LEARNING MODULES IN STATISTICS

(With Computer Application)

By

Prof. Felipe V. de Guzman

MODULE IN STATISTICS

MODULE ONE
STATISTICS AS A SCIENCE

INTRODUCTION
Undoubtedly, statistics is a very useful tool in the various activities of man. During the primitive period, people were not conscious that they were already using statistics in counting events, activities, things, etc. They were not also aware that they were using statistics in determining the birth rate, crop yield, occurrence of events at a certain period of time, etc. The use of statistics in modern time is of course different from those of primitive past. The modern man utilizes statistics, as a science, in the various fields of studies, professional endeavors, and even for personal profit. This module will enable you to understand the nature and meaning of statistics, its brief historical development, the difference between sample and population, the meaning and kinds of variables, and the importance of statistics especially in the field of research.

GENERAL OBJECTIVES
At the end of this module, you are expected to: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. State the nature and scientific definition of statistics Trace the brief historical development of statistics Distinguish sample from a population Enumerate and differentiate the kinds of variables Explain the uses of statistics TIME FRAME

PRE-TEST 1
Test your knowledge of the basic ideas in statistics. As much as possible, avoid guessing. At any rate, this test is not graded. Choose the letter of the best answer from the given four choices. Write your answer on the blank before the number. 1. From the research point of view, statistics as a science deals with the following activities: A. B. C. D. collection and gathering of data presentation and analysis of data interpretation of data all of the above

2. In counting events, objects, people, etc., the measurements that are collected from the original information are called __________. A. B. C. D. data scores raw data none of the above

3. In making generalizations about the population from which the sample has been drawn, the measure to use is called _______. A. B. C. D. descriptive statistics inferential statistics correlational statistics statistics

4. It refers to the aggregates of people, objects, materials, etc. of any form. A. B. C. D. population sample estimate statistic

5. If you are interested with just a few members of the population to represent their traits and properties, then these selected few members constitute a/an _____. A. B. C. D. sample aggregate estimate statistic 2

6. This term refers to a property, trait or characteristic whereby the members of the group vary or differ from one another. A. B. C. D. variable constant measurement none of the above

7. A variable which allows making of statements only of equality or difference among the members of a group. A. B. C. D. nominal variable ratio variable interval variable ordinal variable

8. If you judge individuals according to their level of job satisfaction by ranking them, the resulting variable is a/an ______. A. B. C. D. nominal ratio ordinal interval

9. The number of male students in a class is referred to a/an ________ variable. A. B. C. D. interval nominal ordinal ratio

10. Which of the following statements is not true about the uses of statistics? A. It can predict the behavior of individuals like students, workers, school administrators, etc. B. It can give a precise description of data. C. It can be used to test a hypothesis in research. D. It can be used to solve emotional problems. 3

THE NATURE AND SCIENTIFIC DEFINITION OF STATISTICS

The Nature of Statistics The employment of statistics in mans various activities during the past several centuries is said to be in a limited sense. Its usefulness was trapped basically in counting or determining the number of events that have occurred at a certain period of time, birth rate, mortality rate, etc. In counting activities, events, things, etc., the measurements that are gathered are referred to raw data. These data may be treated by statistical tools in order to relate, associate, or describe the data. In the method of description, the statistical tool to apply is called descriptive statistics. In the method of relating and correlating two variables, correlational statistics is utilized. Finally, in drawing generalizations regarding the population from which the sample has been gathered, the tool to utilize is inferential statistics.

Scientific Definition of Statistics Statistics can be defined operationally. From the point of view of a researcher, statistics is a science which deals with methods of collecting, gathering, presenting, analyzing and interpreting data. The data gathering includes the collection of information through questionnaires, observations, interviews, experiments, tests, etc. The information are usually converted into numerical or quantitative data. The data collected can be displayed through the use of graphs, tables, figures, and other ways of exhibiting the data. There are two ways of presenting data in tabular form: In text or summary table or in reference table. The text or summary table is usually found in the body of the research work. The reference table is usually found in the appendices of the research work. The data analysis is a procedure wherein the resolution of information takes place by the application of statistical principles. It involves the employment of any statistical method and the choice of which depends largely upon the objectives of the research problem. After the analysis of data has been undertaken, the results can be explained and interpreted. The findings of the study will then be compared to the existing theories and earlier researches or studies in a particular field.

Activity 1.1
Consider the following research situations then specify the appropriate or the best manner of gathering data whether interview, questionnaire, experiment, observation, test, etc.

1. Job Satisfaction of Public School Teachers 2. Emotionally Disturbed Grade School Children 3. Sexually Harrassed Adolescents 4. Effect of Modularized Instruction to Graduate Students Academic Performance 5. Profile of the Faculty in Catholic Schools 6. Factors Affecting the Performance of Staff Nurses in the Rural Areas 7. Comparative Study on the Various Instructional Strategies Applied to Handicapped Learners 8. Diagnosing the Needs of Adult Learners in Tertiary Level 9. Development of Instructional Materials in Hydraulics 10. The Management Practices of Private School Principals in Region I

BRIEF HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF STATISTICS

In the ancient times, statistics was utilized to provide information that pertains to activities that include farming, collection of taxes, number of soldiers in a particular nation, number of events that occurred in a particular period of time, agricultural crops and even in athletic endeavors of man. The employment of statistics was later developed into an inferential science sometimes in the sixteenth century. As an inferential science, it largely depended on the theory of probability. The development continued through the researches made by the people in various fields during the past 400 years. The inclination of man into gambling led to the development of the probability theory. During those times, the gamblers asked help from the mathematicians to teach them the techniques on how to win the games. The requests for such techniques were considered by some mathematicians among them were Pascal, Leibnitz, and James Bernoulli. It is very interesting to note along this line that according to some winners of the Lotto game, the chances of winning is attributed to the application of their knowledge of probability and statistics. In relation to the historical development of statistics, De Moivre (1733) discovered the equation for the normal distribution. The discovery of the said equation became the basis of development in many theories of inferential statistics. The normal distribution which is a bellshaped distribution was also referred to as the Gaussian distribution. It was during this time that the work of Laplace became so popular because of the application of statistics to astronomy. Another significant event in the development of statistics occurred when a Belgian statistics named Adolph Quetelet (1796-1874) made an application of statistics in the field of psychology and education. He was considered to be the first statistician to demonstrate the statistical techniques derived in one area of research and applied to other areas. Another statistician who contributed his knowledge of statistics in the field of social sciences was Sir Francis Galton (1822-1911). The application of statistics to heredity and eugenics was probably the most notable contribution of Galton to the development of statistics. He also discovered the computation of percentiles. Along with Galton was Karl Pearson (18571936) who exerted his efforts and cooperated with Galton in developing the theory of correlation and regression. While Pearson was probably responsible for evolving the theories of sampling at present. Finally, at the rise of the twentieth century, William S. Gosset developed methods for decision-making derived from smaller sets of data. Gosset worked in a brewery. He made a study and published its results under the name student. He disguised his real name because the brewery company which is owned by an Irish prohibited research since results of the study might prove useful to its competitors. The idea of Gosset was continued by another statistician named Sir Ronald Fisher (1890-1962) who was responsible for developing the science of statistics for experimental designs. 6

Activity 1.2

Fill in the blanks with the correct answer.

1. The inclination of man to gambling led to the early development of _________________. 2. ________________ discovered the equation for normal distribution upon which many of the theories of inferential statistics have been based. 3. The normal distribution or the bell-shaped distribution was referred to _______________. 4. The work of Laplace gained popularity for it was about the application of statistics to _____________________. 5. __________________ made an application of statistics in the field of psychology and education. 6. The greatest contribution of Sir Francis Galton to the development of statistics was his application of statistics in the field of _____________________. 7. Pearson was probably responsible for evolving the present theories of ______________. 8. _________________ developed methods for decision-making derived from smaller sets of data. 9. __________________ developed statistics for experimental designs.

SOME BASIC CONCEPTS USED IN STATISTICS

What is a sample? Suppose you are interested to study the behavior of handicapped students in a classroom situation. It will be very tedious if you will consider to select the thousands of this type of students in a semester. Instead you will only consider some of them to be selected using an appropriate sampling technique. The portion of the totality of the handicapped students is referred to as sample. What is a population? The term population refers to the aggregates of things, objects, people, events, etc. This could be population of students, engineers, accountants, school administrators, etc. In research, the concern is to look at the properties of the aggregate or group rather than the characteristics of each member. What is a constant? The word constant refers to a property whereby the members of a particular sample or an aggregate do not differ from one another. For instance, a particular sex, say male, is a constant because the members do not differ. What is a variable? The term variable refers to a property whereby the members of an aggregate differ from one another. Thus, members of the group may vary or differ in the color of eyes, height, weight, civil status, etc. What are the levels of measurement of a variable? There are four levels of measurement. 1. Nominal variable: This variable refers to a characteristic or property of the members of the group or aggregate defined by an operation which allows making of statements only of equality or difference. We can say that a member is different or the same compared to another member of the group. For instance, two male students are the same in sex while another two males may be different in height and weight. 8

2. Ordinal variable: This variable refers to a property or characteristic wherein the members of a group are compared say, one is greater than the other or one is less than the other member. Ranking students based on the results of their midterm examinations, will always have the first, the second, third and so on. In this case, the first in rank is higher than those who obtained other ranks. 3. Interval variable: This refers to a property or characteristic defined by an operation which allows making of statements of equality rather than statements of greater than or less than and sameness or difference. An interval variable does not have a true zero point. 4. Ratio variable: This refers to a property defined by an operation which allows making of statement of equality and of ratios. This means that one value may be thought of as five times another, triple of a certain number, and so on. The measurements in the ratio variable are made from an arbitrary zero point.

Activity 1.3
A. Identify the concept: write your answer on the blank before the number. 1. The aggregates of objects, events, people, etc. 2. The representatives of an aggregate of handicapped learners in the tertiary level. 3. It refers to a property or trait whereby the members of the group do not differ from one another. 4. It refers to a characteristic or property whereby the members of a group vary or differ from one another. 5. The level of measurement wherein the property of members in a group are considered in terms of sameness or difference. 6. The scale of measurement of a variable wherein the characteristic or property of members in a particular aggregate say individuals are ranked.

B. Write the level of measurement that corresponds to the variable in each item. Write your answer on the blank before the number. 7. Second born and fifth born child in a family. 8. Frequencies of passing and failing the course in Research. 9. Performance of 50 students in Statistics test. 10. Socio-economic status of 30 subjects in a class.

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THE USES OF STATISTICS

Statistics has an indespensable role particularly in the field of research. It enables a researcher to make a flawless and accurate statements of judgements about a relationship of two or more variables. For instance, describing the academic performance of the students in terms of the computed mean, standard deviation, correlation in relation with another factor of academic performance results. Thus, statistics can be utilized to give a precise description of data. In an educational research, the academic performance can be predicted through the result of an entrance tests such as aptitude test, personality test, etc. An instructors work performance can also be predicted through the results of teacher inventory test. In this light, statistics is useful in predicting the behavior of individuals. In order to determine the relationship between two or more variables, an appropriate statistical measure must be utilized. For instance, a correlational study may employ statistical measures such as t-test, chi-square test, F-test, and others. With this purpose, statistics can be used to test a hypothesis.

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Activity 1.4
What do you think are other uses of statistics? Enumerate at least 5. Explain your answer. 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

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POST TEST 1
I. Fill in the blanks with the correct answer:

1. In the method to relate or associate two variables, the measure to apply is known as _________________________. 2. To make generalizations about the population from which the sample has been drawn, the measure to use is known as _________________________. 3. ___________________ involves getting information with the employment of interviews, questionnaires, observations, psychological tests, etc. 4. ______________ is the resolution of information into simpler elements by the application of statistical principles. 5. The most notable contribution of Sir Francis Galton to the development of statistics was the application of statistics to heredity and eugenics and his discoveries by ____________. 6. The equation for the normal distribution was discovered by ____________________. 7. ______________ refers to the groups or aggregates of people, events, materials, etc. of any form. 8. ______________ refers to a property whereby the members of a group or aggregate do not differ from one another. 9. The measures of the population are called _______________________. 10. ______________ refers to the properties or characteristics whereby the members of the group or aggregate vary or differ from one another.

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II. Write the level of measurement that corresponds to the variable in each item. Write your answer on the blank before the number.

1. Third born and fifth born child. 2. High and low scores in Statistics test 3. Performance of boys and girls in an aptitude test. 4. Color preferences of adults in Cebu. 5. Failing and passing in a qualifying examination. 6. Frequencies of strongly agree and strongly disagree responses to the creation of E-vat. 7. Performance of 100 examinees in PBET. 8. Positions or ranks of graduate students on a social adjustment scale 9. The valedictorian and salutatorian in a graduating class. 10. Number of students who are in favor of the creation of the law on sexual harrassment.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

page

TITLE

MODULES IN STATISTICS

MODULE 1

STATISTICS AS A SCIENCE 1

....................................

4 6

Lesson 1.1 - The Nature and Science Definition of Statistics ....................... Lesson 1.2 - Brief Historical Development of Statistics .............................. Lesson 1.3 - Some Basic Concepts Used in Statistics ................................. Lesson 1.4 - The Uses of Statistics ............................................................. 8 11

Lesson 2.1 - Frequency Distribution of Nominal Data .............................. Lesson 2.2 - Frequency Distributions of Nominal, Ordinal and Interval Data .................................................... MODULE 3 GRAPHIC PRESENTATION OF DATA ........................

18 22 29 33 36 44 47 51 53 58 64 66 69

Lesson 3.1 - Presenting Data in a Pie Chart & Bar Graph ......................... Lesson 3.2 - Presenting Data in a Frequency Polygon ................................ MODULE 4 Lesson 4.1 Lesson 4.2 Lesson 4.3 Lesson 4.4 MODULE 5 MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY .................... The Mean for the Ungrouped Data ........................................ The Mean of the Grouped Data .............................................. The Median of Ungrouped and Grouped Data ....................... The Mode of the Ungrouped and Grouped Data .................... MEASURES OF VARIATION .........................................

Lesson 5.1 - The Range and the Mean Deviation ....................................... Lesson 5.2 - The Variance and Standard Deviation ....................................

page MODULE 6 NORMAL PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION ................ 78 81 84 89 98 101 104 108 111 123 126 134 143 145 147 149 154 159 163 165 167 172

Lesson 6.1 - Characteristics of a Normal Probability Distribution .............. Lesson 6.2 - Areas Under the Normal Curve .............................................. Lesson 6.3 - The Applications of the Standard Normal Distribution .......... MODULE 7 TESTING DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MEANS ...........

Lesson 7.1 - The Null Hypothesis: No Difference Between Means The Research Hypothesis: A Difference Between Means .. Lesson 7.2 - Directional and Non-Directional Hypothesis ........................ Lesson 7.3 - The Steps in Hypothesis Testing ................................ Lesson 7.4 - The T-Tests of Significance .................................................... MODULE 8 ONE FACTOR ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE .................

Lesson 8.1 - Understanding Analysis of Variance ............................ Lesson 8.2 - The Anova Using The Raw Score Method ........................... MODULE 9 MEASURES OF CORRELATION .................................

Lesson 9.1 - The Concept of Correlation, Coefficients of Correlation ........ Lesson 9.2 - Simple Linear Regression In A Scatter Diagram ................... Lesson 9.3 - Correlation Between Interval Data ......................................... Lesson 9.4 - Correlation Between Ordinal Data ......................................... Lesson 9.5 - Correlation Between Nominal Data ....................................... MODULE 10 THE CHI-SQUARE TEST ...............................................

Lesson 10. - Characteristics of the Chi-Square Test ................................... Lesson 10.2- Test of Goodness of Fit .......................................................... Lesson 10.3- Chi-Square Test of Independence ..........................................

BIBLIOGRAPHY