem that can be
handled by five or six relays – although some PLC manufacturers claim otherwise.
A person knowledgeable in relay logic and digital logic can master the major PLC
functions in few hours. These functions might include coils, timers, controls etc.

AREAS OF APPLICATION OF A PLC

Every system or machine has a controller. Depending on the type of technology used, controllers
can be divided into pneumatic, hydraulic, electrical and electronic controllers. Frequently, a
combination of different technologies is used. Furthermore, differentiation is made between
hard-wired programmable (e.g. wiring of electro-mechanical or electronic components) and
programmable logic controllers. The first is used primarily in cases, where any reprogramming
by the user is out of the question and the job size warrants the development of a special control-
ler. Typical applications for such controllers can be found in automatic washing machines, video
cameras, and cars.

169
 Ajay Kumar Garg Engineering College, Ghaziabad
ISTE-STTC on Industrial Automation and Robotics, Jan 8-12, 2007

However, if the job size does not require the development of a special controller or if the user is
to have the facility of making simple or independent program changes, or of setting timers and
counters, then the use of a universal controller, where the program is written to an electronic
memory, is the preferred option. The PLC represents such a universal controller. It can be used
for different applications and, via the program installed in its memory, provides the user with a
simple means of changing, extending and optimizing control processes.

The original task of a PLC involved the interconnection of input signals according to a specified
program and, if "true", to switch the corresponding output. Boolean algebra forms the
mathematical basis for this operation, which recognizes precisely two defined statuses of one
variable: "0" and "1". Accordingly, an output can only assume these two statuses. For instance, a
connected motor could therefore be either switched on or off, i.e. controlled.

This function has coined the name PLC: Programmable logic controller, i.e. the input/output
behavior is similar to that of an electromagnetic relay or pneumatic switching valve controller;
the program is stored in an electronic memory.

However, the tasks of a PLC have rapidly multiplied: Timer and counter functions, memory
setting and resetting, mathematical computing operations all represent functions, which can be
executed by practically any of today's PLCs.`

The demands to be met by PLC's continued to grow in line with their rapidly spreading usage
and the development in automation technology. Visualization, i.e. the representation of machine
statuses such as the control program being executed, via display or monitor. Also controlling, i.e.
the facility to intervene in control processes or, alternatively, to make such intervention by
unauthorized persons impossible. Very soon, it also became necessary to interconnect and
harmonies individual systems controlled via PLC by means of automation technology. Hence a
master computer facilitates the means to issue higher-level commands for program processing to
several PLC systems

The networking of several PLCs as well as that of a PLC and master computer is effected via
special communication interfaces. To this effect, many of the more recent PLCs are compatible
with open, standardized bus systems, such as Prefabs to EN 50170. Thanks to the enormously
increased performance capacity of advanced PLCs, these can even directly assume the function
of a master computer.

At the end of the seventies, binary inputs and outputs were finally expanded with the addition of
analogue inputs and outputs, since many of today's technical applications require analogue
processing (force measurement, speed setting, servo-pneumatic positioning systems). At the
same time, the acquisition or output of analogue signals permits an actual/set point value
comparison and as a result the realization of automatic control engineering functions, a task,
which widely exceeds the scope suggested by the name (programmable logic controller).
The PLCs currently on offer in the market place have been adapted to customer requirements to
such an extent that it has become possible to purchase an eminently suitable PLC for virtually
any application. As such, miniature PLCs is now available with a minimum number of in-
puts/outputs starting from just a few hundred Pounds. Also available are larger PLCs with 28 or
256 inputs/outputs.

170
 Ajay Kumar Garg Engineering College, Ghaziabad
ISTE-STTC on Industrial Automation and Robotics, Jan 8-12, 2007

Many PLCs can be expanded by means of additional input/output, analogue, positioning and
communication modules. Special PLCs are available for safety technology, shipping or mining
tasks. Yet further PLCs are able to process several programs simultaneously - (multitasking).
Finally, PLCs are coupled with other automation components, thus creating considerably wider
areas of application.

PLC CLASSIFICATION

PLCs are classified into four general types, according to size: micro, small, medium, and large
PLCs, and these designations generally refer to memory capacity and / or the number of I/O
(input/output) modules that can be accommodated. While there is no universal agreement on the
exact definition of these different PLC sizes, a typical classification is as follows :

Memory Size ( words ) I/O Capacity ( modules )

Micro – PLC : 256 Up to 64

Small PLC : 256 – 2 K Up to 128
Medium PLC : 2K – 12 K Up to 512
Large PLC : > 12 K > 512

It should be realized that the difference between micro-, small, medium, and large PLCs
lies not only in their memory and I/O capacity, but also in the features they offer. The micro-
PLCs are intended to be little more than relay replacers, with added timer and counter
capabilities . Small PLCs may or may not have arithmetic capabilities, but these are generally
restricted to so-called “integer math.” The larger PLCs, on the other hand, often approach the
capabilities of microcomputers, in that they can handle floating-point arithmetic. They also offer
many other sophisticated features, including analog output signals (such as PID control action).

PLC CONSTRUCTION

The term 'Programmable logic controller' is defined as follows by EN61131-1 :

" A digitally operating electronic system, designed for use in an industrial environment, which
uses a programmable memory for the internal storage of user-oriented instructions for
implementing specific functions such as logic, sequencing, timing, counting and arithmetic, to
control, through digital or analogue inputs and outputs, various types of machines or processes.
Both the PC and its associated peripherals are designed so that they can be easily integrated
into an industrial control system and easily used in all their intended functions. "

A programmable logic controller is therefore nothing more than a computer, tailored specifically
for certain control tasks.

There are hundreds of PLC models marketed by scores of different companies, but all have at
least three elements in common:

1. Central processing Unit with memory

2. Input Modules
3. Output Modules

171
 Ajay Kumar Garg Engineering College, Ghaziabad
ISTE-STTC on Industrial Automation and Robotics, Jan 8-12, 2007

1 Central Processing Unit : The heart of the PLC consists of the central processing unit (CPU)
with associated memory. The CPU receives input signals from the various input modules and,
based on these and on the program stored in memory, decides on the appropriate output signals,
which it then transmits to the respective output modules. The input and output modules provide
the necessary interface between the PLC and the machine or system to be controlled.

In essence, the central control unit of a PLC consists of microprocessor chip, memory chips,
circuits to store and retrieve information from the memory, and communication circuits
necessary for the processor to operate the remote programmer, printer and other peripheral
devices.
The processor can initiate the operation of counters, sequences, timers and the control
relays although no actual physical device exist. These operations are performed using software
routines (programme) with in the processor unit. The operating system of the PLC manufacturer
makes the universal computer into a PLC, Optimized specifically for control technology tasks.

The processor can make all the decisions necessary to control a process. It monitors the
state of the inputs (ON /OFF), scans and solves the logic of the user program and controls the
state of the output devices (ON / OFF).
Input Module
(Push Buttons, Sensors,
Toggle Switches)

C
O
Programming Unit N S
Central Processing
T Y
Unit
• Desktop (CPU)
R S
• Hand Held O T
-------------------------
Programmers L E
Memory
L M
E
D
Output Module
(Indicator Lamps, Motor
starters, Solenoids etc.)

Fig. 1. Block Diagram of a Programmable Controller

Instruction Cycle Within Central Processing Unit

Today's conventional microcomputer systems operate according to the so-called "von-Neumann
principle". According to this principle, the computer processes the program line by line. In
simple terms, you could say that each program line of the PLC user program is processed in
sequence.
This applies wholly irrespective of the programming language, in which the PLC program is
written, be it in the form of a text program (statement list) or a graphic program (ladder diagram,
sequential function chart). Since these various forms of representation always result in a series of
program lines within the computer, they are subsequently processed one after the other.

172
 Ajay Kumar Garg Engineering College, Ghaziabad
ISTE-STTC on Industrial Automation and Robotics, Jan 8-12, 2007

In principle, a program line, i.e. generally a command, is processed in two steps:

• Fetching the command from the program memory
• Executing the command

Function Mode of a PLC

Programs for conventional data processing are processed once only from top to bottom and then
terminated. In contrast with this, the program of a PLC is continually processed cyclically.

The characteristics of cyclical processing are:

• As soon as the program has been executed once, it automatically jumps back to the
beginning and processing is repeated.
• Prior to first program line being processed, i.e. at the beginning of the cycle, the status of
the inputs is stored in the image table. The process image is a separate memory area
accessed during a cycle. The status of an input thus remains constant during a cycle even
if it has physically changed
• Similar to inputs, outputs are not immediately set or reset during a Cycle, but the status
stored intermediately in the process output image. Only at the end of a cycle are all the
outputs physically switched according to the logic status stored in the memory.
The processing of a program line via the central processes unit of a PLC takes time, which,
depending on PLC and operation can vary between a few microseconds and a few milliseconds.
The time required by the PLC for a single execution of a program including the actualisation and
output of the process image, is termed the cycle time. The longer the program is and the longer
the respective PLC requires to process an individual program line, the longer the cycle. Realistic
time periods for this are between approximately 1 and 100 milliseconds.

The consequences of cyclical processing of a PLC program using a process image are as follows:
• Input signals shorter than the cycle time may possibly not be recognized.
• In some cases, there may be a delay of two cycle times between the occurrence of an
input signal and the desired reaction of an output to this signal.
• Since the commands are processed sequentially, the specific behavior sequence of a PLC
program may be crucial.

With some applications it is essential for inputs or outputs to be accessed directly during a cycle.
This type of program processing, bypassing of the process image, is therefore also supported by
some PLC systems.

Application Program Memory

Programs specifically developed for particular applications require a program memory, from
which these can be read cyclically by the central control unit. The requirements for such a
program memory are relatively simple to formulate:

173
 Ajay Kumar Garg Engineering College, Ghaziabad
ISTE-STTC on Industrial Automation and Robotics, Jan 8-12, 2007

• It should be as simple as possible to modify or to newly create and store the program with
the help of a programming device or a PC
• Safeguards should be in place to ensure that the program cannot be lost - either during
power failure or through interference voltage
• The program memory should be cost effective
• The program memory should be sufficiently fast in order not to delay the operation of the
central control unit.

Nowadays, three different types of memory are used in practice:

• RAM
• EPROM
• EEPROM

RAM

The RAM (random access memory) is a fast and highly cost effective memory. Since the main
memory of computers (i.e. PLCs) consist of RAMs, they are produced in such high quantities
that they are readily available at low cost without competition.
RAMs are read/write memories and can be easily programmed and modified.
The disadvantage of a RAM is that it is volatile, i.e. the program stored in the RAM is lost in the
event of power failure. This is why RAMs are backed up by battery or accumulator. Since the
service life and capacity of modern batteries are rated for several years, RAM back up is rela-
tively simple. Despite the fact that these are high performance batteries it is nevertheless
essential to replace the batteries in good time.

EPROM

The EPROM (erasable programmable read-only memory) is also a fast and low cost memory,
which, in comparison with RAM, has the added advantage of being non-volatile. The memory
contents therefore remain intact even in the event of power failure.

For the purpose of a program modification, however, the entire memory must first be erased and,
after a cooling period, completely reprogrammed. Erasing generally requires an erasing device,
and a special programming unit is used for programming.

Despite this relatively complex process of erasing, - cooling - reprogramming EPROMs are very
frequently used in PLCs, since these represent reliable and cost effective memories. In practice, a
RAM is often used during the programming and commissioning phase of a machine. On
completion of the commissioning, the program is then transferred to an EPROM.

EEPROM

The EEPROM (electrically erasable programmable ROM), EEROM (electrically erasable ROM)
and EAROM (electrically alterable ROM) or also flash-EPROM has been available for some
time. The EEPROM in particular, is used widely as an application memory in PLCs. The
EEPROM is an electrically erasable memory, which can be subsequently written to.

174
 Ajay Kumar Garg Engineering College, Ghaziabad
ISTE-STTC on Industrial Automation and Robotics, Jan 8-12, 2007

PLC INPUTS

The input interface is the country, which connects the PLC input terminals to the processor.
Typical input signals to the PLC are provided from :

1. Photocells of Sensors: These are used for example to detect the presence of a component
2. Push Buttons: These are used to start or stop a process.
3. Toggle Switches : These are used to give a constant high output. These switches may also
provide inputs to the PLC. All of these input however are either present or not present.
The PLC is only concerned with on/off signals at its input.

The interface has to convert input signals AC or DC from these input devices to low level
DC voltages (signals) that is used in the processor. The interface may also have to provide
electrical isolation to prevent noise and voltage spikes (transients) on the input lines from
shorting the input signals, or even the input circuits of the PLC, or in extreme cases the processor
itself. The isolation is provided using OPTO-COUPLERS or OPTO-ISOLATORS.

PLC OUTPUTS

The output interface is the electronic circuitry, which connects the processor to the PLC output
terminals. These output terminals are connected to the plant to control the different outputs like
indicator lamps, Motor starters, Solenoid coils, Hooters etc.

PROGRAMMING THE PLC

PLC programming languages are often classified according to four types :

1. ladder-diagram based
2. Boolean expressions
3. functional blocks
4. English statements (similar to the computer language BASIC )

The first two are the most common PLC languages, used with most small or medium-sized
PLCs. They are convenient for programming sequence-type circuits with on-off outputs, using
contacts of various kinds, timers and counters.

Once we get into analog control, with the need for comparisons, data manipulation, calculations,
etc., the use of functional blocks or an English statement type language often becomes more
practical. Ladder-diagram languages are popular because engineers and technicians with years of
relay experience are familiar and feel comfortable with them. However, an increasing number of
PLCs are programmed in Engligh – statements type languages, because of the increasing use of
PLCs for analog control, and because people are familiar with BASIC as used in personal
computers.

Actually, the division between the first three languages listed is not very distinct. The ladder-
diagram and Boolean-expression programming amounts to practically the same thing, as is
demonstrated later, Furthermore, many Ladder diagram languages use certain functional blocks
as part of the ladder diagram, so that the differences become blurred.

175
 Ajay Kumar Garg Engineering College, Ghaziabad
ISTE-STTC on Industrial Automation and Robotics, Jan 8-12, 2007

PROGRAMMING DEVICE

The PLC is programmed with a programming device. The Programmer device is remote
from the PLC and may be connected to enter a user program and disconnected afterwards. The
user program may then be run without the programming device. Therefore , one device may
serve several PLC’s. There are 2 types of programming devices.

• Desktop

These consist of a CRT (Cathode Ray Tube ), keyboard, and all the circuitry to interface with the
processor. They are portable, designed to be moved from site to site, and be operated in areas
with high levels of electrical noise, high humidity and temperature. These are basically an
industrial computers.

• Hand Held Programmers

These are smaller and lighter but have limited display facilities. They are useful in
situations where the installation requires constant changes in the circuit. The
display is either LED’s, which only allows on line or element of the ladder to be
observed at time, or an LCD display which allows overall rungs to be observed
and some also have a scroll facility.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PLC & MICROPROCESSOR BASED SYSTEM

Logically microprocessor based system and PLC include similar blocks. But physically
they are quite different as they are used in different applications and environment. PLCs are
designed to work in hostile-noisy environment and is provided with extra protection. In case of
microprocessor based systems they are more of general-purpose applications and designed to
work in clean environment. PLC uses simple programming language called ladder diagrams,
which is easy to understand where as microprocessor and its assembly language can easily work
on PLC.

ADVANTAGES OF PLC

PLCs have replaced old Electro-mechanical relay type systems and have provided with
noise free reliable control systems. PLCs have many advantages.

1. The program can be entered on the factory floor by anyone who understands Relay
Ladder Logic.
2. The outputs may be a mixture of conventional relays and solid-state relays.
3. Designed for an electrically noisy environment no extra filtering is required.
4. They are smaller, faster and more reliable than hard-wired systems.
5. Drum switches, timers, counters are all implemented using software programs. No such
physical devices need to be provided.

176
 Ajay Kumar Garg Engineering College, Ghaziabad
ISTE-STTC on Industrial Automation and Robotics, Jan 8-12, 2007

THE NEW PLC STANDARD EN 61131 (IEC 61131)

Previously valid PLC standards focusing mainly on PLC programming were generally geared to
current state of the art technology in Europe at the end of the seventies. This took into account
non-networked PLC systems, which primarily execute logic operations on binary signals.
Previously, no equivalent, standardized language elements existed for the PLC developments and
system expansions made in the eighties, such as processing of analogue signals, interconnection
of intelligent modules, networked PLC systems etc. Consequently, PLC systems by different
manufacturers required entirely different programming.
Since 1992, an international standard now exists for programmable logic controllers and
associated peripheral devices (programming and diagnostic tools, testing equipment, man-to-
machine interfaces etc.). In this context, a device configured by the user and consisting of the
above components is known as a PLC system.

The new EN 61131 (I EC 61131) standard consists of five parts:

• Part 1: General information
• Part 2: Equipment requirements and tests
• Part 3: Programming languages
• Part 4: User guidelines (in preparation with IEC)
• Part 5: Messaging service specification (in preparation with IEC)
Parts 1 to 3 of this standard were adopted unamended as European
Standard EN 61 131, Parts 1 to 3.
The purpose of the new standard was to define and standardize the design and functionality of a
PLC and the languages required for programming to the extent where users were able to operate
using different PLC systems without any particular difficulties. Manufacturers must conform to
the specifications of this standard both with regard to purely technical requirements for the PLC
as well as the programming of controllers.

177