The induced electromotive force (EMF) in any closed circuit is equal to the time rate of change of the magnetic

flux through the circuit. Or alternatively: The EMF generated is proportional to the rate of change of the magnetic flux.

Faraday's law of induction makes use of the magnetic flux B through a hypothetical surface whose boundary is a wire loop. Since the wire loop may be moving, we write (t) for the surface. The magnetic flux is defined by a surface integral:

where dA is an element of surface area of the moving surface (t), B is the magnetic field, and BdA is a vector dot product. In more visual terms, the magnetic flux through the wire loop is proportional to the the number of magnetic flux lines that pass through the loop. When the flux changesbecause B changes, or because the wire loop is moved or deformed, or bothFaraday's law of induction says that the wire loop acquires an EMF , defined as the energy available per unit charge that travels once around the wire loop (the unit of EMF is the volt). The EMF is given by the rate of change of the magnetic flux:

where is the magnitude of the electromotive force (EMF) in volts and B is the magnetic flux in webers. The direction of the electromotive force is given by Lenz's law. For a tightly-wound coil of wire, composed of N identical loops, each with the same B, Faraday's law of induction states that

where N is the number of turns of wire and B is the magnetic flux in webers through a single loop.

- A stationary charge does not generate a magnetic field. Only an electric field is generated. In addition, a magnet has no effect on a stationary charge. - Charges moving in a specific direction and at constant speed will generate a constant magnetic field. It will generate also a constant electric field. However, the two fields are uncoupled. If the stream of charges (or current line) is alternating in direction and varying in strength over time, then so will be the generated magnetic and electric fields. However, in this case both fields will be coupled. - When a magnet is near a charge moving at a constant speed (or near a constant current line), a force is generated that is perpendicular to both the magnetic field and the velocity vector of the charge (or the current line). The prescribed system has, in effect, two magnets that are present near one another and the result is either a pulling or pushing force between them. It should be noted that the magnetic field generated by the magnet can change the direction of motion of a charged particle but it cannot change its speed. - Magnetic fields can produce an electric current in a closed loop, but only if the magnetic flux linking the surface area of the loop changes with time. This is the most important principle governing magnetic induction and is mathematically described by Fradays Law. The key to the induction process is change. The voltage, called also the electromotive force (emf), across the closed loop can be generated under any of the following three conditions: 1. A time-varying magnetic field linking a stationary loop; the induced emf is then called the transformer emf. 2. A moving loop with a time-varying area (relative to the normal component of the magnetic field) in a static magnetic field; the induced emf is then called the motional emf. 3. A moving loop in a time-varying magnetic field.

* In all cases of magnetic induction, an induced voltage will cause a current to flow in a closed circuit in such a direction that its magnetic effect will oppose the change that produced it. This is also known as Lenzs law.

Motional Emf
Consider the bar in the figure below. It has length l and moves at speed v to the right in magnetic field B, which is directed into the page.

The field exerts a magnetic force on the free electrons in the bar. That force is : using the right-hand rule, you will find that the vector is directed upward along the bar, but since electrons are negatively charged, the magnetic force acting upon them is directed downward. As a result, electrons flow to the bottom of the bar, and the bottom becomes negatively charged while the top becomes positively charged. The separation of charge in the rod creates an electric field within the bar in the downward direction, since the top of the bar is positively charged and the bottom of the bar is negatively charged. The force from the electric field, , pulls negative charges upward while the force from the magnetic field pulls negative charges downward. Initially, the magnetic field is much stronger than the electric field, but as more electrons are drawn to the bottom of the bar, the electric field becomes increasingly stronger. When the two fields are of equal strength, the forces balance one another out, halting the flow of electrons in the bar. This takes place when:

Induced Current and Motional Emf The electric field in the metal bar causes a potential difference of V = El = vBl. If the bar slides along metal rails, as in the figure below, a closed circuit is set up with current flowing in the counterclockwise direction, up the bar and then around the metal rail back to the bottom of the bar. This is called an induced current.

The moving bar is a source of an electromotive force, called motional emf, since the emf is generated by the motion of the bar. The force is defined as:

The magnitude of the induced emf can be increased by increasing the strength of the magnetic field, moving the bar faster, or using a longer bar.

The general expression for motional EMF is:

* Faraday's law of induction is closely related to the Maxwell-Faraday equation:

where: denotes curl E is the electric field B is the magnetic flux density. The Maxwell-Faraday equation is one of the four Maxwell's equations, and therefore plays a fundamental role in the theory of classical electromagnetism.

An ideal transformer. The secondary current arises from the action of the secondary EMF on the (not shown) load impedance.

An ideal transformer is shown in the adjacent figure. Current passing through the primary coil creates a magnetic field. The primary and secondary coils are wrapped around a core of very high magnetic permeability, such as iron, so that most of the magnetic flux passes through both the primary and secondary coils. If a load is connected to the secondary winding, the load current and voltage will be in the directions indicated, given the primary current and voltage in the directions indicated (each will be alternating current in practice).

Induction law
The voltage induced across the secondary coil may be calculated from Faraday's law of induction, which states that:

where Vs is the instantaneous voltage, Ns is the number of turns in the secondary coil and is the magnetic flux through one turn of the coil. If the turns of the coil are oriented perpendicular to the magnetic field lines, the flux is the product of the magnetic flux density B and the area A through which it cuts. The area is constant, being equal to the cross-sectional area of the transformer core, whereas the magnetic field varies with time according to the excitation of the primary. Since the same magnetic flux passes through both the primary and secondary coils in an ideal transformer, the instantaneous voltage across the primary winding equals

Taking the ratio of the two equations for Vs and Vp gives the basic equation for stepping up or stepping down the voltage

Np/Ns is known as the turns ratio, and is the primary functional characteristic of any transformer. In the case of step-up transformers, this may sometimes be stated as the reciprocal, Ns/Np. Turns ratio is commonly expressed as an irreducible fraction or ratio: for example, a transformer with primary and secondary windings of, respectively, 100 and 150 turns is said to have a turns ratio of 2:3 rather than 0.667 or 100:150.

Ideal power equation

The ideal transformer as a circuit element If the secondary coil is attached to a load that allows current to flow, electrical power is transmitted from the primary circuit to the secondary circuit. Ideally, the transformer is perfectly efficient; all the incoming energy is transformed from the primary circuit to the magnetic field and into the secondary circuit. If this condition is met, the incoming electric power must equal the outgoing power:

giving the ideal transformer equation

Transformers normally have high efficiency, so this formula is a reasonable approximation.

If the voltage is increased, then the current is decreased by the same factor. The impedance in one circuit is transformed by the square of the turns ratio. For example, if an impedance Zs is attached across the terminals of the secondary coil, it appears to the primary circuit to have an impedance of (Np/Ns)2Zs. This relationship is reciprocal, so that the impedance Zp of the primary circuit appears to the secondary to be (Ns/Np)2Zp.

Detailed operation
The simplified description above neglects several practical factors, in particular the primary current required to establish a magnetic field in the core, and the contribution to the field due to current in the secondary circuit. Models of an ideal transformer typically assume a core of negligible reluctance with two windings of zero resistance. When a voltage is applied to the primary winding, a small current flows, driving flux around the magnetic circuit of the core. The current required to create the flux is termed the magnetizing current; since the ideal core has been assumed to have near-zero reluctance, the magnetizing current is negligible, although still required to create the magnetic field. The changing magnetic field induces an electromotive force (EMF) across each winding. Since the ideal windings have no impedance, they have no associated voltage drop, and so the voltages VP and VS measured at the terminals of the transformer, are equal to the corresponding EMFs. The primary EMF, acting as it does in opposition to the primary voltage, is sometimes termed the "back EMF".This is due to Lenz's law which states that the induction of EMF would always be such that it will oppose development of any such change in magnetic field.