Life in the Bronze Age

The Bronze Age was the period when bronze was used to produce tools. This was
the first metal used, although some items were made of metal in the late Neolithic
(farming Stone Age). Most of the metal tools made at the start of the Bronze Age
were display items that indicated status. By the middle of the Bronze Age metal was
used to produce tools that were used for work. Farming was the main source of food
and there is good evidence for the clearance of the Cheviot hills, and for the
development of a society with a clear hierarchy.

Metal smiths, potters, farmers and nobility, warriors and
religious classes, and possibly even slaves, existed in the
Bronze Age and this meant that people had to become more
reliant on group co-operation. Claims on territory were
important, and the field systems were established to express
ownership. Ritual was alsoimportant, and tools and weapons
were sacrificed to the gods by being buried, thrown into the
water, or destroyed.
The scene to the right is an artist's impression of the activities
carried out on the Howick site during the Bronze Age. What
activities does the scene portray ? What do you think the
location of the cemetery on a prominent point of land as seen
from the sea suggests about transport and travel in the Bronze
Age ? Why do you think there is not any evidence of settlement
or agricultural activities from the Bronze Age at Howick ?

Bronze Age Ireland

The Irish Bronze Age dates from 2500BC to around 700BC. It is divided into two main
periods The Early Bronze and the Later Bronze Age. For many, the Bronze age is the most
exciting period of Irish Archaeology, given that it was during this time that metal working
first made an appearance, mining for copper was first carried out, and Ireland's wonderful
goldsmithing came into being, creating objects of beauty that can now be seen in our
ational museum. Burial practices also changed during the bronze age and ritual practices
in stone circles are from this era.




Bronze Age Gold from
Ireland
Change came slowly to the inhabitants of Ireland 4,500 years ago and we must expect that
burial practises, the use of flint and other stone tools from the eolithic period overlapped
the Irish Bronze Age by many hundred if not thousands of years. Flint was too useful a
commodity to be abandoned overnight and the copper and bronze tools of the Bronze Age
in Ireland may well have been too expensive for all to aspire to.
Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin. The earlier part of the Bronze age is sometimes
referred to as the Copper Age owing to the use of copper in a purer, but less useful state at
that time. Later on, the introduction of tin, likely imported from Wales made it possible to
forge better and more sophisticated tools and weapons from the new alloy. These tools and
weapons would have been available to just a few sections of society and this brought about
social changes which saw hierarchies established with the ownership and access to the new
metal being the overriding factor in where one ranked in this hierarchy.

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Bronze Age sword and
bucket from the Later
Bronze Age. The sword
handle would have been
made of wood or antler and,
being organic, is not
recovered when the swords
come to light during
archaeological excavation.
The holes in the handle are
rivet holes. These rivets
would have secured the
handle and possibly a small
plate to protect the
swordsman's hand.


Pottery too changed during the Bronze Age and among the earliest types one finds small
elegantly crafted pots known as Beaker pottery. Beaker pottery has also been found in
Europe dating from around the same period. These Beaker pots were used as drinking
vessels and it is still debated as to whther or not Beaker Folk arrived here from Europe
bringing this particular tradition with them or if the use of such pots was adopted by those
already resident here by the absorption of cultures which slowly filtered into the country.
This early period was also when axes of copper were made and it is thought the axes had
more symbolic value that practical value as axes. Other implements of note from the time
were tanged flint arrowheads, tanged copper daggers and stone wrist-guards.
The bronze axeheads from the Bronze Age are particularly interesting as archaeologists
have been able to classify them chronilogically and by so doing, been able to date other
objects found in association. The earliest copper axexhead was a Lough Ravel type and the
evolution of this implement saw the method of affixing a handle changing a number of
times. Other types are Killaha and Ballyvally.
The change-over from copper to Bronze took place around 1700BC. Most of the finds of
axeheads and other metal objects like awls, daggers and halberds are from stray finds
rather than in burials or settlements. Halberds are odd looking implements that must have
been ceremonial rather than having any practical use. These were made of copper or
bronze. Over 2000 axes have been found from Ireland's Early Bronze age.
Rough sketches oI Bronze Age Axe-
heads. The Iirst three were secured to
the wooden handle by being inserted
into a hole in the handle or into a split
handle which was then bound with
leather and resin. The axe on the right
looks odd but does have a sharpened
axe cutting edge.

The axehead on right oI picture which
resembles a small jug/pitcher is Irom the
Late Bronze Age. Having the handle
shaped and Iitted into the head rather
than the other way around was much
more eIIicient. The handle was used to
secure a leather thong Irom the handle
to the axe-head. With the axe-head
Iitting into the wooden handle as
beIore,the problem oI splitting handles
must have been a constant one.
The earliest copper mining recorded in Ireland is at Ross Island in Killarney, Co. Kerry.
Mount Gabriel in Co. Cork presents the best evidence while at Derrycarhoon in Co. Cork six
Bronze Age copper mining shafts were discovered under ten feet of turf-bog. William
O'Brien's 'Bronze Age Copper Mining in Britain and Ireland' published by Shire Publications
is well worth a place on your shelf if you have an interest in this area of Irish archaeology.
Mining was carried out by setting fires at the mine face and then using stone hammers to
break the ore-bearing rock away from the face. The ore was then taken to a place where
wood was readily available to fuel the furnaces that were needed to melt the crushed ore.
Tens of tons of dry wood had to be on hand to melt one ton of ore. Throughout the Bronze
age Bronze Cauldrons, Shields, daggers and swords, were among the items found in
different contexts. Almost 120 bronze musical horns (some in pieces) have been recorded
in Ireland. Some of these were almost S shaped and the curved trumpet part was held
above the head and faced towards the audience. (Hearing a wonderful musical performance
on one of these horns was the highlight of a visit to the ational Museum a few years ago
for me and my son.)
Ireland appears to have been rich in Gold in the Bronze Age and we are fortunate that many
gold items have survived and are to be seen in the ational museum in Dublin. However,
many of the gold artifacts found in Ireland during the nineteenth century were melted down
for the gold or sent to museums in England. Some scholars make a good case for the
importation of gold from Europe during the Bronze age as Ireland could not have produced
the amount of gold needed to produce the estimated amount of gold objects created.
There is plenty of evidence for trade between Ireland and Europe at that time.
Gold ornaments are classified as Gorgets, Sleeve and dress fasteners, Gold discs,
Bracelets, Gold Lunulae, and Gold Torcs.




Gold Gorget from Ireland's Bronze Age

Burials in the early Bronze Age were both unburnt burial and cremation. In the unburnt
burial the corpse was often placed in a crouched position within a four sided and covered
small stone tomb beneath the earth. These small tombs are called cists (often pronounced
'Kists'). Some Bronze Age burials were on hilltops similar to passage tombs. These hilltop
burials were usually covered by a large mound of stones called a cairn. Only some of the
Bronze Age burials contain grave goods and this is usually a piece of pottery. The pottery is
divided into a number of classifications. Food Vessels are small bowls found beside the
corpse and it is thought they were a ritual of burning some food with the dead which would
indicate a belief in the afterlife. This tradition is known as the Bowl tradition.
The Vase Tradition is associated with cremation of the dead. The vases were either in the
grave with the burnt remains or actually contained the burnt remains. Other vases were
much larger and are called urns. Encrusted urns were usually placed mouth downwards
over the dead. These are sometimes found during ploughing and the urns very often get
broken.
Another Urn tradition is called Collared Urn tradition. These cordoned urns are so-called
because of the ribs or cordons on their sides. They too are placed mouth down over the
remains.
The Wedge tombs were a continuation of the eolithic wedge tomb tradition. which are
described here.

Bronze Age Ritual
Stone Circles, Stone Rows, and Standing Stones are quite evocative in the Irish landscape
and still cause people to pause and contemplate their raison d'etre and to imagine the
rituals which took place at, or in them and to try to imagine the people who performed
such ritual. Were they for marriage?... a baptism of some sort?... funeral rites?...
sacrifice? othing else in Irish archaeology has this power of connecting the peoples of the
past with the people of the present. To stand in the centre of a Bronze Age stone circle on
the side of a windswept hill can be a moving experience.

rombeg Stone Circle, Co. Cork

$tone Circles There are two distinct types of stone circle in Ireland. In West Cork - Kerry
the circles are made up of uneven numbers of stones from five to seventeen and these
contain an area of between 8 feet and fifty feet. The entrance faces the north-east and a
stone opposite the entrance is called the axial stone. Some of the circles have a boulder
burial within them. Boulder burials are very simple in plan and are just what they describe,
a burial, usually cremated, with a large boulder marking the spot.
In Fermanagh, Tyrone and Derry a group of stone circles are classified as the Mid-Ulster
Group. There are some differences between this group and the Cork Kerry group. These
differences occur in the spasing between the stones, the size of the stones and the number
of stones. Tharea within the Ulster group is usually smaller that that of there southern
counterparts.

The largest stone circles in Ireland is that of Grange at Lough Gur in County Limerick.
This is very accessible and an effort should be made to get to it if you have an interest in
how our Bronze Age ancestors conducted their daily lifes. It measures 150 feet in diameter
and is enclosed by 113 standing stones. The stones are surrounded by and supported by a
forty foot wide bank The largest stone is over 13 feet high and is estimated to weigh 40
tons. It was built over 4000 years ago.

ANcicNT McsooTAmiA (lnAoI

3300 BC
The Development of Written Language and Metallurgy (Bronze Age)






Fertile Crescent Sumerian Tax tablet


The Fertile Crescent was the beginning of civilization.
Mesopotamia (now raq) to the East and Pre-srael/Egypt
to the West were very different but complex civilizations
developed from these two areas in the "Bronze Age".


The Fertile Crescent

Ancient Mesopotamia was supported by two rivers, the
Tigris and the Euphrates. The river in Egypt was the Nile
that brought rich fertile top soil every year to the lower
valleys as the annual floods occurred.

Mesopotamia was ruled by Kings. There were temples
called Ziggurats built that were similar to the step
pyramids of ancient Egypt. There were many kings that
ruled their local governments with an overlord King to
create national unity. Their kings were rulers that were
spiritual in nature and ruled by laws that gave the people
of this civilization freedom and the ability to develop
individual wealth. Sargon (Sharru-kin = "legitimate king",
possibly a title he took on gaining power; 24th century BC)
was the leader of Akkadian Empire. Sargon has often been cited as the first
ruler of a combined empire of Akkad and Sumer, although more recently discovered data suggests there
had been Sumerian expansions under previous kings, including Lugal-Anne-
Mundu of Adab, Eannatum of Lagash, and Lugal-Zage-Si. shtar was the wife ofSargon. Sargon's son
was Rimush. Queen Tashlultum
Ancient Mesopotamia

The first history of human civilization took place in Mesopotamia, the land between the Tigris and
Euphrates river. About ten thousand years ago, the people of this area began the agricultural revolution.
Instead of hunting and gathering their food, they domesticated plants and animals, beginning with the sheep.
They lived in houses built from reeds or mud-brick, grouped in villages where they tended their crops and
they began developing a token system to record trade and accounts. In this same period came the beginnings
of writing, metro logical systems and arithmetic too. The time line of the Mesopotamian history can be
divided as follows.

eolithic Age (7000 BCE - 5300 BCE) - 1armo, Hassuna, Samarra and Halaf cultures. Chalcolithic or Copper
Age (5900 BCE - 2900 BCE) - Ubaid, Uruk and 1emdet asr periods Bronze Age (2900 BCE - 11th BCE) -
Sumer, Akkadian, Babylonian and Assyrian Empires. Iron Age (11th BCE - 7th BCE) - eo-Assyrian
Empire, eo-Babylonian Empire and Achaemenid Empire.

The Sargon (2334-2279) of Akkad created the world's first empire conquering all the Sumerian city-states,
united them with Akkad. Widely considered to be the cradle of civilization, the indigenous Sumerians the
Akkadian, Babylonian and Assyrian empires dominated Mesopotamia from the beginning of written history
to the fall of Babylon in 539 BC, when it was conquered and ruled by Achaemenid the Persian Empire until
Alexander the Great conquered the known world, in 332 BC. Thereafter the region of the two rivers becomes,
for the next few years, a province within a succession of empires - those of the Hellenistic Greeks, the
Parthians, and the Sassanians. But this is to bring us into modern times.

Though the Sumerians lived in a complex, unpredictable and frequently hostile environment, they grew crops
and stored food for times of need. They struggled to survive and overcome feelings of futility and
powerlessness. Sumerian was the first language written in Mesopotamia. This language was used for
religious, administrative, scientific, and literacy purposes. Other popular languages were Semitic and
Akkadian. Initially, the Mesopotamians used cuneiform script, the wedge-shaped' clay tablets to impress
signs or simple pictures, or pictograms, which represent an object or an idea. Depictions on seals sometimes
illustrate the mythic traditions that were part of this great civilization's literary heritage. Along with myths,
Mesopotamian literary works include epics, folktales, prayers, hymns, proverbs, personal letters, and fables.
The finest literary work from ancient Mesopotamia is the Epic of Gilgamesh. Gilgamesh is a long narrative
poem that describes the deeds of a hero in his quest for identity and the meaning of life. Part man and part
god, Gilgamesh deals with such universal themes as the meaning of friendship; fear of sickness, death, and
the forces of evil; and the search for immortality.

They also invented a system of mathematics based on the number 60. Today, we divide an hour into 60
minutes, and a minute into 60 seconds. That comes from the ancient Mesopotamians.

Mesopotamians were very fond of songs. Most of their songs were written for the gods but many were written
to describe important events. The Oud is a small, stringed musical instrument used by the Mesopotamians.
The oldest pictorial record of the Oud dates back to the Uruk period in Southern Mesopotamia over 5000
years ago. Hunting was popular among Assyrian kings. Boxing and wrestling feature frequently in art, and
some form of polo was probably popular, with men sitting on the shoulders of other men rather than on
horses. They also played majore, a game similar to the sport rugby, and board game similar to senet and
backgammon, now known as the "Royal Game of Ma-asesblu."

The origin of astronomy dates back to the Mesopotamian civilization. The Mesopotamian astronomers were
fond of studying stars and planets. They invented a lunisolar calendar which had 12 months and two seasons,
summer and winter. They even predicted the motion of planets and eclipses; some scholars referred to this
approach as the first Scientific Revolution. During the eo-Sumerian period Sumerian culture and
civilization experienced a remarkable renaissance. There was peace and prosperity throughout the land, the
legal system was strengthened, the calendar was revised, metrology simplified, agriculture revived, and towns
and temples were rebuilt, the most imposing of the latter being the ziggurat at Ur.

At the beginning of the eighteenth century, the ruler of Babylon was one Hammurabi (1792-1750). In short
order he conquered and unified the whole of Mesopotamia, and Babylon became its greatest city. King
Hammurabi, was famous for his set of laws, The Laws of Hammurabi are the longest and best organized of
the law collections that survive from ancient Mesopotamia.

The oldest Babylonian texts on medicine date back to the Old Babylonian period introducing the concepts of
diagnosis, prognosis, physical examination, and prescriptions. The most extensive Babylonian medical text,
however, is the Diagnostic Handbook written by the physician Esagil-kin-apli of Borsippa(a city), during the
reign of the Babylonian king Adad-apla-iddina.

The last of the great eo-Assyrian kings, Assurbanipal (669-627) who ruled over the Assyrian empire at its
peak, collected a vast library at his palace at ineveh. In 1849, this library was rediscovered by the British
archaeologist, Sir Henry Layard, and the modern discipline of Assyriology was born.

The Mesopotamians were polytheistic and believed in many gods. Although, they had common beliefs, there
were some regional variations; the Babylonians worshiped Marduk, the Assyrian Empire believed in Ashur,
the Sumerians considered An and Ki as their god and goddess, and Enlil (son of An and Ki) as the air god.
Mesopotamian Religion did not believe in the after-life. They believed that all good and bad people go under-
ground as ghosts and eat filth.

The materials used to build a Mesopotamian structure were the same as those used today: mud brick, mud
plaster and wooden doors, which were all naturally available around the city. The most remarkable
architecture of Mesopotamia includes The temple and palace of kings,The royal tombs,The ziggurat, Hanging
Gardens of Babylon and the Greek Theatre, Kufa and its famous Mosque, Wasit (Mosque and Dar-al-Imara)
and many other establishments.Levelled over the centuries by rain, floods, and shifting sands, the mud brick
cities and temples of Mesopotamia were buried, leaving only the shapeless mounds that still stand throughout
Iraq today.