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INTRODUCTION This document highlights the determination of the focal length of a concave mirror. It expounds on simple methods that are utilised to measure this characteristic value and places emphasis on the need to verify the property in this manner. In addition, the focus in said report is not centralised to this measurement alone since certain key terms used need to be examined and established. As such the scope of the document surrounds various originations and principles that make the explanation quite simpler to grasp.

BACKGROUND INFORMATION What is a mirror? A mirror, according to Microsoft Encarta Dictionaries1, is a surface that reflects light rays, without light diffusion2, and gives an image of anything placed in front of it. Of course, one would expect that anything visible on a mirror would be the result of the reflection of a tangible object. History of mirrors Mirrors have with them, a long meandering history, from natural mirrors to metal to finally glass, at present. The first known incidence of mirrors that humans used was natural mirrors, such as water reflection most likely dark, still pools of collected water. This was perhaps the stimuli to propel the production of man-made mirrors. The next line of mirrors first manmade mirrors- were made from a volcanic rock called obsidian a naturally occurring volcanic glass- some 6000 B.C. Following this, metals such a bronze, copper and brass were shaped and buffed until they attained an immaculate level of reflectivity. Glass reflectors were first produced in the 10th century by Italians and Spaniards and in 1835 a German professor was the first to make a glass mirror using a flawless silvering technique. This highly reflective surface

1 2

Microsoft Co. 2009 scatter; spread out

was coated with tin and mercury or silver. Today, aluminum the main metal used for silvering metal3.

Categories of mirror Plane mirrors

A plane mirror, as the name suggest, is one in which the boundary of the reflective surface is flat (a flat mirror) or is two-dimensional.

Spherical mirrors

Simply put, a spherical mirror is curved one whose reflective surface forms part of a sphere; the mirror itself is regarded a being a section of the surface of the sphere. The reflective surface may be on the outer side of the mirror or on the inner side. When the reflective surface lies on the inside or when the reflective surface curves inwards, in the direction of light incident on it, the mirror is referred to as concave. When the reflective surface lies on the outside or when the reflective surface curves outwards, in the direction opposite to light incident on it, the mirror is referred to as convex. It is taken that, conventionally also, that a mirror referred to as concave or convex is spherical so the word spherical need not be applied.

E-how, what is the origin of mirrors, E-how http://www.ehow.com/facts_5410635_origin-mirrors.html

Figure 1: concave and convex mirror

http://www.desktopclass.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/11/convex-and-concave-mirror.jpeg

Non-spherical mirrors

When a curved mirror cannot be approximated to be a section of the surface of the sphere, the mirror is non-spherical. The most common type of non-spherical mirrors is parabolic mirrors. In this instance, the mirror is such that its symmetrical cross-section is a parabola. Figure 2: Parabolic mirror

http://www.mirrorsforsale.org/wp-content/uploads/parabolic-mirrors-2.j

SPHERICAL CONCAVE MIRRORS The spherical concave mirror will be dealt with in detail hereafter. For convention, the mirror will be regarded as the concave mirror.

Parts of a concave mirror

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Concave_mirror.svg/607px-Concave_mirror.svg.png

I.

Centre /radius of curvature (C): this is the centre of the sphere which the mirrors surface forms part, measured as a distance.

II.

Principle axis: this is a straight line that extends through the centre of curvature and the mirror, where it is normal to the mirror at its point of intersection.

III. IV. V.

Pole (P): this is the point on the mirrors surface where the Principle axis intersects. Aperture ab: this is the section of the sphere which the mirror forms part. Focus/focal point (F): this is the point that light rays incident and parallel to the principle axis reflects and converge. It is halfway between the mirror and the centre of curvature.
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Features of a concave mirror A concave mirror maybe referred to as converging mirror it gathers light and focuses it to one point (the focus F), when the incident light is parallel to the principle axis. A light ray too, incident on the mirror, is reflected at an angle that is equal to the angle of incidence about a normal at the point of contact on the mirror. The image seen on the mirror depends on the objects distance from the mirror. Figure 3: Focused light by concave mirror

http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_4Oy_7FFvAeg/Smfg0kbEdxI/AAAAAAAAFEI/vYhCYcrZ6D4/s400/concave+mirror+focal+point+with+c+phys.ttu.edu+image008.jpg

Uses Flashlights and car headlights work on the principle that a concave mirror focuses light to one point. Concave mirrors magnify objects. Shaving mirrors and mirrors in dental offices also are concave mirrors. Large optical telescopes use concave mirrors to gather the faint light from distant stars.

REAL AND VIRTUAL AND THE MIRROR FORMULA And object or image in mirror optics can either be real or virtual. Real object/image: a real object requires no justification since objects are real. Real images result from the intersection of lights rays that have been reflected. Therefore it is possible to see real image form on a screen if you project it. Virtual object/image: a virtual image is one that does not result from the intersection of actual light rays but is an apparent assumption of the existence of an image, by virtue of theoretical optics; it cannot be projected. A virtual object, in addition, can only exist if it is the virtual image on one mirror shun on another mirror as a virtual object. The Gaussian mirror equation relates the object distance u and image distance v to the focal length f Equation 1. Where r is the centre of curvature and all distances is measure to the pole of the mirror.

Now, in order to distinguish between real and virtual images, and the two types of spherical mirrors, it is necessary to employ a sign convention. A common sign convention is the Real is Positive convention, in which: a. The focal lengths and radii of curvature of concave mirrors are positive and those of convex mirrors are negative; b. Distances from mirrors to real objects and images are positive, whereas distance to virtual objects and images are negative.

DETERMINING THE FOCAL LENGTH OF A CONCAVE MIRROR Method one: No Parallax method (experimental method) This method is workable on the basis that the image of an object placed at the centre of curvature of the mirror, is the same size as the inverted real object formed at the centre of curvature as well. The method is dependent upon the experimenters ability to dominate parallax error and make a very good judgement of proportion. [See appendix one (1) ] Steps 1. Obtain a rough value for the focal length of the mirror in questioning: focus a bright light source (e.g. distant building) onto a screen. The distance between the screen and the mirror is this value (see appendix one). 2. Position two uprights on an optical bench one holding the mirror and the other holding needle. Make the centre of the mirror and the tip of the needle at the same level. 3. Place the needle at a distance twice the rough focal length from the mirror. Look for and inverted image on the mirror (see appendix one). 4. Adjust the height of the needle once more so that its tip coincides with the tip of its image. Be sure that the image appears clear to the eye and that the two tips do not overlap; otherwise move eye distance further. 5. Removal of parallax: Move the needle sideways, keeping the eye behind the needle. Ensure step four still holds. Move the eye sideways. 6. Move the needle backward and forward along the principle axis to get a position where there is no parallax between the needle and its image. No parallax is determined when there are minimal shifts during removal of parallax. 7. Note the positions of the mirror and needle on the scale. The focal length is half the distance between the mirror and the needle.
http://books.google.com/books?id=SFwCbDk2EwUC&pg=PA76&lpg=PA76&dq=non+parallax+focal+length+concave+mirror&source =bl&ots=hYyzNz_Mab&sig=xh1a04mQeoM9PI2D3jvrbyMuUIA&hl=en&ei=3_TFToaEG8T3tgeT7OHTCw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=re sult&resnum=6&ved=0CEIQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q&f=false

Method two: spherometer A spherometer is an instrument for the precise measurement of the radius of a sphere. The instrument is designed specifically for use by opticians to measure the curvature of the surface of spherical lens. The instrument involves a very simple mechanism that can get very sophisticated to understand. To measure the radius of a spheree.g. the curvature of a lens or mirrorthe spherometer is levelled and read, then placed on the sphere, adjusted until the four points (see below) exert equal pressure, and read again. The difference gives the thickness of that portion of the sphere cut off by a plane passing through the three feet. Calling this distance h, and the distance between the feet a, the radius R is given by the formula:

Figure 4: Spherometer

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Common-spherometer.jpg/320px-Common-spherometer.jpg

Appendix one

Effect on image of object's position relative to mirror focal point (concave) Object's position (S), focal point (F)

Image

Diagram

S<F (Object between focal point and mirror)

Virtual Upright Magnified (larger)

S=F (Object at focal point)

Reflected rays are parallel and never meet, so no image is formed. In the limit where S approaches F, the image distance approaches infinity, and the image can be either real or virtual and either upright or inverted depending on whether S approaches F from above or below.

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F < S < 2F (Object between focus and centre of curvature)

Real Inverted (vertically) Magnified (larger)

S = 2F (Object at centre of curvature)

Real Inverted (vertically) Same size Image formed at centre of curvature

S > 2F (Object beyond centre of curvature)

Real Inverted (vertically) Reduced (diminished/smaller) As the distance of the object increases, the image asymptotically approaches the focal point In the limit where S approaches infinity, the image size approaches zero as the image approaches F

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