Ten Common Grammar, Punctuation, and Spelling Errors to Avoid in Business Writing

May 27, 2010 When will I ever use this? you may have thought as you sat in that high-school English class. Now, all grown up, you find yourself writing far more than you ever would have expected. Emails, proposals, letters, and rsums the written word is everywhere, even in the electronic age. Writing might not be your strength, but the way you write still says a lot to employers, clients, and co-workers. Like coming to a job interview in torn jeans and a stained sweatshirt, sending out poorly dressed written communication (with misspellings, grammar errors, and misplaced punctuation) will cause others to think less of your ability to do your job well. Though grammar, spelling, and punctuation errors abound in our culture, Everybody else is doing it wont fly as an excuse with your employer or clients any more than it did with your mother when you were a teenager. And while some grammar rules are changing (such as the ban on starting a sentence with and), rules dont always change simply because a multitude of people break them. Some common errors can completely change the meaning of a sentence; others simply make the writer look sloppy. Even a few errors can make the difference between an outstanding presentation and a No, thank you from a potential client. Just in case you spent more time in your English class checking out the cutie next to you than you did learning the rules of language, here are ten common errors to avoid when you write your next business communication: 1. Its and Its are two different words. The former is a possessive, meaning it shows that one thing belongs to another. The latter is a shortened form of it is. Incidentally, contractions, such as its, theyre, and Id, are perfectly fine for informal writing and are becoming more acceptable in formal writing. To be cautious, however, you may want to write out the longer form of what you want to say. 2. Theyre, their, and there are also different words. The first means they are, the second means belonging to them, and the third means that place away from here. The same goes for youre (you are) and your (belonging to you). 3. Avoid using they and their when talking about one person. The grammar rule that applies here is that all the nouns, verbs, and pronouns in your sentence have to agree. In other words, if

one is plural, they all should be. Most people remember this rule from English class (even if they failed to pay attention), but misusing their has become a popular solution to the problem of offending someone by saying his whenever a persons gender is unknown. Instead of saying, Each person submits their own time card, it is correct to say Each person submits his or her own time card. Using his or her does get awkward in longer documents, so it is better to reword the sentence to avoid the pronoun: Each person submits a time card or (where accurate) to make other nouns and verbs plural: The people all submit their own time cards. 4. Simple plurals do not require an apostrophe. This rule is basic but frequently broken. How often do you see a sign on a house that says, The Browns? If the Browns live there, it should either read The Browns (a label) or The Browns (short for The Browns house). Products for sale often violate this apostrophe rule, so an apostrophe within a plural is sometimes called the greengrocers apostrophe. Apples for sale is grammatically incorrect. The phrase needs to lose an apostrophe or gain a possession: Apples for sale or Apples core for sale. 5. Quotation marks are needed less often than you might expect. In general, they should be used for quotations (the exact words someone said), direct references to a phrase, word, or letter (the letter s) and irony or euphemisms (she was sick on that sunny day when she missed work). A sign that misuses quotation marks (Apples for sale) suggests that those apples arent really apples but something else that looks like them. 6. A complete sentence requires a subject and a main verb. Somebody does something. If you are missing a subject or a main verb, you have a phrase. A phrase should not have a period at the end of it. Submitting my work is a phrase. I am submitting my work is a sentence. 7. Job titles should not be capitalized unless they are used directly before a name, as part of the name. Capitalized job titles are so common that when you start writing them correctly, with lowercase letters, you can almost be certain someone will tell you it is wrong. A few exceptions do exist (such as the President of the United States of America), but most titles used in sentences should be written like this: The president of XYZ Company spoke today. If you say, XYZ Company President Xavier Y. Zelinsky spoke today, the title is appropriately capitalized. 8. This should nearly always be followed by a noun. Frequently, after describing a complex idea, writers will say something like, This is not what we want. Sometimes it is clear what this means, but usually the previous sentences have so many nouns that the reference is too vague to be useful. It could mean this concept is not what we want or this effect is not what we want or even this color is not what we want. Specify what you mean by adding a noun after every this. 9. Avoid overusing passive voice. Mistakes were made is not much of an apology because it does not accept responsibility. I made a mistake is much better grammatically. To discover how often you use passive voice, search your document for the words are, were, was, and is. If any of these sentences include the word by or could include it (Mistakes were made by both of us), they are written in passive voice. Rewrite each sentence so that the subject takes responsibility for the action. Passive voice does have a few legitimate uses, such as when the

person or thing responsible for an action is unknown or irrelevant, but many mediocre writers use and overuse passive voice without cause. 10. Spelling counts. At least one cash register has a sign beside it that says, No checks excepted. That sign suggests that the business will take any check you write it makes no exceptions. What the owners really meant to say is No checks accepted. This example is just one of many where the meaning of our written language can be completely changed by one mistake. Do run your computers spelling and grammar checks, but dont count on them to keep your writing error free. Sometimes these tools miss spelling errors or tell you that your grammar is wrong when it is not. If writing is not your strength, ask someone who paid attention in English class to proofread your business writing. Better yet, brush up on your written language skills by reading a book or two on the subject. Many, such as Eats, Shoots and Leaves by Lynne Truss, make English more interesting to those who arent naturally fascinated by words and sentence structures.

Ten Steps to Teaching Perfect Writing

May 28, 2010 By Cheryl Frost With the rapid expansion of the Internet, it is clear that the quality of English writingboth American and Britishhas taken a dive for the worst. Netspeak is obtrusively taking over most electronic communications, making good writing practices increasingly scarce. With such a strong influence the Internet has over the world today, it is no wonder so few children can write. Even the most intelligent and successful business leaders seem small and insignificant when they distribute e-mails full of spelling errors and non-capitalized sentences. Therefore, it is more vital than ever to teach our children to write well before they are released into a relentless and competitive world. The best way to learn to write is to practice. People learn best by making mistakes and correcting them for themselves. The following method of teaching writing enforces that very concept. It will work for established writers who need to polish their skills, and it will work for the struggling student who was absent the day they taught grammar. Whether you are a teacher, a homeschooling mom, or a tutor, you can teach anyone to be a better writer with a little patience and a lot of persistence. With this writing technique, you as the teacher will act as an editor. You will give out the assignment, give the writers the freedom to write in their own style, edit their work, and return the work to the writers for revisions. You will edit the revisions, return the work, and await another revision. This will go on, back and forth, until the writing is flawless. Be consistent and unyielding in your editing process, and soon you will have a perfect writer (or a class full of perfect writers) on your hands.

Step One: Assign the Writing Task. Have the student (or students) write something at least a page longa story, a biography, a TV review, or a book report. For more advanced writers, assign a research paper or longer story. For students who hate to write, dont pressure them into writing something massive, just whatever comes to mind. If its only two paragraphs, thats still a good start. Depending on the students skill, this may be the only assignment he or she gets for the entire school year. But it will last the entire school year. Explain to the students that they will revise their writing assignments over and over until they are perfect, even if it takes all year. They need to understand this ongoing process or they might feel like each edit is a rejection. Step Two: Assign a Deadline for the First Draft. For the first draft, one week should be enough. You may have students (or if you are a mom, your one child) who will hand in nothing or just a sentence. Do not be discouraged by this. Chances are, the child is self-conscious about his or her writing and is reluctant to show you. It is vital that you address these students individually. Question each one until you find something he or she is interested in. That will be the topic you will assign. If they are still reluctant, have them start with one paragraph. Accept that paragraph as the first draft with the intention of building it up. Step Three: Mark It Up Edit each paper meticulously, using red pen or, if the paper was submitted electronically, the word processors markup feature. For every markup, however, you must include an explanation. If the error lies with subject/verb agreement, for example, explain what that means or refer the student to a page in his or her grammar book. Mark every missing punctuation and cross out unnecessary capital letters. Step Four: Be the Editor In addition to simply proofreading a paper, offer suggestions to the writer. Tell the writer to write more details about a specific subject. Request more adjectives or less repetition of the same words. Ask questions in your editing to prompt the student to clarify. Return the paper to the student to revise. Step Five: Set Another Deadline If necessary, allow the students to work on their revisions in class so they can ask questions if they need to. If you make them revise their work at home, you may never get it back. In class, as long as they know exactly what to change, the task should be easy for them. Step Six: Editing with Praise In this next edit, be sure to note how well the writing is coming along. Comments like Did that really happen? or Thats funny! will go a long way to boost your students confidence. Make more suggestions to improve the readability of the piece. Step Seven: Dont Give Up After three revisions, you might be tempted to say, This is good enough. But remember that you are not looking for good enough. You are looking for perfect. The students may groan and

complain, but you are doing the best thing in the world for them. Dont give up now. Mark it up, send it back, set another deadline. Step Eight: Get Picky The student has done everything youve asked. It is time to nitpick, to find the most common and almost unnoticeable errors. Find errors that adults or even businesses commonly make. Make sure the paper has a good introduction and a satisfying conclusion. Make sure the title is catchy and the students name and headings are exactly as instructed. What about content? Is the story interesting enough? Step Nine: Have the Student Read Aloud When you think all the revisions are complete, have each student read his or her paper out loud, either in front of you or in front of the class. Make notes where the student stammers or hesitates. This might indicate a section where the sentence flow is poor. Your critique of their readings will mark the final edit of the piece. Step Ten: Finalize and Congratulate After the students read their papers aloud, have them make last minute revisions based on your critique and hand in the final copy. By this time, every paper, whether it is one page or twenty, should be nearly professional in quality. Congratulate each student, and congratulate yourself. This hands on method of teaching students to write will stay with them throughout each of their lives. Each time they read a business letter or log onto the Internet, they will subconsciously mimic you in picking out mistakes. Writing is a skill that takes practice. But that practice sometimes needs a little guidance. If you guide your students through one single writing assignment and stay with them from beginning to end, you will be giving them the gift of a lifetime. Not only will you improve the writing skills of a group of young students, but you will be contributing to the literary betterment of the world.

Business Writing Tips

May 28, 2010 All business material should be written in a professional way which means that it should be clear, concise, and formal. Avoid technical jargon that only industry insiders will understand. Also avoid buzzwords. So what exactly is meant by clear and concise business writing? Well, clear and concise means that you should avoid: Vague or ambiguous statements While writing business documents you should avoid vague and ambiguous statements that the reader may not be able to understand or interpret. Jokes, anecdotes and clichs

Jokes and cliches are fine in informal pieces of writing. But in business writing these are totally out of place and should be avoided. Unsubstantiated facts Avoid including unsubstantiated facts in a business letter or document as these may affect the credibility of the writer and the organization. Slang or offensive language These are strict no-no in a piece of business writing. Grammar, punctuation and spelling errors This rule is applicable to all forms of writing, but in the case of business writing it is particularly true. Spelling and grammatical errors will make you look unprofessional. Worse still,they will cause confusion and waste precious time and resources. Using the Passive Voice Good business writing doesnt permit the use of excessive passive verbs. The passive voice is used in situations where you dont want to attribute the action to a particular person or group. As a general rule, you should use few passive verbs in your writing. That said, passive constructions are quite appropriate in situations where the reader doesnt need to know who performed the action. Business emails Nowadays much of the business writing is in the form of emails. Business emails are usually simple and straightforward. However, even in short emails you should include a clear subject line. Start the email with the name of the person you are writing to. Sign off with an appropriate closing formula such as Best regards or Kind regards and your name. In more formal emails sign off with Yours sincerely

When to spell out numbers

May 29, 2010 Many writers have difficulty figuring out when to write numbers in words or figures. There are some general rules but these are not applicable in all contexts. The following guidelines should, nevertheless, help. The numbers of Kings and Queens should be written in Roman characters.

Examples: Elizabeth II, Louis XIV

Ordinal numbers up to twelfth should be written in words except in dates.

He finished second. (NOT He finished 2nd.) Who came first? (NOT Who came 1st?) He was born on 3rd May. OR He was born on May 3rd. (BUT Not normally He was born on third May.)

Cardinal numbers up to 12 should be written in words, except when telling the time.

We need three chairs and one table. He has three sisters. The train leaves at 5 pm.

Cardinal and ordinal numbers above twelve and twelfth should be written in either figures or words as seems in each case more convenient.

There were 50 students in the class.

Technical writing, however, is different. In technical writing any numbers used with measurements of time or distance should be expressed in figures. Examples are: 5 years, 2 months, 6 inches etc. There is some difficulty in defining the rules, but generally any number that represents a key value is written in figures. For example in the sentence, This chipset is based on the 32nm technology the numeral is in order because the number 32 has a key value in the context. When the number is not very important it can be written in words. Even in technical writing, sentences shouldnt begin with numerals. In such cases write the number out in words or rephrase the sentence so that the number doesnt begin the sentence. According to the Chicago Manual of Style, whole numbers from one through one hundred, round numbers and any number beginning a sentence should be spelled out. For other numbers, numerals are used.

What are nouns?

May 31, 2010 A noun is a word used as the name of a person, place or thing. There are different kinds of nouns. Read the following sentence:

Solomon was a wise king.

Here the noun Solomon refers to a particular king, but the noun king may refer to any other king as well. Here Solomon is a proper noun and king is a common noun. Similarly, Alice is a proper noun and girl is a common noun. France is a proper noun and country is a common noun. A proper noun is the name of a particular person or thing. A common noun is a name given in common to every person or thing of the same class or kind. Note that proper nouns always begin with a capital letter. Common nouns include what are called collective nouns and abstract nouns. Collective nouns A collective noun is the name of a collection of persons or things taken together and spoken of as one whole. Examples are: jury, committe, class, family, team, folk, fleet, nation etc. An abstract noun is the name of a quality, action or state which we can only think of. Examples are: kindness, goodness, honesty, bravery, ignorance, stupidity, wisdom, laughter etc. Note that the names of arts and sciences are also considered abstract nouns. Abstract nouns are formed from adjectives, verbs or common nouns. For example, the abstract noun kindness is formed from the adjective kind whereas the abstract noun obedience is formed from the verb obey. Countable and uncountable nouns Nouns are also classified as countable and uncountable. Countable nouns are the names of objects that we can count. Examples are: book, pen, apple, doctor, sister, boy etc. Uncountable nouns are the names of things which we cannot count. Examples are: rice, gold, wheat, honesty, beauty, oil etc. Note that countable nouns have plural forms and can be used with the indefinite article a/an. Uncountable nouns do not have plural forms and cannot be used with the indefinite articles.

What are verbs?

June 1, 2010 Read the following sentences:

Mother cooks dinner. Children play in the park.

Barking dogs seldom bite.

In the sentences given above, the words in bold text are used to say something about a person or a thing. They say what a person or a thing does. These words are called verbs. Now read the following sentences.

We have two hands and two legs. She is a good girl.

Here the verbs have and is show what a person has or is. These words are also called verbs. Thus we have seen that a verb is a word which shows what a person or a thing is, has or does. The verb may also express what happens or is done to the person or thing. The thief was beaten. (Here the verb was beaten shows what happens to the thief.) A verb may consist of more than one word. Some verbs may consist of as many as four words.

It is raining. It has been raining. It rains.

Transitive and intransitive verbs Verbs that take an object are called transitive verbs.

She heard a noise. (subject she, verb heard, object a noise) He saw a pigeon. (Subject he, verb saw, object a pigeon) The girl plucked the flower. (Subject the girl, verb plucked, object the flower) The master beat the dog. (subject the master, verb beat, object the dog)

Some verbs do not take an object after them. These are called intransitive verbs. Examples are: smile, sit, sleep, cry, laugh, dance etc.

The baby smiled. (Here the verb smiled is intransitive because it has no object.) The child cried. (Here the verb cried is intransitive because it has no object.) He sat on the bed. (Here the verb sat is intransitive because it has no object.)

Note that most verbs can be used both transitively and intransitively.

What are adjectives?

June 2, 2010

An adjective is a word like kind, happy, smart and intelligent. An adjective typically modifies a noun and denotes a temporary or permanent quality associated with that noun. For example, a smart boy is a boy who is distinguished from other boys by being smart. Not all adjectives are used to denote a quality associated with a noun. For example, the adjective mere in a mere child does not denote a quality of the child. Kinds of adjectives Adjectives may be divided into the following classes: Adjectives of quality Adjectives of quality refer to the kind or quality of a person or thing. They answer the question: of what kind?

Tokyo is a large city. (Here the adjective large shows a certain quality associated with the city Tokyo.) Alice is a brilliant student. (Here the adjective brilliant shows a quality associated with the noun Alice.)

Note that adjectives formed from proper nouns are generally considered as adjectives of quality. Examples are: Persian carpets, French wines etc. Adjectives of quantity Adjectives of quantity answer the question how much?. Examples are: some, any, much, little, enough, all, no, half, whole etc.

We need some rice. You have little patience. He has lost all his wealth. He did not eat any rice.

Adjectives of number Adjectives of number answer the question how many. Examples are: many, one, two, first, tenth, all etc.

Each hand has five fingers. Sunday is the first day of the week. All men must die. There are several mistakes in your essay.

Demonstrative adjectives

Demonstrative adjectives answer the question which?. Examples are: this, that, these, those and such.

That boy is industrious. This bag is made of expensive leather. Those mangoes were very sweet. I hate such people.

Note that this and that are used with singular nouns. These and those are used with plural nouns. Interrogative adjectives When they are used with nouns to ask questions, the questions words what, which and whose are called interrogative adjectives.

Whose bag is this? Which way shall we go?

Adjectives used without nouns

June 4, 2010 Adjectives are often used without nouns. To refer to some well-known groups of people The structure the + adjective is used to talk about some well-known groups of people. Examples are: the blind, the deaf, the unemployed, the rich, the poor, the young, the old, the dead etc.

He is collecting money for the blind. (= He is collecting money for blind people.) Blessed are the meek. The government should do something for the poor.

Note that these expressions are always plural. The blind means all blind people. Similarly, the dead means all dead people. Adjectives are not normally used in this way without the. Blessed are the meek. (NOT Blessed are meek.) These expressions cannot be used with a possessive s. The problems of the blind should be properly addressed. OR Blind peoples problems should be properly addressed. (NOT The blinds problems should be properly addressed.)

In a few fixed phrases, the + adjective can have a singular meaning. Examples include: the accused, the former, the latter, the deceased etc.

The accused was released on bail.

Note that plural meanings are also possible. Abstract ideas An adjective can be used after the to refer to some abstract quality or idea. She doesnt believe in the supernatural. The future (= futurity) is unknown to us. Adjectives of nationality Some adjectives of nationality ending in -sh or -ch can be used after the without nouns. These adjectives include Irish, Welsh, English, British, Spanish, French etc. The Irish are proud of their sense of humor. Note that the expressions the Irish, the English etc., are plural.The singular equivalents are for example an Irishman or an Englishwoman.

Prepositions
June 5, 2010 Read the following sentences:

There is some water in the bottle. He is fond of his daughter. He fell off the ladder.

In sentence 1, the word in shows the relation between two things water and bottle. In sentence 2, the word of shows the relation between the adjective fond and the noun daughter. In sentence 3, the word off shows the relation between the verb fell and the noun ladder. These words which are used before a noun or a pronoun to show its relationship with another word in the sentence are called prepositions. The noun or pronoun which follows a preposition is called its object. Note that pronouns used after a preposition should be in the objective case.

He is fond of her. (NOT He is fond of she.)

A preposition may have two or more objects. Between you and me there are few secrets. (Here the pronouns you and me are the objects of the preposition between.) Kinds of prepositions There are different kinds of prepositions. Simple prepositions These are words like at, in, for, to, with, on, off, out, etc.

He is in the office. She sat on the bench. She is angry with him.

Compound prepositions These are words like above, before, behind, below, across, among, around, beside and between. Compound prepositions are generally formed by adding the prefix a- or by- to a noun, an adjective or an adverb. Phrase prepositions These are groups of words that serve as prepositions. Examples are: according to, along with, because of, in front of, by means of, on behalf of, in accordance with, in addition to, with reference to and in spite of.

Owing to his ill health, he retired from business. He succeeded by dint of perseverance and hard work. She stood in front of the mirror. I cant get along with him.

Personal pronouns
June 8, 2010 I, we, you, he, she, they and it are called personal pronouns because they stand for the three persons: 1. the person speaking 2. the person spoken to

3. the person spoken of The pronouns I and we, which refer to the person or persons speaking are said to be the personal pronouns of the first person.

I am fed up. We have to go.

The pronoun you, which refers to the person or persons spoken to, is said to be a personal pronoun of the second person. Note that you has the same form for the singular and plural. Both singular and plural you are followed by the plural verbs are and have.

You are my best friend. You have betrayed my trust.

The pronouns he, she and they, which refer to the person or persons spoken of are said to be personal pronouns of the third person. It is also called a personal pronoun of the third person. Personal pronouns have different forms: The pronouns that are used as subjects of verbs are: I, he, she, they, you and we. The personal pronouns that are used as objects of verbs are: me, him, her, them, you and us. Note that you does not change. Personal pronouns in the possessive case has the following forms: mine, his, hers, theirs, yours and ours. Note that the possessive pronouns shall not be confused with the possessive adjectives my, his, her, their, your and our. The possessive adjectives are used before nouns. Compare:

This is my dog. (Here the possessive adjective my qualifies the noun dog.) Those are their books. (Here the possessive adjective their qualifies the noun books.) This dog is mine. Those books are theirs. This is my coat. Where is yours?

What are adverbs?

June 8, 2010 Adverbs are words like now, then, today, tomorrow and carefully. An adverb modifies the meaning of a verb, an adjective or another adverb. Read the following sentences:

Alice smiled sweetly. Those mangoes were very sweet. He spoke quite loudly. In sentence 1, the adverb quickly shows how (or in what manner) Alice smiled. It modifies the verb smiled. In sentence 2, the adverb very says something about the sweetness of the mangoes. It modifies the adjective sweet. In sentence 3, quite says something about the manner in which he spoke. It modifies the adverb loudly. Note that adverbs standing at the beginning of sentences sometimes modify the whole sentence, rather than a particular word.

Unfortunately no one was present there. (= It was unfortunate that no one was present there.) Probably I am mistaken. (= It is probable that I am mistaken.)

Kinds of adverbs There are very many kinds of adverbs. Adverbs of time Adverbs of time answer the question when. Examples are: today, yesterday, now, before, daily, already, since, ago, never etc.

I met him yesterday. His father died two years ago. I have seen him before. They have already come. We will have to start now.

Adverbs of frequency Adverbs of frequency answer the question how often. Examples are: often, always, once, never, again, seldom, frequently etc.

We seldom go out on Sundays. I have seen him only once. He called again this morning. We must always try to do our best.

Adverbs of place Adverbs of place answer the question where. Examples are: here, there, up, down, everywhere, out, in etc.

She sat down. He looked up. I searched for him everywhere. Come in.

Adverbs of manner Adverbs of manner answer the question how or in what manner. Note that this class includes nearly all those adverbs ending in -ly. Examples are: quickly, carefully, sweetly, clearly, bravely, beautifully, well, fast etc.

The soldiers fought bravely. This essay is well written. she walked slowly. The baby slept soundly.

Adverbs Part II
June 8, 2010 Adverbs of degree or quantity Adverbs of degree answer the question how much or in what degree or to what extent. Examples are: very, too, fully, quite, rather, enough, any, partly, almost, utterly, as, entirely etc.

That was very tragic. I have almost finished. He was rather busy. Is he any good? You are partly right. You are entirely wrong.

Adverbs of reason Adverbs of reason answer the question why?. Examples are: therefore, hence, consequently etc.

Consequently he refused to go. Therefore they decided to boycott the meeting. He is hence unable to refute the charge.

Adverbs of affirmation or negation

Examples are: surely, certainly, not, probably, indeed etc.

You are certainly right. I am not going. He is a fool indeed.

Interrogative adverbs Adverbs which are used for asking questions are called interrogative adverbs. Examples are: when, where, how, why etc.

When will you go to New York? (Interrogative adverb of time) How long will you stay here? (Interrogative adverb of time) Where are my keys? (Interrogative adverb of place) How often does the committee meet? (Interrogative adverb of number) How did he behave? (Interrogative adverb of manner) How far did he go? (Interrogative adverb of quantity) Why did you resign? (Interrogative adverb of reason)

Relative adverbs Read the following sentences: Do you know the place where the meeting will be held? In this sentence, where is an adverb as it modifies the verb will be held. Where is also a relative as it connects the two clauses of the sentence and at the same time refers back to its antecedent, place. Where is therefore called a relative adverb. Note that a relative adverb connects an adjective clause to the main clause.

Correct Use of Personal Pronouns

June 10, 2010 A personal pronoun must be of the same number, gender and person as the noun it stands for. John is a good boy. He loves and respects his parents and teachers. (Here the pronoun he is of the same number, gender and person as the noun John.) Alice is my sister. She lives abroad. (Here the pronoun she is of the same number, gender and person as the noun Alice.) The students worked hard. Their teacher praised them. (Here the plural pronoun them is of the same number, gender and person as the plural noun students.) A personal pronoun referring back to a collective noun must be in the singular number if the collective noun is viewed as a whole.

The jury has given its verdict. The fleet will reach its destination in a week. If the focus is on the individual members of the group, the pronoun should be in the plural number. The jury were divided in their opinion. When two or more singular nouns are joined by and, the pronoun used for them must be plural in number. Both John and Peter played well. They were praised by the coach. When two singular nouns joined by and refer to the same person, the pronoun must be singular in number. The Secretary and Treasurer is negligent of his duty. (Here the nouns Secretary and Treasurer refer to the same person. Therefore we use a singular pronoun to refer back to them.) Note that when two nouns refer to the same person, the determiner (the, my, this etc.) is used only before the first one. My uncle and guardian is a doctor. (Here the nouns uncle and guardian refer to the same person.) My uncle and my guardian are doctors. (Here the nouns uncle and guardian refer to two persons.) When two singular nouns joined by and are preceded by each or every, the pronoun must be singular in number. Every soldier and every sailor was in his place. When two or more singular nouns are joined by or, either or or neithernor, the pronoun should be singular in number. Either Alice or Mary forgot to take her umbrella. Neither Peter nor John has done his homework.

What are conjunctions?

June 11, 2010 Conjunctions are words like and, but, or, yet, because, since and so. Read the following sentences:
1. God made the country and man made the town.

2. She must cry, or she will die. 3. Two and two make four.

In sentence 1 and 2, the conjunctions and and or join two sentences together. In sentence 3, the conjunction and merely joins two words together. Thus we have seen that a conjunction is a word which merely joins two sentences together. Sometimes a conjunction joins two words together. Why use conjunctions? Conjunctions join together sentences and make them more compact. The sentence, John and Peter are good students is a short way of saying John is a good student and Peter is a good student. Similarly, the sentence He is poor, but honest is a contracted way of saying He is poor but he is honest. However, sometimes the conjunction and joins words only.

Jack and Jill went up the hill. John and Peter are good friends.

Note that sentences of this kind cannot be resolved into two. Conjunctions must be carefully distinguished from relative pronouns, relative adverbs and prepositions which are also connecting words. Compare: This is the house that Jack built. (Here the relative pronoun that joins the two clauses this is the house and jack built together.) This is the place where he was buried. (Here the relative adverb where joins the two clauses this is the place and he was buried together.) I was annoyed, still I kept quiet. (Here the conjunction still joins the two clauses I was annoyed and I kept quiet together.)

Kinds of conjunctions
June 12, 2010 Conjunctions are divided into two classes: coordinating conjunctions and subordinating conjunctions. Read the following sentence:

Birds fly and fish swim. This sentence contains two independent statements or two statements of equal rank or importance. The conjunction that joins together two clauses of equal rank is called a coordinating conjunction. Notes Coordinating conjunctions generally connect sentence elements of the same grammatical class. Examples: nouns with nouns, adverbs with adverbs, phrases with phrases and clauses with clauses.

Jack and Jill went up the hill. (Here the coordinating conjunction and connects two nouns.) He worked diligently and patiently. (Here the coordinating conjunction and connects two adverbs.)

The chief coordinating conjunctions are: and, but, for, or, nor, also, eitheror, neithernor. Kinds of coordinating conjunctions Coordinating conjunctions are of four kinds. 1. 2. 3. 4. Cumulative or copulative conjunctions Adversative conjunctions Disjunctive or alternative conjunctions Illative conjunctions

Cumulative conjunctions Cumulative conjunctions merely add one statement to another. Examples are: and, bothand, as well as, not onlybut also.

Alice wrote the letters and Peter posted them. The cow got up and walked away slowly.

Adversative conjunctions Adversative conjunctions express contrast between two statements. Examples are: but, still, yet, whereas, while, nevertheless etc.

The rope was thin but it was strong. She is poor but she is happy. He is hardworking whereas his brother is quite the reverse.

Disjunctive or alternative conjunctions

Conjunctions which present two alternatives are called disjunctive or alternative conjunctions. Examples are: or, eitheror, neithernor, neither, nor, otherwise, else etc.

She must weep, or she will die. Either he is mad, or he feigns madness. They toil not, neither do they spin. Neither a borrower, nor a lender be.

Illative conjunctions Some coordinating conjunctions express something inferred from another statement or fact. These are called illative conjunctions. Examples are: for and so.

Somebody came, for I heard a knock at the door. He must be asleep, for there is no light in his room. He has been working hard, so he will pass.

Subordinating conjunctions
June 13, 2010 A conjunction that joins together clauses of unequal rank or importance is called a subordinating conjunction. Read the following sentence:

I told him that he should consult a doctor.

Here that joins together two clauses of unequal rank. I told him is the main clause, and that he should consult a doctor is a subordinate clause which is the object of the verb told in the main clause. A subordinating conjunction connects a noun clause or an adverb clause to some other clause. Note that subordinating conjunctions are not used to connect adjective clauses. Subordinating conjunctions introducing noun clauses The most common subordinating conjunction used for introducing a noun clause is that; others are if, when, whether, why and how.

I dont know whether he will come. I think that he is trustworthy. I dont care if he comes or not.

Subordinating conjunctions introducing adverb clauses Adverb clause of time Examples are: before, since, till, after etc.

I returned home after he had gone. I have not seen him since we moved into this city. I will not forget that incident till I die.

Adverb clause of reason Examples are: as, because, since etc.

He may enter, as he is a friend. As he was not there, I left a message with his brother. He will get a promotion because he has proved his efficiency.

Adverb clause of purpose Examples are: that, lest, in order that etc.

We eat so that we may live. He held my hand, lest I should fall. Children should play games in order that their health may improve.

Adverb clause of result or consequence Examples are: sothat

He was so weak that he could hardly stand. She ate so much that she fell ill.

Adverb clause of condition Examples are: if, unless, provided that

I will go abroad if I get a good job. They wont help you unless you tell them the truth. They will help you provided you tell them the truth. She spoke as if she knew everything.

Adverb clause of concession Examples are: though and although

He works hard though he is weak. She is always neatly dressed although she is poor.

Adverb clause of comparison Example: than

He is cleverer than I am. I like him better than her.

Correlative conjunctions

June 13, 2010 Some conjunctions are used in pairs. They are called correlative conjunctions. Note that most correlative conjunctions are of the coordinating type. Examples are: Eitheror Either take it or leave it. You must either obey my instructions or quit. Either you or he will have to do it. Neithernor I will neither take it nor leave it. I will neither obey your instructions nor quit. Neither he nor I will do it. Not onlybut also They not only looted the shop but also set it on fire. Not only Alice, but Mary also came. He visited not only Europe but also America. Note that also is sometimes omitted. She was not only beautiful but intelligent. (= She was not only beautiful but also intelligent.) Whetheror I dont know whether I should stay or leave. Whether he comes or not makes no difference at all. Bothand She is both beautiful and intelligent. He is both educated and cultured. Both John and Peter participated in the program. Sothat She was so tired that she could not walk. The officer was so corrupt that he had to be sacked. Suchthat Such was her beauty that men from far and near came to woo her. No sooner than

No sooner did the tiger appear than he shot it down. No sooner had she read the letter than she burst into tears. Note that it is wrong to use when instead of than in these sentences. It should also be noted that did or had must come immediately after no sooner.

Non-finite verbs
June 15, 2010 Read the following sentences: 1. John thinks that he is a great artist. 2. I wish to learn English. In sentence 1, the verb thinks has a subject. Its form is determined by the number and person of its subject, namely John. Verbs which are thus limited by number and person of their subject are called finite verbs. Note that all verbs in the indicative, imperative and subjunctive moods are finite, because they have subjects and are limited by the number and person of those subjects. In sentence 2, the verb wish is finite, because it has a subject and is limited by the number and person of that subject, namely I. But to learn has no subject and is not limited by the number or person of the subject. It is used without any change whatever be the subject of the sentence. Compare:

You wish to learn. I wish to learn. He wishes to learn. They wish to learn.

As you can see, the verb wish changes its form according to the number and person of the subject. When the subject is a singular noun it becomes wishes. The verb to learn, however, remains the same. It is therefore described as a non-finite verb and its specific name is an infinitive. There are three kinds of non-finite verbs: The infinitive Examples are: to learn, to write, to work, to break, to speak etc. The participle

Examples are: learning, learned, writing, written, working, worked, breaking, broken, speaking, spoken etc. The gerund or verbal noun Examples are: learning, writing, working, running, speaking etc.

What are relative pronouns?

June 16, 2010 Read the following pairs of sentences: 1. I saw a little girl. She was very beautiful. 2. I know a man. His son is at Oxford. 3. He got a letter. He had been expecting it. Each of these pairs can be combined into a single sentence: 1. I saw a little girl who was very beautiful. 2. I know a man whose son is at Oxford. 3. He got a letter which he had been expecting. Here the words who, whose and which are examples of relative pronouns. Lets examine what purpose they serve in the sentences. In sentence 1, who stands for the little girl: hence it is a pronoun. It also connects the two statements I saw a little girl and She was very beautiful. Hence it acts as a conjunction. Thus it does double work and may be called a conjunctive pronoun. But it is actually called a relative pronoun because it relates or refers to a noun that has gone before it. In sentence 2 and 3, the words whose and which also do double work as pronoun and conjunction. Both are, therefore, called relative pronouns. The noun to which a relative pronoun refers is called its antecedent. In the sentences given above, the nouns girl, man and letter are the antecedents of who, whose and which respectively. Functions of the relatives within their clauses Within the subordinate clause the relative pronoun may serve as subject or object of the verb, or object of a preposition. As subject

Trust no man who does not love his country. (Here the relative pronoun who is the subject of the subordinate clause who does not love his country.) As object of the verb There I met an old man whom my father had known. As the object of a preposition There was no room in which we could stay. Note that when the relative pronoun is the object of a preposition, we can put the preposition at the end of the clause. In such cases we usually omit the relative pronoun. There was no room we could stay in.

Story writing tips

June 17, 2010 To tell a story well you need some practice. A good story writer looks ahead as he tells the story and plans it out. To write a good story you must have the whole plot clear in your mind. You must also have the main points arranged in their proper order. So how does one write a good story? To be a good story writer you must have a fertile imagination. Read extensively and you will find your mind brimming with ideas. Here are a few tips to help you become a better story writer. Before you start writing, see that you have a clear idea of the plot in your mind. Once you have got the outline ready all that you need to do is to develop the points. While writing the story, do not omit any point and keep to the order in which the events take place. Connect the points naturally so that the story will read as a well written piece of composition. Use your imagination and where possible introduce dialogues. Note that care must be taken to ensure that they sound natural and interesting. Emphasize the leading points and do not dwell too long on minor details. The conclusion is the most important part of the story. The whole story must lead up to it naturally and then it should come as a bit of a surprise.

Make sure that your composition is grammatical and idiomatic and in good simple English. Revise your work and if necessary rewrite it until it is as good as you can make it.

Degrees of Comparison
June 18, 2010 Read the following sentences:
1. John is tall. 2. Peter is taller than John. 3. Harry is the tallest of the three.

In sentence 1, the adjective tall merely says something about Johns height. It doesnt state how tall John is. In sentence 2, the adjective taller is used to compare Johns height with Peters height. In sentence 3, the adjective tallest is used to compare Harrys height with the height of John and Peter. We have thus seen that adjectives change in form to show comparison. These different forms of the adjective are called the degrees of comparison. In the examples given above, the adjective tall is said to be in the positive degree. The adjective taller is said to be in the comparative degree and the adjective tallest is said to be in the superlative degree. The positive degree of an adjective is the adjective in its simple form. It is used to denote the mere existence of some quality. Adjectives in the positive degree are used when no comparison is made. The comparative degree of an adjective shows a higher degree of the quality than that is present in the positive degree. It is used when two things or two sets of things are compared.

Peter is smarter than John. Which of the two sisters is the prettier? Apples are dearer than oranges.

The superlative degree of an adjective denotes the highest degree of the quality. It is used when more than two things or sets of things are compared.

Peter is the smartest boy in the class. Iron is the most useful of all metals. Alice is the prettiest girl in the neighborhood.

The Full Stop and Comma

June 19, 2010 Punctuation is the right use of stops in a sentence. The following are the principal punctuation marks in English. Full stop (.) Comma (,) Semicolon (;) Colon (:) Interrogation mark (?) Exclamation mark (!) Inverted commas or Quotation marks () The full stop The full stop represents the longest pause. It is used: a) at the end of an assertive or imperative sentence.

She is a good girl. It is snowing. Put it down. Come here.

b) after abbreviations and initials

M.A. Ph.D M.P. Ltd. Dr. Mr.

Note that full stops are not normally used after abbreviations in modern British English. However, full stops are common in American English. Comma The comma represents the shortest pause in a sentence. It is used: a) to separate three or more words of the same parts of speech.

I want to buy a pencil, a sharpener, an eraser and a notebook. He is efficient, hardworking and honest.

b) to mark off phrases in apposition.

Alice, my brothers daughter, is a doctor.

c) to separate words or phrases inserted into the body of a sentence.

They, too, have expressed their interest in the offer. The police did not, however, succeed in arresting the culprit.

d) to separate a subordinate clause that comes before the main clause. Compare:

If it rains, we will cancel the trip. We will cancel the trip if it rains. When the bell rings, we will go to the class. We will go to the class when the bell rings.

Verb Patterns
June 21, 2010 A transitive verb is one that has an object. The normal order of words in an English sentence is subject + verb + object.

Alice likes sweets. (Subject Alice, Verb likes, Object sweets) The principal punished the boy. (Subject principal, Verb punished, Object boy) The monk burned himself. (Subject monk, Verb burned, Object himself)

Alice likes what? Sweets The principal punished whom? The boy The answer to the question what or whom is the direct object. Notice also the use of the reflexive pronoun (e.g. myself, himself, herself, themselves etc.) as an object in the third sentence. Subject + verb + object + adverb particle Some verbs are followed by adverb particles. Examples are: put on, take off, give away, bring up, call in etc. Sometimes the particle is detached from the verb and put after the object.

He threw it away. They called the visitor in. He put his coat on. His grandmother brought him up. You must send it back.

Note that the particle is put after the object when the object is a personal pronoun or when it is comparatively short. The difference between an adverb particle and a preposition is that while the particle is closely tied to its verb, the preposition is closely tied to the noun or pronoun which it controls. The following are used only as adverb particles and never as prepositions away, back, out, backward, forward, upward, downward etc. But on, off, in, up, down, to, from etc., are used as particles and prepositions. When the object is long or when it has to be made prominent, the adverb particle comes before the object.

The chief guest gave away the prizes. He put on an air of innocence. The sailors put out the fire in the hold of the ship. We will not throw away anything useful.

Semicolon, Colon and Interrogation mark

June 22, 2010 Semicolon (;) The semicolon represents a longer pause than the comma. It is used to separate the clauses of a compound sentence, when they contain a comma.

He was a simple, unassuming man; yet we all respected him.

Note that the semicolon is usually followed by conjunctions like and, but, yet or or. The semicolon is also used to separate clauses which are loosely connected in thought.

As Caesar loved me, I weep for him; as he was fortunate, I rejoice at it; as he was valiant, I honor him. Reading maketh a full man; conference a ready man; writing an exact man.

Colon (:)

The colon marks a more complete pause than that indicated by the semicolon. It has the following uses: 1. It is used to introduce a quotation.

Solomon says: Of the making of books there is no end.

2. To introduce a list of items.

The writers I look best are: Milton, Dickens and Shaw. The problem is this: which came first, the hen or the egg.

3. Between sentences grammatically complete but closely related in thought.

Study to acquire a habit of thinking: no study is more important.

Interrogation mark (?) The interrogation mark is used after a direct question:

What are you doing? Where are you going? How are you doing?

Note that the interrogation mark is not used after an indirect question.

He asked me what I was doing.

The interrogation mark is not used after a polite request or submission.

Would you mind passing the salt.

What are participles?

June 23, 2010 Read the following sentence:

Hearing a loud noise, the boy woke up.

Here the word hearing qualifies the noun boy as an adjective does. It is formed from the verb hear and has an object noise. The word hearing, therefore, has the properties of a verb and an adjective and is called a participle. A participle is a word which is partly a verb and partly an adjective.

Note that in the example sentence given above, the phrase hearing a loud noise which is introduced by a participle is called a participle phrase. Study the following examples:

Knocking at the door, he demanded admission. We met a girl carrying a basket full of vegetables. The old woman, thinking all was safe, attempted to cross the road.

The italicized words in the above sentences are all examples of what are called present participles. Note that present participles end in -ing and represent an action as going on or incomplete or imperfect. Present participles formed from transitive verbs, take objects. Now study the following sentences:

We saw trees laden with fruits. Deceived by his friends, he committed suicide. Driven by rain, we took shelter under a tree.

The italicized words in the above sentences are all examples of what are called past participles. The past participle usually ends in -ed, -d, -t, -en or -n. It represents a completed action or state. Besides the present and past participles, we have what is called a perfect participle which represents an action as completed some time in the past.

Having rested for a while, we continued our journey.

Participles are often used as simple qualifying adjectives in front of nouns.

Barking dogs seldom bite. A rolling stone gathers no moss. His tattered coat needs mending. A burnt child dreads fire. He is a learned man.

When used as an adjective, the past participle has a passive meaning.

A burnt child = a child who is burnt. A painted doll = a doll which is painted.

When used as an adjective, the present participle has an active meaning.

A barking dog = a dog which barks A rolling stone = a stone which rolls

The Noun: Case

June 26, 2010 Read the following sentence: 1. John broke the window. 2. The boy killed the spider. In sentence 1, the noun John is the subject. It is the answer to the question Who broke the window? The group of words broke the window is the predicate. The predicate contains the verb broke. What did John break? the window. Window is the object which John broke. The noun window is therefore called the object. In sentence 2, the noun boy is the subject. It is the answer to the question Who killed the spider. The noun spider is the object. It is the answer to the question Whom/what did the boy kill? When a noun or pronoun is used as the subject of the verb it is said to be in the nominative case. When a noun or pronoun is used as the object of the verb, it is said to be in the nominative or accusative case. Note that to find the nominative, put who? or what? before the verb. To find the accusative, put whom? or what? before the verb and its subject. A noun or pronoun which comes after a preposition is also said to be in the objective case.

The cat is on the roof.

Here the noun roof is in the accusative, governed by the preposition on. Examine the following sentences.

John killed the spider. The spider was killed by John.

You will have noticed that nouns in English have the same form for the nominative and the accusative. The nominative generally comes before the verb and the accusative generally comes after the verb. Now read the following sentence:

This is Johns car.

Johns car means the car belonging to John Here the form of the noun John is changed to Johns to show ownership or possession. The noun Johns is therefore said to be in the possessive or genitive case.

Position of adverbs
June 28, 2010 Adverbs of manner which answer the question how? normally comes immediately after the verb or after the object if there is one.

It is raining heavily. She combed her hair gently. (NOT She combed gently her hair.) She speaks English well. (NOT She speaks well English.) He walked slowly.

Adverbs of place (e.g. here, there, everywhere, nowhere, on the roof etc.) and adverbs of time (now, then, today, tomorrow, next week etc.) are usually placed after the verb or after the object if there is one.

I saw him yesterday. I looked everywhere but couldnt find anything. Hang the picture there. They are coming next week.

When two or more adverbs modify the same verb, they usually come in the following order: adverbs of manner, adverbs of place, adverbs of time.

We will go there tomorrow evening. He performed well at the concert last night.

Adverbs of frequency which answer the question how often (e.g. always, often, rarely, frequently etc.) and some other adverbs like hardly, almost, nearly, just, quite etc., are normally put between the subject and the verb if the verb consists of only one word. If there is more than one word in the verb, the adverb comes after the first word.

You never visit us. I have always wanted to be a writer. I have often told him to mend his ways. We usually have breakfast at night.

If the verb is a form of be (is/am/are/was/were) these adverbs are placed after the verb.

I am never late for office.

We are just off.

Adverbs are usually placed before the auxiliaries have to and used to.

He always used to agree with me. I often have to wake up early in the morning.

An adverb modifying an adjective or another adverb normally comes before the word it modifies.

She was quite tired. He is a rather lazy boy.

Tenses introduction
June 29, 2010 Read the following sentences: 1. I write the letter. 2. I wrote the letter yesterday. 3. I will write another letter tomorrow. In sentence 1, the verb write refers to present time. In sentence 2, the verb wrote refers to past time. In sentence 3, the verb will write refers to future time. Thus a verb may refer: 1. to present time 2. to past time 3. to future time A verb that refers to the present time is said to be in the present tense. Examples are: write, build, love, like etc. A verb that refers to past time is said to be in the past tense. Examples are: wrote, built, loved, liked etc. A verb that refers to future time is said to be in the future tense. Examples are: will/shall write, will/shall build, will/shall love, will/shall like etc. Thus we have seen that there are three main tenses.

The tense of a verb shows the time of an action or event. Sometimes a past tense may refer to the present time and a present tense may express future time.

I wish I knew the answer. (= I am sorry I dont know the answer. Here the past tense refers to the present time.) Lets wait till he comes. (Here the present tense refers to future time.)

Tenses different forms

June 29, 2010 Now read the following sentences: * I write. * I am writing. * I have written. * I have been writing. The verbs in all of these sentences refer to the present time, and are, therefore, said to be in the present tense. In sentence 1, however, the verb simply talks about the action. It doesnt state whether the action is complete or not. The verb is therefore said to be in the simple present tense. In sentence 2, the verb shows that the action is incomplete or continuous.The verb is therefore said to be in the present continuous tense. In sentence 3, the verb shows that the action is finished, complete or perfect at the time of speaking. The verb is therefore said to be in the present perfect tense. In sentence 4, the verb is said to be in the present perfect continuous tense because it shows that the action which started at some point of time in the past is still continuing at the moment of speaking. Just as the present tense has four forms, the past tense also has four forms. * I wrote. (Simple past tense) * I was writing. (Past continuous tense) * I had written (Past perfect tense) * I had been writing. (Past perfect continuous tense) Similarly, the future tense has the following four forms:

* I will/shall write. (Simple future tense) * I will/shall be writing. (Future continuous tense) * I will/shall have written. (Future perfect tense) * I will/shall have been writing. (Future perfect continuous tense)

Uses of the simple present tense

June 30, 2010 Form: subject + first form of the verb
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

I write. He writes. She writes. You write. They write.

Carefully notice the marker -s in the second and third sentences. When the subject is a singular verb we add the marker -s to the verb in a simple present tense. The simple present tense is used to talk about a habitual action.

He gets up at 8 am. He drinks tea in the morning. She keeps her home neat and tidy.

General truths The simple present tense can be used to talk about general truths.

Honey is sweet. The sun rises in the east. Fortune favors the brave.

In exclamatory sentences beginning with here and there The simple present tense is used in exclamatory sentences beginning with here and there to express what is actually happening in the present.

There goes your husband! Here comes the bus!

Future events that are part of a time table The simple present tense is used to talk about future events that are part of a fixed timetable.

The train leaves at 6 pm. The match starts at 9 oclock. The next flight is at 6:30 tomorrow morning.

Note also the other uses of the simple present tense. 1) to introduce quotations

Keats says, A thing of beauty is a joy for ever.

2) in clauses of time and condition

I will call you when dinner is ready. (NOT I will call you when dinner will be ready.) I will go abroad after I finish my studies. (NOT I will go abroad after I will finish my studies.)

3) in broadcast commentaries In broadcast commentaries on sporting events, the simple present tense is used instead of the present continuous tense to talk about activities in progress.

Gerund and Infinitive

July 2, 2010 Read the following sentences.

Alice likes painting. She would like to paint this landscape. John likes playing cricket. He would like to play cricket this evening.

Here sentence 1 means that Alice likes painting as an art. It is a general statement. Sentence 2 means that she would like to paint a particular scene. Similarly sentence 3 is a general statement about Johns liking for cricket as a game. Sentence 4 says that he would like to play cricket on a particular occasion. Thus we have seen that the gerund is used for making general statements whereas the infinitive is used for making statements about particular occasions especially after verbs expressing likes and dislikes.

I hate getting up early in the morning. (More natural than I hate to get up early in the morning.) She likes going to the movies.

Interchange of gerunds and infinitives Gerunds and infinitives are often interchangeable, both as subjects and objects of verbs.

Playing games is good for health. To play games is good for health. Smoking is forbidden. To smoke is forbidden. Reading is a good habit. To read is a good habit. I intend to visit my grandparents next week. I intend visiting my grandparents next week.

Position of adverbs Part II

July 2, 2010 Adverbs should be placed next to the word or words they modify.

He had almost got to the top when the rope broke. (Here the adverb almost modifies the verb got.)

As a general rule, the adverb only should come immediately before the word it modifies.

I solved only two problems. Only John managed to solve the problem. Praise them only when the deserve it.

In spoken English, only is usually placed before the verb. The intended meaning is conveyed by stressing the word which only modifies.

He only solved two problems. (The word two is stressed.)

Two negatives destroy each other. Hence they should not be placed in the same sentence unless our intention is to make an affirmation.

I havent got any money. (NOT I havent got no money.) I could not find him anywhere. (NOT I could not find him nowhere.) Hardly anyone believes in such ghost stories these days. (NOT Hardly no one believes in such ghost stories these days.)

Adjectives cant be used to modify verbs.

He ate the cake greedily. (NOT He ate the cake greedy.) You will pay dearly (not dear) for this.

Greedy and dear are adjectives. They cant be used to modify the verbs ate and pay. Else should be followed by but, not than.

It is nothing else but prejudice.

Introductory there
July 4, 2010 In English, existence is usually indicated by the structure there + to be. There is actually an adverb of place, but the introductory there has no adverbial sense. It is merely used to introduce the sentence.

There are two people in the room. (More natural than Two people are in the room.) There is a bridge over the river. There have been many such rumors. There is a hole in my tights. There was a lot of noise in the street. There is no denying the fact that he stole the watch.

Note that in the last sentence we use a peculiar structure no + gerund, which indicates impossibility.

There is no denying= It is impossible to deny

With plural subjects we use there are.

There were many accidents last year.

Note that there is is also common before plural subjects in informal speech.

There is some apples in the fridge. OR There are some apples in the fridge.

Introductory there can also be used with some intransitive verbs.

There seems to be a problem. There came a knock at the door. There happened to be no on near to save the boy. There grew a warm friendship between the two. There spread a rumor that he had been killed.

Note that introductory there is not used in a sentence if there is a definite subject.

John was at the party. (NOT There was John at the party.)

Present continuous tense

July 6, 2010 The present continuous tense is used to talk about an action going on at the time of speaking.

The baby is sleeping. The children are playing. It is raining. The students are reading.

The present continuous tense can also be used to talk about a temporary action which may not be actually happening at the time of speaking.

I am reading David Copperfield. (But I am not reading at this moment.)

Planned future events The present continuous tense can be used to talk about an action that has already been arranged to take place in the near future.

My father is arriving tomorrow. We are going to the cinema tonight.

We have already seen that the simple present tense is used to talk about habitual actions. But to refer to a particularly obstinate habit we often use the present continuous tense with an adverb like always, continually, constantly etc.

My dog is very silly; he is always running after cars.

Verbs not used in the present continuous tense The following verbs are not normally used in the present continuous form: see, hear, smell, notice, recognize, appear, look, seem, want, wish, desire, feel, like, love, hate, think, suppose, believe, consider, remember, forget etc. When have means possess, it is not normally used in the continuous form.

Incorrect: These grapes are tasting sour. Correct: These grapes taste sour. Incorrect: I am thinking you are wrong. Correct: I think you are wrong. Incorrect: She is seeming upset.

Correct: She seems upset. Incorrect: She is having a dog. Correct: She has a dog. Incorrect: I am liking it. Correct: I like it.

Note that many of these verbs can be used in the continuous form with a change of meaning.

I am thinking of writing a novel. She is tasting the soup to see if it needs more salt. They are having lunch.

Present perfect tense

July 6, 2010 Form: has/have + past participle form of the verb

He has written a letter. They have arrived. It has stopped raining.

The present perfect tense is used to talk about completed activities in the immediate past. It is often used with the adverb of time just.

I have just finished my work. He has just gone out. They have just arrived.

The present perfect tense can also be used to talk about past actions whose time is not given or definite.

I have read all plays of Shakespeare. (This statement doesnt say exactly when I read the plays. All that we know is that it happened sometime in the past.) I have visited Africa. She has acted in several films.

Past events whose effect is felt in the present The present perfect tense is used to talk about past events when we think more of their effect in the present than of the action itself.

He has broken his leg. (So he cant walk now.)

I have finished my work. (= Now I am free.)

Past events that have continued up to the present The present perfect tense is also used to talk about an action which began at some time in the past and has continued up to the present.

I have known him for a long time. (I still know him.) We have lived in this city for ten years. (We still live in this city.) He has been ill since last week. (He is still ill.)

Note that the present perfect tense cannot be used with adverbs of past time. However, the following adverbs or adverb phrases can be used with the present perfect tense: never, ever, so far, till now, yet, already, today, this week, this month etc. Present perfect continuous tense Form: has/have + been + ing form of the verb The present perfect continuous tense is used to talk about an action which began at some time in the past and is still continuing.

It has been raining since yesterday. We have been waiting for two hours. He has been writing for five hours.

Introductory it
July 7, 2010 When the subject is an infinitive phrase, the sentence often begins with it. Instead of saying To find fault with others is easy, we say, It is easy to find fault with others. More examples are given below.

It is easy to learn English. (More natural than To learn English is easy.) It was not easy to understand his motive. It may be advisable to consult a specialist. It could be dangerous to drive so fast. It was pleasant to sit on the beach.

However, when we want to emphasize the infinitive phrase, it may be put at the beginning especially if it is short.

To err is human. To withdraw now will be sheer folly.

When the subject is a phrase that includes a gerund, it is used as a provisional subject to begin the sentence. Instead of saying Your trying to deceive us is no good, we may say It is no good your trying to deceive us.

Will it be any good my talking to him about it? It is no use arguing with him. It wont be much good complaining to the officer about it.

Note that the gerund can be changed into the infinitive.

Will it be any good for me to talk to him about it?

When the subject is a clause, the sentence usually begins with it. Instead of saying That she was once a famous artist is true, we may say, It is true that she was once a famous artist.

It does not matter whether he comes or not. (= Whether he comes or not does not matter.) It is doubtful whether he can pay the dues. (= Whether he can pay the dues is doubtful.) It cannot be denied that the doctors did their best to save his life. (= That the doctors did their best to save his life cannot be denied.)

Uses of the past tenses Part I

July 9, 2010 The simple past tense Form: Subject + past tense of the verb

I worked. She sang. He played. Mother cooked.

The simple past tense is used to talk about an action completed in the past. It is often used with adverbs or adverb phrases of past time.

I met him yesterday. His father died last year. I received the letter a week ago.

The simple past tense is sometimes used without an adverb of time. In such cases, the time of the action may be either implied or indicated by the context. The simple past tense is also used to talk about habitual actions in the past.

When I was in college, I studied eight hours a day. (= When I was in college, I used to study eight hours a day.) Edison sold newspapers before he became a famous scientist. (= Edison used to sell newspapers before he became a famous scientist.)

Past continuous tense Form: Subject + was/were + ing form of the verb

I was working She was singing. They were playing. It was raining. John was sleeping.

Note that we use was when the subject is I or a singular noun. We use were when the subject is a plural noun. The personal pronoun you is also followed by were. The past continuous tense represents an action as going on or being done continuously at some time in the past. The time of action may or may not be mentioned.

It was raining when we went out. The children were playing in the garden. Mother was cooking dinner. Alice was learning her lessons.

Past tenses Part II

July 9, 2010 The past perfect tense Form: Subject + had + past participle form of the verb

He had worked. She had played. They had gone. We had waited.

The past perfect tense denotes an action completed at some point in the past before some other action commenced. Note that when we have to refer to two actions in the past, the past perfect is used for the earlier action, and the simple past for the later one.

The patient had died before the doctor arrived. The train had left before we reached the station.

The past perfect continuous tense Form: Subject + had + been + ing form of the verb

He had been writing. I had been reading. They had been working.

The past perfect continuous tense is used to talk about an action which started some time in the past and continued till a later point of time in the past when some other action commenced.

The war had been going on for two years when John enlisted. I had been giving him financial assistance till he got a job.

In sentence 1, the war started some time in the past, continued for two years and was still continuing when John enlisted.

Verb Moods
July 11, 2010 The simplest use of a verb is to make a statement or to ask a question.

I got up early in the morning. Who wrote that story?

A verb may also be used to express a command.

Shut up!

Or a verb may be used to express a mere supposition.

If I were you, I would not do it.

These different modes or manners in which a verb may be used are called moods. There are three moods in English: indicative, imperative, subjunctive. Indicative mood The indicative mood is used to make a statement of fact.

She is a teacher. They are our friends. My parents live abroad. The baby is sleeping.

He is sick.

The indicative mood is also used to ask a question.

Where are you going? What are you doing? Are you happy?

Imperative mood The imperative mood is used to express ideas such as a command, a request, an order, a prayer or an entreaty.

Come here. Keep quiet. Do better. Have mercy on us.

Note that the imperative mood can strictly be used only in the second person, since the subject is always the person spoken to. However, in the first and the third persons a similar sense can be expressed by the use of the verb let.

Let me go. Lets wait.

The subject of a verb in the imperative sentence is usually omitted. Subjunctive mood The subjunctive mood hardly exists in modern English. It has two forms: present subjunctive and past subjunctive. The present subjunctive has no -s in the third person singular. It is sometimes used in thatclauses after words such as suggest, recommend, ask, insist, vital, essential, important and advice.

It is important that every child get the same educational opportunities. She insisted that she be allowed to go.

The subjunctive may also occur in traditional phrases such as the following:

God bless you! God save the King!

The subjunctive is unusual in British English. In that-clauses British people prefer should + infinitive.

She insisted that she should be allowed to go. It is important that every child should get the same educational opportunities.

Kinds of Sentences
July 13, 2010 When we speak or write, we generally use words in groups. Such a group of words which makes complete sense is called a sentence.

Little Jack Horner sat in a corner. Jack and Jill went up the hill. Two and two make four. It is getting dark.

Kinds of sentences There are four kinds of sentences. Assertive or declarative sentences A sentence which makes a statement or assertion is called an assertive or declarative sentence.

Humpty Dumpty sat on a wall. Honey is sweet. The sun rises in the east. Peter is my friend.

An assertive sentence begins with a capital letter and ends with a full stop. Interrogative sentences A sentence which asks a question is called an interrogative sentence.

Where are you going? What do you want? How are you?

An interrogative sentence has a question mark at the end. Imperative sentences A sentence which expresses a command, request or entreaty is called an imperative sentence.

Get lost. Be quiet. Dont be silly.

An imperative sentence usually does not have an expressed subject.

Exclamatory sentences A sentence which expresses some strong feelings is called an exclamatory sentence.

What a shame! How disgraceful! How fiercely the wind blows! How cold the night is!

Kinds of Sentences
July 13, 2010 When we speak or write, we generally use words in groups. Such a group of words which makes complete sense is called a sentence.

Little Jack Horner sat in a corner. Jack and Jill went up the hill. Two and two make four. It is getting dark.

Kinds of sentences There are four kinds of sentences. Assertive or declarative sentences A sentence which makes a statement or assertion is called an assertive or declarative sentence.

Humpty Dumpty sat on a wall. Honey is sweet. The sun rises in the east. Peter is my friend.

An assertive sentence begins with a capital letter and ends with a full stop. Interrogative sentences A sentence which asks a question is called an interrogative sentence.

Where are you going? What do you want? How are you?

An interrogative sentence has a question mark at the end. Imperative sentences A sentence which expresses a command, request or entreaty is called an imperative sentence.

Get lost. Be quiet. Dont be silly.

An imperative sentence usually does not have an expressed subject. Exclamatory sentences A sentence which expresses some strong feelings is called an exclamatory sentence.

What a shame! How disgraceful! How fiercely the wind blows! How cold the night is!

Formation of plural nouns

July 16, 2010 The plural noun is generally formed by adding -s to the singular. Cow (singular), cows (plural) Boy, boys Girl, girls Book, books Tree, trees Dog, dogs Pen, pens Nouns ending in -s, -sh, -ch or -x form the plural by adding -es to the singular. Class (singular), classes (plural) Brush, brushes Kiss, kisses Match, matches Dish, dishes Most nouns ending in -o also form their plural by adding -es to the singular. Mango (singular), mangoes (plural) Hero, heroes Potato, potatoes Volcano, volcanoes Note that a few nouns ending in -o merely add -s.

Dynamo (singular), dynamos (plural) Piano, pianos Photo, photos Logo, logos Kilo, kilos Nouns ending in a consonant + y form their plural by changing -y into -i and adding -es. Baby (singular), babies (plural) Lady, ladies City, cities Story, stories The following nouns ending in -f or -fe form their plural by changing -f or -fe into v and adding -es. Thief (singular), thieves (plural) Wife, wives Leaf, leaves Half, halves Self, selves Calf, calves Loaf, loaves Knife, knives Elf, elves Wolf, wolves Shelf, shelves Most other nouns ending in -f or -fe add -s. Chief (singular), chiefs Gulf, gulfs Safe, safes Proof, proofs A few nouns form their plural by making some changes to inside vowels. Foot (singular), feet (plural) Man, men Woman, women Tooth, teeth Mouse, mice Goose, geese

Formation of plurals Part II

July 17, 2010 Some nouns have identical singular and plural forms. Examples are: swine, sheep, deer, cod, salmon, aircraft, spacecraft, series, species etc. The following nouns are always used in the singular form after numerals: pair, dozen, score, gross, hundred and thousand

I bought three dozen mangoes. (NOT I bought three dozens mangoes.) The music player cost me two hundred dollars. He weighs above nine stone.

Note that the plural of fish is fish or fishes. In modern English, fishes is used to talk about different kinds of fish. Some nouns are used only in the plural. Examples are: bellows, scissors, tongs, spectacles, trousers, drawers, jeans, breeches, tights, shorts etc. A number of nouns ending in -s are in fact singular. Examples are: mathematics, physics, electronics, news, measles, mumps, rickets, billiards, innings etc.

Mathematics is his favorite subject. No news is good news. West Indies won by an innings and three runs. Measles is highly contagious.

A few collective nouns, though singular in form, are always used as plurals. Examples are: cattle, poultry, people, gentry etc.

These poultry are mine. (NOT This poultry is mine. ) Vermin destroy property and spread disease. Who are these people?

The following nouns are always used in the singular. Examples are: luggage, news, advice, information, news, furniture, scenery etc.

Kashmir is known for its scenery. (NOT Kashmir is known for its sceneries.) We have received no information. (NOT no informations) We need to buy some furniture. (NOT some furnitures.)

The phrase and the clause

July 18, 2010

When we make a sentence, we name a person or thing and say something about that person or thing. Every sentence has two parts The part which names the person or thing we are speaking about is called the subject of the sentence. The part which says something about the subject is called the predicate. The subject of a sentence usually comes first, but occasionally it is put after the predicate.

Sweet are the uses of adversity. (Subject the uses of adversity, predicate are sweet)

In imperative sentences, the subject is usually left out.

Sit down. (Here the subject you is not mentioned but it is understood.)

The Phrase and the Clause Consider the group of words on the roof. It makes sense, but not complete sense. Such a group of words which makes sense, but not complete sense is called a phrase. In the following sentences, the groups of words in italics are phrases.

The sun rises in the east. The old man sat in a corner. Humpty Dumpty sat on a wall. Show me how to do it.

Now consider the groups of words in italics in the following sentences.

She has a necklace of gold. She has a necklace which is made of gold.

We know that the group of words a necklace of gold is a phrase. But the group of words which is made of gold is not a phrase. It has a subject (which) and a predicate (is made of gold). Such a group of words which forms part of a larger sentence, and contains a subject and a predicate is called a clause. In the following sentences, the groups of words in italics are clauses.

We cannot start while it is raining. I think that you are wrong. John, who is a writer, is known all over the world.

Noun: gender
July 18, 2010

Living beings are of either the male or the female sex. Now compare the following pairs of words.

Boy, girl Man, woman Husband, wife Lion, lioness

Here the first word of each pair is the name of a male animal. The second word of each pair is the name of a female animal. A noun that denotes a male animal is said to be of the masculine gender. A noun that denotes a female animal is said to be of the feminine gender. A noun that denotes either a male or a female is said to be of the common gender. Examples are: parent, child, friend, servant, thief, enemy, cousin, student, baby, teacher, writer etc. A noun that denotes a thing that is neither male nor female is said to be of the neuter gender. Examples are: book, pen, room, house, tree etc. It is thus seen that in modern English, the gender of a noun is entirely a matter of sex or the absence of it. It has nothing to do with the form of a noun, which determines its gender in many other languages. Note that inanimate objects are often personified, that is, spoken of as if they were living beings. We then regard them as males or females. The masculine gender is often applied to lifeless objects known for strength or violence. Examples are: sun, summer, winter, time, death etc. The feminine gender is often applied to lifeless objects known for beauty or gracefulness. Examples are: moon, earth, spring, autumn, nature, liberty, justice, peace, mercy, hope etc.

Formation of the possessive case

July 20, 2010 Singular nouns form their possessive case by adding s to the singular.

The boys dog My fathers office

Only the apostrophe () without s is added if the noun contains too many hissing sounds.

For goodness sake For conscience sake For Jesus sake

Moses laws

Plural nouns ending in -s form their possessive case by adding only an apostrophe.

Boys school Girls hostel

Plural nouns that do not end in -s, form the possessive case by adding s.

Childrens books Womens club

Uses of the possessive case The possessive case is now used chiefly with the names of living things.

The lions mane The ministers bodyguards The Kings palace

The possessive case is not normally used with the names of lifeless things; instead, we use a structure with of

The leg of the table (NOT The tables leg) The cover of the book (NOT The books cover) The roof of the house (NOT The houses roof)

Exceptions The possessive case is often used with the names of personified objects.

Natures laws Fortunes favourites At dutys call At wits end

The possessive case is also used with nouns denoting time, space and weight.

In a years time A days work At a stones throw A pounds weight

The possessive of a proper noun denoting a trade, profession or relationship can often be used to denote a building or place of business.

She has gone to the bakers. (= bakers shop) Tonight we are dining at Smiths (= Smiths house)

What are articles?

July 22, 2010 The words a or an and the are called articles. Articles come before nouns. There are two articles - a/an and the The article a or an is called the indefinite article because it doesnt state which person or thing we are talking about.

For example, a doctor means any doctor. A child means any child.

The article the is called the definite article because it points out a particular person or thing. Compare:

You must consult the doctor. (Which doctor? It could be your family doctor.) You must consult a doctor. (Which doctor? It could be any doctor. Here the speaker does not have a particular doctor in mind.)

The indefinite article (a/an) is used before singular countable nouns. It cannot be used before plural nouns.

We can say an apple or a tree, but not an apples or a trees.

The definite article (the) can be used before singular countable nouns, plural countable nouns and uncountable nouns.

We can say, the book, the books, the rice or the milk.

A or an The choice between a and an is determined by sound and not spelling. A is used before words beginning with a consonant sound. Examples are: a boy, a tree, a ball, a flower, a horse, a hole, a European and a university. An is used before words beginning with a vowel sound. Examples are: an elephant, an egg, an orange, an umbrella, an hour, an heir etc.

Note that some native speakers use an before words beginning with h if the first syllable is not stressed.

Uses of the definite article

July 23, 2010 To talk about a particular person or thing The definite article the is used to talk about a particular person or thing.

The book you want is out of print. (Which book? The one you want.) Lets go to the park. (Which park? May be the one in the town.)

The definite article the is also used to talk about a person or thing that has already been referred to.

I saw a girl in the park. The girl was crying. (Which girl? The one I saw in the park.)

Before a singular noun meant to represent the whole class When a singular noun is meant to represent a whole class to which it belongs, it is used with the definite article the.

The cow is a useful animal. (Here the singular noun cow represents a whole class.) The rose is the sweetest of all flowers. The spider has eight legs.

Note that these sentences can also be written using a plural noun without any article.

Cows are useful animals. Roses are the sweetest of all flowers. Spiders have eight legs.

Before the names of certain books Examples are: The Vedas, The Illiad Before superlative adjectives The definite article the is used before superlative adjectives.

She is the best person I have seen. Which is the highest mountain in the world?

Before ordinal numbers

Who was the first woman to win a Nobel Prize? The first half of the film is more interesting than the second half.

Before musical instruments

He can play the flute.

As an adverb with comparatives

The more the merrier. The more they get, the more they want. The higher you climb, the cooler it gets.

Omission of the articles

July 25, 2010 Before uncountable nouns We do not use articles before uncountable and abstract nouns used in a general sense.

Honey is sweet. (NOT The honey is sweet.) Sugar is bad for your teeth. Wisdom is better than riches. Virtue is its own reward.

Note that uncountable nouns take the article the when used in a particular sense.

Would you pass the sugar? (= the sugar on the table)

Before plural countable nouns We do not use articles before plural countable nouns used in a general sense.

Children usually rush about. Computers are useful machines.

Note that plural nouns take the article the when they are used in a particular sense.

Where are the children? (Which children? Our children)

Before proper nouns

We do not use articles before the names of countries, people, continents, cities, rivers and lakes.

India is a democratic country. (NOT The India ) Paris is the capital of France. (NOT The Paris )

Before the names of meals We do not use articles before the names of meals.

Mother is cooking lunch. Dinner is ready.

We use a when there is an adjective before breakfast, lunch, dinner etc. We use the when we are talking about a particular meal.

I had a late dinner yesterday. The lunch we had at the restaurant was very good.

Before languages We do not use articles before the names of languages.

Can you speak English? (NOT Can you speak the English?) They speak French at home.

Before school, college, university, church, bed, hospital, prison etc.

His dad is still in hospital. We learned English at school. He is at university.

The is used before these words when the reference is to the building or object rather than to the normal activity that goes on there.

I met her at the church. (Here the reference is to the building and not to the activity that is going on there.) I went to the hospital to see my friend.

Repetition of the article

July 27, 2010 Read the sentence given below:

I have a black and white cow.

This sentence means that I have a cow which is partly white and partly black. But If I say I have a black and a white cow, I have two cows one black and the other white. Hence when two or more adjectives qualify the same noun, the article is used only before the first adjective; but when the reference is to different nouns, expressed or understood, the article is used before each adjective. Compare:

The secretary and treasurer has gone on leave. The secretary and the treasurer have gone on leave.

Here the first sentence clearly indicates that the nouns secretary and treasurer refer to the same person. The repetition of the article in the second sentence indicates that the nouns refer to two different persons. Now examine the following sentences:

Winston Churchill was a great orator and statesman. (Here the reference is to one person Churchill.) There were on the jury among others a great orator and a great statesman. (Here the reference is to two different persons.)

Note that we may either sayThe first and the second chapter OR The first and second chapters

Common errors in the use of tenses

July 28, 2010

Incorrect: It is raining for two days. Correct: It has been raining for two days. Incorrect: The baby is sleeping for three hours now. Correct: The baby has been sleeping for three hours now.

Here the error lies in using the present continuous instead of the present perfect continuous. We use the present perfect continuous tense to talk about an action which started in the past, has gone on till the present and is still continuing.

Incorrect: I have seen him yesterday. Correct: I saw him yesterday. Incorrect: He has returned from London last week. Correct: He returned from London last week.

Here the error lies in using the present perfect tense instead of the simple past tense. The present perfect is a present tense. It cant be used with adverbs of past time.

Incorrect: See that you will not do any damage. Correct: See that you do not do any damage.

It is wrong to use the future tense in the subordinate clause when the verb in the main clause is in the imperative mood.

Incorrect: I will call you when the dinner will be ready. Correct: I will call you when the dinner is ready. Incorrect: He will help if you will ask him. Correct: He will help if you ask him.

When the verb in the main clause is in the future tense, the verb in the subordinate clause should be in the present and not in the future.

Common errors in the use of tenses part II

July 30, 2010

Incorrect: I had been to New York recently. Correct: I went to New York recently. Incorrect: I had written to him last week. Correct: I wrote to him last week. Incorrect: We had gone to the pictures last night. Correct: We went to the pictures last night.

Here the error lies in using the past perfect tense instead of the simple past. The past perfect is not used simply to say that something happened sometime ago. This meaning is conveyed by using the simple past.

Incorrect: He said that he was suffering from fever for three days. Correct: He said that he had been suffering from fever for three days. Incorrect: The man complained that his watch was stolen. Correct: The man complained that his watch had been stolen. Incorrect: The doctor concluded that the man died twelve hours ago. Correct: The doctor concluded that the man had died twelve hours ago.

Here the error lies in using the simple past instead of the past perfect or the past continuous instead of the past perfect continuous. The past perfect denotes an action completed at some point in the past before some other past action commenced. When two actions in the past have to be referred to, the past perfect should be used for the earlier action, and the simple past for the later one.

Active and Passive Voice

July 31, 2010 Read the following sentences: 1. The boy killed the spider. 2. The spider was killed by the boy. As you can probably see both sentences express the same idea. In sentence 1, the form of the verb indicates that the person denoted by the subject (the boy) is the doer of the action. The verb killed is therefore said to be in the active voice. In sentence 2, the form of the verb shows that something is done to the person denoted by the subject (the spider). The verb is killed is therefore said to be in the passive voice. A verb is in the active voice when its form indicates that the person or thing denoted by the subject does something. A verb is in the passive voice when its form indicates that something is done to the person or thing denoted by the subject. In the following sentences, note the changes when an active sentence is converted into the passive. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. John loves Alice. (Active) Alice is loved by John. (Passive) The masons are building the house. (Active) The house is being built by the masons. (Passive) Who did this? (Active) By whom was this done? (Passive)

You will have noticed that when the verb is changed from the active voice to the passive voice, the object of the transitive verb in the active voice becomes the subject of the verb in the passive voice. In sentence 1, John is the subject of the active verb loves. In sentence 2, Alice is the subject of the passive verb is loved. Only transitive verbs can be used in the passive voice. Intransitive verbs cannot be used in the passive voice because they do not have objects.

Active and Passive Verb Forms

August 1, 2010 Read the following sentences: He is writing a letter. (Active) A letter is being written by him. (Passive) You will have noticed that the verb changes its form when the sentence is changed from the active voice to the passive voice. The passive form of the verb is constructed by putting appropriate auxiliary verbs before the past participle form of the active verb. The active and passive forms of the verb write are given below: When the active verb is in the simple present tense Active verb: write/writes Passive verb: is/am/are written

He writes a letter. A letter is written by him.

When the active verb is in the present continuous tense Active verb: is/am/are writing Passive verb: is/am/are being written

He is writing a letter. (Active) A letter is being written by him. (Passive)

When the active verb is in the present perfect tense Active verb: has/have written Passive verb: has/have been written

He has written a letter. (Active) A letter has been written by him. (Passive)

When the active verb is in the simple past tense Active verb: wrote

Passive verb: was/were written

He wrote a letter. (Active) A letter was written by him. (Passive)

When the active verb is in the past continuous tense Active: was/were writing Passive: was/were being written

He was writing a letter. (Active) A letter was being written by him. (Passive)

When the active verb is in the past perfect tense Active verb: had written Passive verb: had been written

He had written a letter. A letter had been written by him.

When the active verb is in the simple future tense Active verb: will/shall write Passive verb: will/shall be written

He will write a letter. (Active) A letter will be written by him. (Passive)

When the active verb is in the future perfect tense Active verb: will/shall have written Passive verb: will/shall have been written

He will have written a letter. A letter will have been written by him.

Active or Passive Voice

August 2, 2010

The active voice is used when the agent (i.e, the doer of the action) is to be made prominent. The passive voice is used when the person or thing acted upon is to be made prominent. The passive voice is therefore preferred when the doer of the action is an indefinite pronoun or noun (e.g. somebody, anybody, they, people, we etc.)

My watch has been stolen. (Passive) Somebody has stolen my watch. (Active)

In the example given above the passive structure is preferred because we dont know who performed the action. Compare:

Peter has stolen my watch. (More natural than My watch has been stolen by Peter.)

Here the emphasis is on Peter and therefore we use the active form. In the following cases, the passive forms are preferred because the subject is vague or indefinite.

I was asked my name. (Passive) They asked me my name. (Active) I was told to pay the fine. (Passive) They told me to pay the fine. (Active) English is spoken all over the world. (Passive) People all over the world speak English. (Active)

In passive clauses, we usually use a phrase beginning with by if we want to mention the agent the person or thing that does the action.

I was shocked by his arrogant attitude. (Passive) His arrogant attitude shocked me. (Active) The spider was killed by John. (Passive) John killed the spider. (Active)

Note that the agent is mentioned in only about 20% of passive clauses.

Synthesis of sentences
August 3, 2010 Synthesis means the combination of a number of simple sentences into one new sentence simple, compound or complex.

The following are the chief ways of combining two or more simple sentences into one large simple sentence. By using a participle He sprang up to his feet. He ran away. springing up to his feet, he ran away. She was tired of trying. She decided to quit. Tired (or, being tired) of trying, she decided to quit. By using a noun or a phrase in apposition This is my mother. Her name is Susie. This is my mother Susie. By using a preposition with a noun or gerund Her husband died. She heard the news. She fainted. On hearing the news of her husbands death she fainted. He has failed many times. He still hopes to succeed. In spite of many failures, he still hopes to succeed. By using the absolute construction The watch was expensive. He could not buy it. The watch being expensive, he could not buy it. The cot was too small. He could not sleep on it. The cot being too small, he could not sleep on it. By using an infinitive He wanted to pass the examination. He studied hard. He studied hard to pass the examination. I have some duties. I must perform them. I have some duties to perform. By using an adverb or adverbial phrase The sun set. The travelers had not reached their destination. The travelers had not reached their destination by sunset.

Passive Voice Exercise

August 5, 2010 Change the following sentences from the Active voice to the passive voice. 1. The boy killed the spider. 2. The woodcutter felled the trees. 3. Columbus discovered America. 4. The master praised the boy. 5. The police arrested the thief. 6. The boys were making kites. 7. He has written a novel. 8. We will conquer the enemy. 9. The hunter shot the tiger. 10. Your manners irritate me. 11. He made a very remarkable discovery. 12. Everybody loves him. 13. My cousin has drawn a beautiful picture. 14. Somebody has put out the light. 15. Somebody has picked my pocket. Answers 1. The spider was killed by the boy. 2. The trees were felled by the wood cutter. 3. America was discovered by Columbus. 4. The boy was praised by the master.

5. The thief was arrested by the police. 6. Kites were being made by the boys. 7. A novel has been written by him. 8. The enemy will be conquered by us. 9. The tiger was shot by the hunter. 10. I am irritated by your manners. 11. A very remarkable discovery was made by him. 12. He is loved by everybody. 13. A beautiful picture has been drawn by my cousin. 14. The light has been put out by somebody. 15. My pocket has been picked by somebody.

Active and Passive Voice Exercise II

August 5, 2010 Find the verbs in the following sentences and state whether they are in the active voice or the passive voice. 1. The tiger killed the deer. 2. The boy is learning his lessons. 3. This house was built by my grandfather. 4. Alice has been waiting for a long time. 5. Mother was making a cake. 6. The postman was bitten by the dog. 7. The thief was caught. 8. The accused were sent to jail.

9. The loud noise frightened the baby. 10. The dog chased the cat. 11. The letter was posted yesterday. 12. The oldman takes snuff. 13. The cat drank all the milk. 14. That boy of yours has broken my window again. 15. These shoes of mine pinch me terribly. Answers 1. verb killed (simple past); voice active 2. verb is learning (present continuous); voice active 3. verb was built (simple past); voice passive 4. verb has been waiting (present perfect continuous); voice active 5. verb was making (past continuous); voice active 6. verb was bitten (simple past); voice passive 7. verb was caught (simple past); voice passive 8. verb were sent (simple past); voice passive 9. verb frightened (simple past); voice active 10. verb -chased (simple past); voice active 11. verb was posted (simple past); voice passive 12. verb takes (simple present); voice active 13. verb drank (simple past); voice active 14. verb has broken (present perfect); voice active 15. verb pinch (simple present); voice active

Talking about the future

August 6, 2010 There are several ways of talking about the future in English. We can, for example, use the simple future tense, the going to form or the simple present tense. The simple future tense The simple future tense is used to talk about things which are beyond our control. It expresses the future as fact.

We will know our exam results in May. I will turn thirty this year.

The simple future tense is also used to talk about what we think or believe will happen in the future. It is commonly used with I think, Im sure, I expect, I believe etc.

I think Germany will win the World Cup. I think it will rain this evening.

We also use this tense to talk about things which we decide to do at the time of speaking.

Mr. Smith is very busy at the moment All right. I will wait. There is the door bell. Ill go.

Going to We use going to to talk about our intentions and plans things we are going to do.

I am going to get a good job. Why are you selling your motorbike? I am going to buy a car. She is going to get married.

Note that the going to form is always used when we are talking about actions or events that are already decided upon. The going to form is also used to talk about something which seems likely or certain because there is outside evidence.

Look at the sky. It is going to rain. She is going to have a baby.

Be about to + base form of the verb

This structure is used to talk about the immediate future.

The train is about to leave. (= The train will leave in a short while.) Dont go out now. We are about to have dinner.

Talking about the future part II

August 7, 2010 The simple present tense is used to talk about future events that are part of official programs or timetables.

The college reopens on August 16th. The train leaves at 6 pm. When does the flight arrive?

The simple present tense is also used to talk about future in clauses beginning with if, unless, when, while, after, until, before, as soon as etc.

I will call you after I arrive. (NOT I will call you after I will arrive.) We wont go out if it rains. (NOT We wont go out if it will rain.) Lets wait till he finishes his lunch. (NOT Lets wait till he will finish his lunch.)

Present continuous tense The present continuous tense can be used to talk about our future plans things we are planning to do in the near or distant future.

I am going to Beijing tomorrow. Father is arriving this evening. She is getting married.

Students are advised to use the present continuous (not the simple present) to talk about personal arrangements.

We are eating out tonight. (More natural than We eat out tonight OR We will eat out tonight)

Be to The structure be + to-infinitive is often used to talk about official plans and arrangements.

The Prime Minister is to visit France next month.

Note that be + infinitive is used in a formal style. In newspaper headlines, be is often left out. Articles are also left out in headlines.

Prime Minister to visit France next month.

Auxiliary verbs
August 10, 2010 The verbs be (is, am, are, was and were), have and do are called auxiliary verbs when they are used with ordinary verbs to make tenses, passive forms, questions and negatives. The verbs can, could, may, might, will, would, shall, should, must and ought are called modal verbs. Modal verbs are used before ordinary verbs and express ideas such as permission, possibility, certainty and necessity. Need and dare are also sometimes used like modal verbs. Auxiliary be The auxiliary verb be is used: 1) in the formation of the continuous tenses

I am writing. She was singing. It was raining. They were playing.

2) in the formation of passive verb forms

I was shocked. The boys were praised. He was questioned.

Be can be followed by an infinitive. This structure is used to talk about an arrangement, a plan, an agreement or a command.

I am to see him tomorrow. (Arrangement) They are to be married next month. You are to leave at once.

Auxiliary verb have The auxiliary have has the following uses: 1) in the formation of the perfect tenses

She has come. They have returned.

She has been waiting.

2) with the infinitive to indicate obligation

I have to be there by 12 oclock. She has to finish the work.

Had + infinitive can be used to talk about an obligation that existed in the past.

I had to be there by 12 oclock.

Notes: In questions and negatives, have to and had to are used with do, does and did. Compare:

She had to go. Does she have to go? She doesnt have to go. They have to go. Do they have to go? They dont have to go. I had to go. Did I have to go? I didnt have to go.

Auxiliary verbs Do and Can

August 11, 2010 Uses of do The auxiliary do is used: 1) to form the negative and interrogative of the simple present and simple past tenses.

He came. (Affirmative) He did not come. (Negative) Did he come? (Interrogative) He works. (Affirmative) He does not work. (Negative) Does he work? (Interrogative)

2) To avoid repetition of an ordinary verb, as in the following examples.

Do you know him? Yes, I do. (= Yes, I know him.) She sings well. Yes, she does. (= Yes, she sings well.)

Do is also used to emphasize the affirmative nature of a statement.

She did come. You do look upset.

Do can be used in the imperative mood to make a request or invitation sound more persuasive.

Do be quiet.

Uses of Can Can usually expresses ability.

He can speak ten languages. I can knit. Can you lift this box?

Permission Can is often used in the sense of may to give permission, though may is more correct.

You can go now. You can take one of those books?

Now-a-days can is also being used to ask permission.

Can I come in, sir?

Possibility Can is often used in negative and interrogative sentences to talk about possibility.

Can this be true? No, it cant be.

In affirmative clauses we use may to express possibility.

It may rain.

Modal Auxiliary Verbs and Principal Verbs Differences

August 11, 2010 The special verbs can, could, may, might, will, would, shall, should, must, ought, dare and need are called modal auxiliary verbs. Modal auxiliary verbs have three main characteristics. 1) They are never used alone. A modal auxiliary verb cannot be used alone. A principal verb is either present or implied.

He will come. (Will modal; come principal) She can go. (Will modal; go principal) You should wait.

Principal verbs, on the other hand, can stand alone.

He came. She went to the market. I waited for two hours.

2) The modal auxiliaries do not change their form, whatever be the number and person of the subject.

I can write. You can write. They can write. We can write. She can write.

Primary auxiliaries change their form according to the number and person of the subject.

He is writing. They are writing. We are writing. I was writing. I do agree. He does agree. You do agree.

Principal verbs also have a different form in the third person.

I work. You work. He works. I write. You write. He writes.

3) Modal auxiliaries do not have infinitive or participle forms. You cannot say: to shall, to must or to can. In the same way, you cannot add -ing to any of these auxiliaries to make present participles. Modal auxiliaries do not have past participles either.

Notes When you say to will, to need or to dare, the verbs will, need and dare are principal verbs, and not auxiliaries. Similarly, when you say willing, needing and daring, the verbs will, need and dare are used as principal verbs, and not auxiliaries. Primary auxiliaries have infinitive and participle forms. Infinitives

She wants to be promoted. She seems to have gone.

Present participle

He is being followed. Having lost the war, Germany surrendered.

Past participle

She has been promoted.

Uses of shall and will

August 12, 2010 With the first person The modal auxiliary verb shall is used with first person pronouns to express the strong possibility or near certainty of an action which is to take place in the near future.

I shall leave for Chicago tomorrow. We shall discuss the matter with the chairman. I shall be thirty one next Tuesday.

With the second and third person pronouns Shall can be used with second and third person pronouns to express a command.

You shall not lie. (= You are commanded not to lie.) She shall obey my orders. (= She is commanded to obey my orders.) He shall go at once. (= He is commanded to go at once.)

Shall is sometimes used with second and third person pronouns to express a threat.

You shall regret this. They shall pay dearly.

Shall may also express determination. You shall apologize. (= You will be obliged to apologize.) Will With first person pronouns With first person pronouns will expresses ideas such as determination, promise, threat or willingness.

I will go there, whatever happens. (Determination) We will not let you go. (Determination) I will try to get him a good job. (Promise) I will teach you a lesson. (Threat) All right, I will come with you. (Willingness)

With second and third person pronouns When used with second and third person pronouns will expresses simple futurity.

The train will leave at 9.40 pm. He will be back in a day or two.

Distinctions between shall and will The distinctions between shall and will are fast disappearing. Shall is now hardly used with second and third person pronouns. In the first person, however, shall is still being used to indicate simple future.

Should Uses
August 14, 2010 Should is the past tense of shall in indirect speech.

Direct: He said, the scoundrel shall be trashed. Indirect: He said that the scoundrel should be trashed.

Should has the following uses:

To express duty or obligation Should is used with subjects of all the three persons to express duty or obligation.

We should be kind and honest. We should have helped him. You should tell him the truth. They should pay the fees in time.

In conditional clauses Should can be used in conditional clauses expressing possibilities, suppositions etc.

If he should come, ask him to wait. Should it rain, there will be no match today.

Notes: The clause if he should come indicates less likelihood of his coming than if he comes. It means something like this: There is not much likelihood of his coming. But if does turn up ask him to wait. Should after lest Should is the only auxiliary verb that may be used after lest.

Watch and pray, lest you should fall into temptation.

Should like to Should is used in the expression should like to which is a polite form of making a statement.

I should just like to mention that we have only two days to make a decision.

To express possibility or likelihood

I should be able to meet them. We should be able to finish the work in time.

Should expresses less possibility than shall. Compare:

I shall be meeting him tomorrow. I should be meeting him tomorrow.

Here should adds a coloring of doubt to the second statement whereas the first sentence expresses a greater possibility of the event taking place.

Would Uses
August 14, 2010 Would is the past tense of will in indirect speech. Direct: The manager said, The shop will be closed on Monday. Indirect: The manager said that the shop would be closed on Monday. Would has the following uses: Willingness Would expresses ideas such as willingness or determination.

The doctor said he would perform the operation. He said that he would try his best to help me. They would cut classes in spite of the warning given by the principal.

Habitual actions in the past Would can be used to talk about a customary or habitual action in the past.

The old man would recline in a corner and sleep most of the time.

Wishes Both would and would like to can be used to express a wish.

I would know what I am supposed to do. (= I would like to know what I am supposed to.)

Would rather Would rather expresses choice or preference.

She would rather die than marry him. I would rather read a novel than watch that absurd movie.

Polite questions Would is used for asking polite questions.

Would you open the window? (This is more polite than Will you open the window?) Would you, please, call me a taxi?

Impossible or improbable conditions Would is used in the main clause when the subordinate clause expresses an impossible or improbable condition. If I could fly like a bird, I would be with you now.

May and Might

August 15, 2010 May is used to ask for permission.

May I come in, please? May I go home now?

May not is used to deny permission.

May I go now? No, you may not.

Notes Nowadays, the denial of permission is often expressed by cannot. This usage is probably encouraged by the fact that the contraction cant is easier to pronounce than the contraction maynt.

May we go out, Mummy? No, you cant. OR No, you maynt.

Possibility May can be used to express possibility.

She may come. The prices may fall soon. He may get upset if you dont talk to him.

In wishes May is used in expressing a wish.

May God bless you! May his soul rest in peace!

In subordinate clauses

May is used in subordinate clauses that express purpose.

Work hard that you may get good marks. We eat that we may live.

Might Might is the past tense of may in indirect speech.

He said, I may win the first rank. He said that he might win the first rank. The boy said, I may have said so. The boy said that he might have said so.

Notes: Might indicates less possibility than may.

I may pass. (perhaps 50% chance) I might pass. (perhaps 20% chance) He may recover. (He has good chances of recovery.) He might recover. (Less probable)

Might is also used when you want to sound extremely polite.

If I might make a suggestion, couldnt we stop this discussion now?

Must and Ought to

August 16, 2010 Must doesnt change its form, whatever be its tense or the number and person of its subject. It can refer to the present or future.

You must do this now. (Present) He must pay damages. (Future) You must file a petition. (Future)

Must can refer to the past only when it is used with the present perfect of the main verb.

She must have gone home. (Here must refers to the past time because it is used with the present perfect of the verb go.) She must have reached home. (Past)

Uses of must Must is used to express ideas such as compulsion, obligation or duty. It is much stronger than should.

We must love our country. They must recognize our rights. He must pay the fine.

Must can be used to talk about necessity.

We must get up early. I must improve my writing skills. Must we go now?

Must can express probability or logical certainty.

She must have already left. He must be mad to do this. Oh, there is the door bell; that must be the postman.

To signify strong determination

I must go now, whatever happens.

Ought Ought is different from other auxiliary verbs: it is followed by a to-infinitive. Uses of ought Ought expresses ideas such as duty, necessity and moral obligation. It is not as forceful as must, but it is stronger than should.

You ought to be punctual. We ought to help the poor. You ought to visit your friends once in a while.

Ought generally points to present and future time. It can point to past time when it is followed by the perfect infinitive (have + past participle). You ought to have helped him. (It was your duty to help him but you didnt.)

Uses of Need

August 18, 2010 Need is used both as an ordinary verb and as an auxiliary verb. As an ordinary verb need is used in the sense of require. The ordinary verb need has -s in the third person singular. Questions and negatives are made with do.

Do you need any help? We need more volunteers. We have got what we needed. I need more time to decide the question. He needs our help.

The auxiliary verb need remains unchanged, whatever be the number or person of the subject. It is common in negative clauses. It does not have -s in the third person singular.

You need not wait. He need not ask my permission. They need not make such a fuss over it.

The auxiliary need is sometimes used with hardly.

We need hardly say that we are very grateful. I need hardly say that you are always welcome.

It can also be used with only.

You need only sign this paper and I will do the rest.

The auxiliary need is usually used in questions without not.

Need we wait any longer? Need I come again?

If the answer is in the negative, say No, you need not. If the answer is in the positive, say Yes, you must. When referring to past time, need is followed by the perfect infinitive (have + past participle).

We need not have waited for them. We need not have wasted our time and energy on that project. You need not have lost your temper.

Dare and Had Better

August 18, 2010

Dare is used both as an ordinary verb and as an auxiliary verb. The ordinary verb dare is used in the sense of defy, challenge or face boldly. It has -s in the third person singular. Questions and negatives are made with do.

He did not dare to accept the challenge. He dares you to do it.

As an auxiliary verb dare is uninflected. It doesnt change its form whatever be the number and person of its subject. The auxiliary dare is commonly used in questions and negative sentences. It is not very common in affirmative clauses.

He dare not do such a thing. How dare you contradict me? He dare not accept the challenge. Dare he say that to you? How dare he do such a thing?

Notes The expression I dare say now just means perhaps.

I dare say he will agree to our proposal. (He will perhaps agree to our proposal.) I dare say that you are wrong.

Had better Had better has similar meaning to should and ought.

You had better consult a doctor. (= You should consult a doctor.) You had better get some rest. (= You should get some rest.)

Had better may also express a threat.

He had better be careful.

Some equivalents of modal auxiliary verbs

August 20, 2010 Be able to instead of can and could

He is able to do it on his own. (= He can do it on his own.) The watchman was able to catch the thief. (= The watchman could catch the thief.) She was able to solve the problem. (= She could solve the problem.)

Be to instead of will/shall

He is to retire next year. (= He will retire next year.) We are to have a test in English next week. (= We will have a test in English next week.)

The structure be to indicates simple future, like will or shall, but with a slight degree of uncertainty. The sentence He is to retire means that He is likely to retire. It is not quiet certain whether he will actually retire or not. Be to may also express a stronger meaning, almost like must, but it is not quite strong or blunt.

You are to take this medicine whether you like it or not.

Had better instead of should or ought to

You had better consult a doctor. (= You should consult a doctor.)

Had better may also express a threat.

He had better mend his ways.

Have to and have got to instead of must

I have to report for duty within a week. (= I must report for duty within a week.) I have got to talk to her. (= I have to/must talk to her.) Did you have to do that? (was that necessary?)

Have got to means the same as have to in most situations. It is more common in an informal style.

Relations shown by prepositions

August 22, 2010 Prepositions show various kinds of relations. The most important among them are the following: Place

She ran across the street. The boy fell among the thorns. We were at the foot of the hill. The thief was hiding behind the cupboard.

Time

I have a meeting in the afternoon. You must return before sunset.

Wait till tomorrow. We waited for hours.

Method and manner

The letter came by post. He cut the cake with a knife. They fought with courage. They succeeded by hard work.

Reason and Purpose

She died of malaria. He trembled with anger. Smoking is injurious to health.

Possession

He is a man of principles. Mumbai is the financial capital of India. I saw a boy with red hair.

Direction and Motion

He fell into the well. He climbed up the tree. She walked towards the market. The moon moves around the earth.

Objects of prepositions The object of a preposition may be a noun, a pronoun, a gerund, an infinitive or a noun clause.

The house was built near a river. (Noun) She was talking to him. (Pronoun) We were prevented from entering the house. (Gerund) What would you like to do besides watch a movie? (Infinitive) I am content with what I have. (Noun clause)

Correct use of some prepositions

August 23, 2010 Prepositions may be small words, but they are very important ones and their correct use shows your mastery of the language. Here are some hints about the correct use of some prepositions.

Beside and besides Beside means by the side of. Besides means in addition to.

They have a house beside the sea. (by the side of the sea) He stood beside me. (by my side) He plays the violin besides the piano and the guitar. (He plays three instruments.) Besides being a good actor, he is also a good singer. (= In addition to being a good actor, he is also a good singer.)

Since and for Since should be used with a point of time in the past. It is used with a present perfect tense. For is used only when you refer to a period of time.

He has been absent since Tuesday. (NOT He has been absent for Tuesday.) I have been ill since last week. He has been absent for three days. (NOT He has been absent since three days.) I have been ill for two weeks.

Between and among Between is used to refer to two or three separate people or things. Among is used when the reference is to a group of people or things which we do not see separately.

She sat among the children. She sat between Susie and Ann. This is a custom which exists among the Hindus. He has a house between the river and the woods.

By and with By is used to refer to the doer of the action. With is used to refer to the instrument with which the action is performed.

The spider was killed by the boy. The boy killed the spider with a stone.

Correct use of prepositions part II

August 24, 2010 In and At In is usually used with large places countries, districts, large cities etc. At is generally used for small and unimportant places like villages, small towns etc.

We shall meet him at the club this evening.

His brother lives in Paris.

Notes: This rule is not very rigidly followed. In is often used with small places. At, however, is seldom used for big places. On, in, at and by At shows an exact point of time; on shows a more general point of time and in shows a period of time.

I have a meeting at 4 pm. The train leaves at 2 oclock. I was born on a Monday. I was born on April 21st. I was born in January. We will visit them in the summer. It is very hot in the day but quite cold at night.

By shows the latest time at which an action will be finished. So it is usually used with a future tense.

I will be leaving by 6 oclock. I hope to finish the work by next week.

On and upon On is generally used to talk about things at rest. Upon is used about things in motion.

She sat on a chair. He jumped upon his horse.

In, within With reference to time, in means at the end of a certain period; within means before the end of a certain period.

I will finish writing this book in three days. (at the end of three days) I will finish writing this book within three days. (before the end of three days)

Correct use of prepositions part II

August 24, 2010 In and At In is usually used with large places countries, districts, large cities etc. At is generally used for small and unimportant places like villages, small towns etc.

We shall meet him at the club this evening. His brother lives in Paris.

Notes: This rule is not very rigidly followed. In is often used with small places. At, however, is seldom used for big places. On, in, at and by At shows an exact point of time; on shows a more general point of time and in shows a period of time.

I have a meeting at 4 pm. The train leaves at 2 oclock. I was born on a Monday. I was born on April 21st. I was born in January. We will visit them in the summer. It is very hot in the day but quite cold at night.

By shows the latest time at which an action will be finished. So it is usually used with a future tense.

I will be leaving by 6 oclock. I hope to finish the work by next week.

On and upon On is generally used to talk about things at rest. Upon is used about things in motion.

She sat on a chair. He jumped upon his horse.

In, within With reference to time, in means at the end of a certain period; within means before the end of a certain period.

I will finish writing this book in three days. (at the end of three days) I will finish writing this book within three days. (before the end of three days)

Coordinating conjunctions
August 25, 2010 There are two kinds of conjunctions coordinating and subordinating. Read the following sentences:

God made the country and man made the town. I have not seen him since he was a boy. In the first sentence, two independent clauses of equal importance are joined together by and. A conjunction which joins together two clauses of equal rank is called a coordinating conjunction. In the second sentence since joins two clauses of unequal importance. I have not seen him is the main clause because it makes complete sense and can stand alone. Since he was a boy is a subordinate clause which modifies the verb have not seen in the main clause. A conjunction that joins together clauses of unequal importance is called a subordinating conjunction. Coordinating conjunctions The chief coordinating conjunctions are and, but, or, nor, so, for, eitheror, neithernor. A coordinating conjunction usually connects sentence elements of the same grammatical clause: e.g. nouns with nouns, adverbs with adverbs, phrases with phrases and clauses with clauses.

Jack and Jill went up the hill. (Here the conjunction and joins the nouns Jack and Jill.) He worked diligently and patiently. (Here the conjunction and joins the adverbs diligently and patiently.) He is slow but he is steady. (Here the conjunction but joins the clauses he is slow and he is steady.)

Kinds of coordinating conjunctions There are mainly four kinds of coordinating conjunctions:

Cumulative or copulative Adversative Alternative Illative

Kinds of co-ordinating conjunctions

August 25, 2010 Cumulative conjunction A cumulative conjunction merely adds one statement to another. Examples are: and, both and, as well as, not onlybut also

Alice cooked the dinner and Peter tidied the house. She is both clever and beautiful. Tom as well as John passed the test. They not only looted the shop but also set it on fire. Adversative conjunction An adversative conjunction expresses opposition or contrast between two statements. Examples are: but, still, yet, whereas, while, nevertheless etc. The rope was thin but it was strong. He is rich still he is unhappy. There was little chance of success nevertheless they decided to go ahead. Alternative conjunction A conjunction which presents two alternatives, sometimes indicating a choice between them, is called a disjunctive or alternative conjunction. Examples are: or, eitheror, neithernor, neither, nor, otherwise, else You can have coffee or tea. You must either obey my instructions or quit. I will neither obey your instructions nor quit. She didnt sing, neither did she dance. You must pay the fine otherwise you will be punished. Illative conjunctions Conjunctions which express an inference are called illative conjunctions. Examples are: for, so Something fell for I heard a thud. He works hard so he will win. They must have gone out for nobody answers the phone.

Correct use of some conjunctions

August 26, 2010 As As often confused with like. As is a conjunction. It is followed by a clause. Like is a preposition. It is followed by a noun or a noun equivalent.

He fought like a lion. (NOT He fought as a lion.) He fought as a lion does. (NOT He fought like a lion does.)

As and though As can be used in the sense of though.

Though he was sick, he worked diligently. Sick as he was, he worked diligently. Though he was young, he fought valiantly. Young as he was, he fought valiantly.

As if and as though These expressions are used more or less synonymously. She spoke as if she knew everything. (= She spoke as though she knew everything.) It looks as if/ as though it might rain. It is wrong to use like in this structure, however, it is widely used in colloquial English. It looks like it might rain. (Incorrect but common in informal English) So as So as indicates purpose. We started early so as to get a good seat. Such as Such as indicates result. His actions were such as to offend everyone. Than Than is a subordinating conjunction. It is usually followed by an object pronoun or a subject pronoun + verb.

She is taller than him. She is taller than he is. She earns more than him. She earns more than he does.

A subject pronoun without a following verb is uncommon after than. She is taller than he. (Less common than She is taller than him.)

Correct use of prepositions part II

August 24, 2010 In and At In is usually used with large places countries, districts, large cities etc. At is generally used for small and unimportant places like villages, small towns etc.

We shall meet him at the club this evening. His brother lives in Paris.

Notes: This rule is not very rigidly followed. In is often used with small places. At, however, is seldom used for big places. On, in, at and by At shows an exact point of time; on shows a more general point of time and in shows a period of time.

I have a meeting at 4 pm. The train leaves at 2 oclock. I was born on a Monday. I was born on April 21st. I was born in January. We will visit them in the summer. It is very hot in the day but quite cold at night.

By shows the latest time at which an action will be finished. So it is usually used with a future tense.

I will be leaving by 6 oclock. I hope to finish the work by next week.

On and upon On is generally used to talk about things at rest. Upon is used about things in motion.

She sat on a chair. He jumped upon his horse.

In, within With reference to time, in means at the end of a certain period; within means before the end of a certain period.

I will finish writing this book in three days. (at the end of three days)

I will finish writing this book within three days. (before the end of three days)

Correct use of conjunctions Part III

August 28, 2010 Scarcelywhen It is wrong to use than instead of when in these sentences:

Scarcely had I reached the station than the train steamed out. (Incorrect) Scarcely had I reached the station when the train steamed out. (Correct)

If scarcely begins the sentence it should be immediately followed by had.

Scarcely I had reached the station when the train steamed out. (Incorrect) Scarcely had I reached the station when the train steamed out. (Correct) I had scarcely reached the station when the train steamed out. (Correct)

Correlatives The correlatives eitheror, neithernor, bothand, not onlybut also must be placed immediately before the words they relate to.

Neither he would eat nor allow us to eat. (Incorrect) He would neither eat nor allow us to eat. (Correct) Neither I shall follow your instructions nor resign. (Incorrect) I shall neither follow your instructions nor resign. (Correct) He not only visited France but also Germany. He visited not only France but also Germany.

Exercise Fill in the blanks with appropriate conjunctions 1. I would rather be an engineer a doctor. 2. I cannot excuse you you apologize. 3. Neither a lender - a borrower be. 4. Work hard you should fail.

5. Clever - he was, he could not solve the problem. Answers 1. than 2. unless 3. nor 4. lest 5. as

Special uses of some adverbs

August 30, 2010 Very Very is commonly used before an adjective or another adverb in the positive degree. It means to a great extent.

She is very beautiful. (with adjective) It is very hot. (with adjective) He did it very nicely. (with adverb) She is very sweet. (with adjective) He wrote the letter very carefully. (with adverb)

Very can be used with a present participle (e.g. running, singing, reading, playing etc.) used as an adjective.

It was very amusing.

When used with well very shows agreement or assent.

Very well doctor, I will give up smoking.

Very can be used with a superlative or own. It means in the highest degree or absolutely.

She is the very best singer here. This tea is of the very best quality. Keep this present for your very own. (absolutely for your own use)

Very with much

Very is often used before much.

Thank you very much.

Much Much is commonly used before an adjective or adverb in the comparative or superlative degree. Note that very is used with an adjective or adverb in the positive degree.

She is much taller than her brother. This is much better than that.

Much can be used before a past participle in the passive form. Very is used before a present participle.

I was much surprised to hear the news. I am much interested in this program.

Notes: Very is also used before a few past participles.

I am very tired. They were very pleased to meet us.

Special uses of some adverbs Part II

August 30, 2010 Too Too is used to mean more than is required.

You ate too much. He is too fat. It is too hot to go out. He is too weak to move about. The news is too good to be true.

Too is often followed by to.

I was too tired to do any work. (= I was so tired that I could not do any work.)

Too has a negative meaning. It should not be used in the general sense of very.

She is very beautiful. (NOT She is too beautiful.)

Too has similar meanings to also and as well.

She is not only beautiful; she is also intelligent. She is not only beautiful; she is intelligent as well. She is not only beautiful; she is intelligent too.

Enough Enough shows the proper limit or amount. It is placed after the adjective or adverb it qualifies.

He is rich enough to buy a car. She is old enough to be a grand mother. He solved the problem quickly enough to pass the test.

Notes Enough is the opposite of too. Compare:

It is hot enough (= to the degree required) to go swimming. (We can go swimming.) It is too hot (= more than required) to go swimming. (We cant go swimming.)

Yes and No If the answer is yes, the following verb must be in the affirmative. If the answer is no, the following verb must be in the negative.

Are you coming?Yes, I am. Are you coming? No, I am not. Is it raining? Yes, it is. Is it hot enough? No, it isnt. Did you meet him at the conference? Yes, I did. Has he received our letter? No, he hasnt.

Anomalous finites
September 1, 2010 The term anomalous finites refers to the group of 24 finites given below:

Is, am, are, was, were

Has, have, had Do, does, did Will, would; shall, should; can, could; may, might; must, ought, need, dare, used

As you can probably see, these are all auxiliary verbs. Some of them are also used as principal verbs. As auxiliaries their function is to help principal verbs to form their tenses and moods. As anomalous finites, they have other functions. Anomalous finites are irregular. They do not form the past tense by the addition of -ed, -d or -t, but by a change in the root vowel. Some anomalous finites (must, ought) have no past tense forms at all. But these irregular finite verbs are different from other finite verbs in many respects and hence they are called anomalous finites. The most obvious difference between anomalous finites and other finites is that they can be used with the contraction nt which is the shortened form of not.

It isnt true. (= It is not true.) We arent going anywhere. (= We are not going anywhere.) You shouldnt do that. I dont know what to do.

Of the 24 anomalous finites, the forms be, have, do, need and dare are sometimes used as principal verbs and sometimes as auxiliaries. The remaining are always used as auxiliaries. The use of anomalous finites To form negative sentences

I know him. I dont know him. (NOT I know not him.) She wrote to me. She didnt write to me. (NOT She wrote not to me.)

Here the anomalous finites do and did help to change positive statements into negative statements. The mere addition of not to the positive sentence is not enough in modern English.

Uses of anomalous finites

September 2, 2010 Anomalous finites are the only verbs in modern English which can form their negatives by the simple addition of not. Compare:

He will come. He will not come. He came. He did not come. (NOT He came not.) Can I do it? No, you cant. Should I take it? No, you shouldnt. He took the medicine. He did not take the medicine. (NOT He took not the medicine.)

Anomalous finites are also the only verbs that can be used with the shortened form of not. To form questions A question is usually formed by putting the anomalous finite before the subject of the sentence.

He is a good singer. Is he a good singer? They have won the race. Have they won the race? The cat will kill the mouse. Will the cat kill the mouse?

If the affirmative sentence does not contain an anomalous finite, the auxiliary do and its forms are used to make questions.

He killed the spider. Did he kill the spider? (NOT Killed he the spider?) They went to Beijing. Did they go to Beijing? He fell off the ladder. Did he fall off the ladder? They make good cheese. Do they make good cheese? She likes ice cream. Does she like ice cream?

To form negative questions The anomalous finites are also used to form negative questions. He does not like it. Does he not like it? Doesnt he like it? They do not eat meat. Do they not eat meat? Dont they eat meat? She did not touch it. Did she not touch it? Didnt she touch it? Notes The question Does he not like it? is more formal than the question Doesnt he like it?

Uses of anomalous finites part II

September 3, 2010 The anomalous finites are used to form inverted sentence patterns.

I had no sooner got into the train than it steamed off. No sooner had I got into the train than it steamed off.

To avoid repetition of principal verbs

The anomalous finites are used in short answers to avoid the repetition of principal verbs.

Do you want this? Yes, I do. (= Yes, I want that.) Can you hear me? Yes, I can. (= Yes, I can hear you.) Who broke the window? John, did. (= John broke the window.)

To form the tag question The anomalous finites are also used in the formation of the tag question.

It is rather hot today, isnt it? She can sing very well, cant she? You like this color, dont you? They shouldnt have waited, should they?

Notes When the statement is in the positive, the tag question is in the negative. In the same way, when the statement is in the negative, the tag question is in the positive. To emphasize an affirmative statement We can emphasize an affirmative statement by putting the anomalous finite do or its forms before the principal verb.

I want you to come. (Less emphatic) I do want you to come. (More emphatic) I invited him. I did invite him. If another World War does break out, it will put an end to our civilization.

Simple and Compound Sentences

September 6, 2010 According to their meaning and word order, sentences are divided into four classes assertive, imperative, interrogative and exclamatory. But according to their clause structure, sentences can be divided into four different kinds - simple, compound, complex and compoundcomplex. The Simple sentence Look at the following sentences.

The sky is blue. The cow gives milk.

The sports meet will be held tomorrow.

These sentences have only one subject and one predicate each. A sentence which has only one subject and one predicate is called a simple sentence. The Compound sentence Read the following sentences

He went to the airport and boarded the evening flight. You can have tea or coffee. He went to the store, bought some books and came back.

The sentence 1 has two parts: He went to the airport and he boarded the evening flight joined by the coordinating conjunction and. Each part has its own subject and predicate and therefore each is a clause. Moreover, they are clauses of equal rank or importance, independent of each other. Such clauses are called co-ordinate clauses. Sentence 2 is a combination of two independent clauses of equal rank: you can have tea and you can have coffee, joined together by the coordinating conjunction or. Sentence 3 has three independent clauses of equal rank He went to the store, he bought some books, he came back and these are joined together by the coordinating conjunction and. A sentence which has two or more coordinate clauses is called a compound sentence.

Complex and Compound-Complex Sentences

September 6, 2010 Complex sentence Examine the following sentences.

I will say what I like. When we went there we found that he had gone.

Sentence 1 consists of two clauses I will say and what I like. The first is an independent clause which can stand by itself and so it is called the main clause or principal clause. But the second clause cannot stand by itself. It depends on the first clause. It is therefore called a subordinate clause. In sentence 2, we can find three clauses when we went there, we found, that he had gone. Here the main clause is we found, and the other two are subordinate clauses. A sentence which consists of one main clause and one or more subordinate clauses is called a complex sentence.

The compound-complex sentence Look at the following sentences:

While the man played the violin, the boys sang and the girls danced. I knew that he was ill, but I did not know that he was suffering from cancer.

In sentence 1, we can find two main clauses: a) the boys sang b) the girls danced and one subordinate clause: c) while the man played the violin In sentence 2, there are two main clauses: a) I knew b) but I did not know and two subordinate clauses c) that he was ill d) that he suffered from cancer A sentence containing two or more main clauses and at least one subordinate clause is called a compound-complex sentence.

Analysis of a sentence
September 7, 2010 We have already seen that a simple sentence has only one subject and one predicate. The subject refers to the person or thing about which something is said. The predicate is that part of the sentence that says something about the subject. Study the following examples:

Fire burns. (Subject fire, predicate burns) The birds sing. (Subject the birds, predicate sing) The President visited Africa. (Subject the president, predicate visited Africa) Barking dogs seldom bite. (Subject barking dogs, predicate seldom bite)

You can see that the subject may consist of one word or several words, but it must always have a noun or pronoun in it. In the same way, the predicate may consist of one word or several words, but it must always have a verb in it. The main word in the subject is called the subject-word or simple subject. Different kinds of subjects The subject is always a noun or a word or phrase that does the work of a noun.

Money is the root of all evil. (Here the subject is the noun money.) They have admitted their fault. (Here the subject is the pronoun they.) The disabled are Gods special children. (Here the subject is an adjective used as a noun.) To err is human. (Here the subject is a to-infinitive.) Slow and steady wins the race. (Here the subject is the phrase slow and steady.)

Subject attributes
September 8, 2010 The subject may consist of one word or several words, but it must always have a noun in it. This noun which is the most important word in a sentence is often qualified by an adjective or the equivalent of an adjective which is called its attribute or enlargement. Kinds of attributes The attribute of a noun may be an adjective, an article, a pronoun, a participle, an infinitive or a phrase. Study the following examples:

The baby smiled. (Here the attribute of the subject baby is the definite article the.) Fresh milk is wholesome. (Here the attribute is the adjective fresh.) His voice shook. (Here the attribute is the possessive adjective his.) Kennedy, President of America, was assassinated. (Here the attribute is a noun phrase used in apposition to the subject.) He himself said this. (Here the attribute is an emphatic pronoun.) A rolling stone gathers no moss. (Attribute participle) Birds of the same feather flock together. (Attribute a prepositional phrase) His will to live pulled him through the difficult times. (Attribute an infinitive)

The Predicate

September 9, 2010 The most important word in the predicate is the verb. The verb is often modified by an adverb or adverb equivalent which is called the extension of the verb. This may be of different kinds. Study the following examples:

He did his work efficiently. (Here the verb did is modified by the adverb efficiently.) I called them one by one. (Here the extension of the verb is an adverbial phrase.) She went away crying. (Here the extension of the verb is a present participle.) She looked disappointed. (Past participle) I want to go. (To-infinitive) They went home. (Adverbial object)

The object If the verb is a transitive verb, it must have an object to complete its meaning. Consider the sentence I bought a pen. The words I bought by themselves do not make complete sense. But I bought a pen expresses a complete thought. Here a pen is the object of the verb bought. Kinds of object The object is always a noun or a noun equivalent.

She bought a car. (Object a noun (a car)) We all respected him. (Object a pronoun) We should help the needy. (Object an adjective used as a noun) She tried to escape. (Object a to-infinitive) She likes reading. (Object gerund) The officer promised to look into the matter. (Object a phrase)

The object also may have attributes like the subject.

I saw a snake. (Object snake, attribute a) I have only a vague idea about it. (Object idea, attribute vague) I looked at her face. (Object face, attribute her) We visited their house. (Object house, attribute their)

Direct and indirect objects

September 11, 2010 Some transitive verbs are followed by two objects one direct object and one indirect object.

I bought him a present. She told us a story.

He taught me English.

In sentence 1, present is the direct object of bought and him is the indirect object.

I bought what? A present (Direct object) I bought to whom? Him (Indirect object)

Similarly, in sentence 2, story is the direct object and us is the indirect object. In sentence 3, English is the direct object and me is the indirect object. Notes The indirect object usually refers to a person and the direct object usually refers to a thing. The complement Study the following examples:

Dogs bark. Birds fly. The wind blows.

The intransitive verbs (bark, fly and blows) in the above sentences express a complete thought without the help of any other words. Hence they are called verbs of complete predication. Now study the following examples:

She seemed The boy was

Here the verbs seemed and was are verbs of incomplete predication because they do not express a complete thought. A word or phrase has to be supplied to complete their sense.

She seemed upset / angry/ disturbed / worried. The boy was singing / reading / dancing / playing.

The word or phrase thus added to complete the meaning of a verb is called its complement.

Subject and Object Complements

September 11, 2010 The complement of an intransitive verb always says something about the subject and is therefore called subject complement.

Alice is beautiful. (Here the complement beautiful says something about the subject Alice.) She seemed upset.

The chief verb of incomplete predication is be (is, am, are, was, were). Others are seem, appear, look, become, grow, feel, turn, taste etc.

The night grew dark. The milk turned sour. The fish tasted awful.

The subject complement may be of different kinds. It could be an adjective, a noun, a pronoun, a participle, an infinitive, an adverb or a phrase.

Her brother is a good writer. (Noun) The little girl looked upset. (Adjective) The old woman was talking to herself. (Present participle) He is to go. (To-infinitive) Mosquitoes are everywhere. (Adverb)

Object complement Now study the following sentences:

They made Harry Chairman. The President appointed him Governor.

In sentence 1, Harry is the object of the transitive verb made. But if you say they made Harry, the sense is incomplete. In addition to the object Harry, we need another word to complete the meaning of the verb made. The word Chairman which completes the meaning of the sentence is called a complement. Since it says something about the object it is called an object complement.

The jury found him guilty. The captains death forced the soldiers to surrender. The calamity threw them into a fit of despair.

Order of Words in a Sentence

September 12, 2010 To convey the intended meaning words must be arranged in the proper order in a sentence. The following is the usual order of words in an English sentence. Subject before the verb

The subject usually comes before the verb in an English sentence.

The dog bit the postman. (Subject the dog, verb bit, object the postman) The people rang the bell for joy.

Object after the verb The object usually comes after the verb.

The King wears a crown. (Subject the king, verb wears, object a crown) The boy killed the spider. (Subject the boy, verb killed, object the spider)

Indirect object before the direct object If there are two objects, the indirect object usually comes before the direct object.

She told me a story. (Indirect object me, direct object story) Lend me your ears. (Indirect object me, direct object your ears)

Attributive adjectives Adjectives used attributively comes before the nouns they qualify.

The other day I saw a little clownwith a crooked nose. King Francis was a hearty king and loved a royal sport.

When an adjective is used predicatively it comes after the noun.

The child is asleep.

Position of the adverb The adverb is generally placed close to the word which it modifies.

He solved only two problems. He never tells a lie. He is a lazy boy.

Notes When an adverb is intended to modify the sentence as a whole, it is placed at the beginning of a sentence. Certainly he made a fool of himself.

Special uses of some prepositions

September 13, 2010 In and at Both at and in can be used with the names of cities, towns and villages. We use in when we are talking about the place as an area; we use at when we see it as a point. Compare:

My sister lives in Tokyo. Our plane stopped at Tokyo on the way to Iran. (Tokyo = Tokyo airport)

We use at to talk about group activities and shops/workplaces.

I first met him at a party. (NOT in a party.) There werent many people at the meeting. I saw him at the bakers. (= bakers shop)

We use in with the names of streets and at when we give the house number.

He lives in MG Street. He lives at 128 MG Street.

We use on when we think of a place as a surface.

The cat is lying on the floor. Hang this picture on the wall.

Till and until Both till and until are used of time.

We waited till / until 12 o clock. He slept till / until 11 am.

Since Since is used before a noun or phrase denoting some point of time. It is preceded by a verb in the perfect tenses.

He hasnt eaten anything since yesterday. He has been ill since last Monday. It has been raining since yesterday.

In In is used before a noun denoting a period of time. It means at the end of. Within means before the end of.

I shall return in an hour. (= at the end of one hour) I shall return within an hour. (= before the end of one hour)

Irregular Verbs
September 14, 2010 Verbs can be regular or irregular. Regular verbs form their past tense and past participle by adding -ed. Walk / walked / walked Laugh / laughed / laughed Paint / painted / painted Wait / waited / waited Insist / insisted / insisted Irregular verbs form their past and past participle in other ways. Sit / sat / sat Ring / rang / rung Come / came / come Cut / cut / cut There are mainly three types of irregular verbs: Verbs which have all the three forms alike. Put / put / put Read / read / read Cut / cut / cut Bet / bet / bet Hit / hit / hit Let / let / let Set / set / set Spread / spread / spread Split / split / split Burst / burst / burst Verbs which have two of the three forms alike.

Sit / sat / sat Run / ran / run Beat / beaten / beaten Become / became / become Bend / bent / bent Bleed / bled / bled Breed / bred / bred Bring / brought / brought Build / built / built Buy / bought / bought Come / came / come Fight / fought / fought Keep / kept / kept Say / said / said Tell / told / told Verbs which have three different forms: Break / broke / broken Write / wrote / written Ring / rang / rung Begin / began / begun Fly / flew / flown Do / did / done Forget / forgot / forgotten Rise / rose / risen See / saw / seen A few verbs have two past participle forms. One of these forms end in -en and can only be used like an adjective. Drink / drunk (regular past participle) / drunken (adjectival past participle) Melt / melted / molten Prove / proved / proven Shave / shaved / shaven Sink / sunk / sunken Compare:

He has drunk milk. A drunken driver He has proved it. A proven technique The clock has struck five. A grief-stricken widow He has shaved off his beard.

A shaven head The ship has sunk. A sunken ship

Different forms of the predicate

September 16, 2010 The predicate may consist of one word or several words. When the verb in the predicate is an intransitive verb, it alone can form the predicate.

Dogs bark. Birds sing. The clouds are gathering. They have been playing.

The verb in the predicate may consist of one word or several words. When the sentence is in the simple present or simple past, the verb consists of just one word. When the verb is an intransitive verb of incomplete predication, the predicate may consist of the verb and its complement.

She seems happy. The sky grew dark. The house is to let.

When the verb is a transitive verb, the predicate may consist of the verb and its object.

Birds build nests. I know him. The cat killed the rat. He shot the panther.

When the verb is a transitive verb having two objects, the predicate may consist of the verb and its two objects indirect and direct.

I promised him a present. He teaches us English. Father bought me a doll.

When the verb is a transitive verb of incomplete predication, the predicate may consist of the verb, its object and a complement.

The jury found him guilty. The parents named him Christopher.

He kept us waiting.

Adjective Phrases
September 16, 2010 Sometimes a group of words does the work of an adjective. Study the following examples.

The mayor was a wealthy man. The mayor was a man of great wealth.

In sentence 1, the adjective wealthy says what sort of man the mayor was. In sentence 2, the group of words of great wealth also says the same thing. It qualifies the noun man as an adjective does. It therefore does the work of an adjective and is called an adjective phrase. Definition An adjective phrase is a group of words that does the work of an adjective.

The magistrate was a kind man. (Here the adjective kind modifies the noun man.) The magistrate was a man with a kind heart. (Here the adjective phrase with a kind heart modifies the noun man.) They lived in a stone house. They lived in a house built of stone. The workers belonged to a hill tribe. The workers belonged to a tribe dwelling in the hills.

Study the following adjectives and the adjective phrases that are equivalent to them.

A golden necklace a necklace made of gold A white coat a coat of white color A jungle track a track through the jungle A deserted city a city with no inhabitants The French flag the flag of France A wooden hut a hut built of wood A blank page a page with no writing on it

Adverb phrases
September 18, 2010

We have already seen that a group of words called an adjective phrase can serve the same purpose as an adjective. In the same way, an adverb phrase can does the work of an adverb. Study the following examples.

He spoke politely. (Here the adverb politely says something about the manner in which he spoke.) He spoke in a polite manner. (Here the adverb phrase in a polite manner also says how he spoke.)

Thus we have seen that an adverb phrase modifies a verb just like an adverb does.

It is available now. It is available at the moment.

In the pair of sentences given above, the adverb phrase at the moment modifies the verb just like the adverb now does. Definition An adverb phrase is a group of words that serves the same purpose as an adverb. Like an adverb, an adverb phrase can also modify an adjective or another adverb. Some adverbs and their equivalent adverb phrases are given below.

Bravely (adverb) in a brave manner (adverb phrase) Beautifully in a beautiful manner / way / style Formerly in former times / once upon a time Recently just now or at a recent date Soon before very long Here on this spot Everywhere in all places Now at the moment

Tooto and sothat

September 20, 2010 A phrase can be expanded into a clause. In the same way, a clause can be contracted into a phrase. Thus we have seen that the form of a sentence can be changed without changing its meaning. The transformation can be done using several different methods. For example a simple sentence containing the adverb too can be transformed into a complex sentence containing sothat with no difference in meaning. Study the following sentences. The news is too good to be true. The news is so good that it cannot be true. The thief ran too fast for the police to catch. The thief ran so fast that the police could not catch him.

He is too proud to beg. He is so proud that he will not beg. The tea was too hot to drink. The tea was so hot that I could not drink it. OR The tea was so hot that it could not be drunk. The bag was too heavy for me to lift. The bag was so heavy that I could not lift it. He spoke too fast to be understood. He spoke so fast that he could not be understood. Notes If the adverb too is followed by an adjective + to infinitive, we expand the sentence into two clauses, the first containing so and the second containing that. If the sentence containing tooto is in the affirmative, the sentence containing sothat will be in the negative.

Figures of speech Simile and Metaphor

September 22, 2010 A figure of speech is a departure from the ordinary form of expression. It is employed to produce a greater effect. There are four different kinds of figures of speech. 1. Those based on resemblance Examples are: simile, metaphor, personification and apostrophe 2. Those based on contrast Examples are: antithesis and epigram 3. Those based on association Examples are: metonymy and synecdoche 4. Those depending on the construction of the plot Examples are: climax and anticlimax Simile In a simile we make a comparison between two objects of different kinds. These two objects will have at least one point in common.

The righteous shall flourish as the palm tree. (Here a comparison is made between the righteous and the palm tree.) Life is as tedious as a twice-told tale. O my Loves like a red, red rose Thats newly sprung in June; O my Loves like a melodie Thats sweetly played in tune. Here are some similes common in everyday speech.

as proud as a peacock as cool as a cucumber as hard as nails as good as gold as old as the hills as clear as crystal

Note A comparison of two things of the same kind is not a simile. Metaphor A metaphor is an implied simile. It doesnt state that one thing is like another or acts as another. Instead it says that the two things are one and the same. A simile, on the other hand, says that one thing is like another. Thus, when we say, She is like an angel we use a simile, but when we say She is an angel, we use a metaphor. Examples are:

Life is a dream. (Metaphor) Life is like a dream. (Simile) The camel is the ship of the desert. (Metaphor)

Figures of Speech Part II

September 24, 2010 We have seen that a metaphor is an implied simile. Every simile can be compressed into a metaphor and every metaphor can be expanded into a simile. Compare: Life is like a dream. (Simile) Life is a dream. (Metaphor) Personification

In personification inanimate objects and abstract ideas are spoken of as if they have life and intelligence. Example Pride goeth forth on horseback, grand and gay But cometh back on foot, and begs its way. Apostrophe An apostrophe is a direct address to the dead, the absent or a personified object or idea. It is a special form of personification. Milton! thou shouldst be living at this hour. Roll on, thou deep and dark blue Ocean roll! O death! where is thy sting? O grave! where is thy victory? O Solitude! where are the charms That sages have seen in thy face? Hyperbole In hyperbole a statement is made emphatic by overstatement. Heres the smell of blood still; all the perfumes of Arabia will not sweeten this little hand. O Hamlet! thou has cleft my heart in twain. I Loved Ophelia; forty thousand brothers Could not with all their quantity of love Make up the sum. Euphemism In Euphemism, a disagreeable thing is described by an agreeable name. For example, we often say He has fallen asleep or He has passed away instead of He has died. Other examples are given below: Old Sam is pushing up the daisies. (= Old Sam is dead.) He is a little careless of the truth. (= He is a liar.) She has become hard of hearing lately. (= She has become deaf.)

Figures of Speech Part III

September 25, 2010 Antithesis In antithesis, a striking contrast of words or sentiments is expressed in the same sentence. It is employed to secure emphasis. Examples are given below:

Man proposes, God disposes. Not that I loved Caesar less, but that I loved Rome more.

Oxymoron

Oxymoron is a special form of antithesis. Here two contradictory qualities of the same thing are predicted at once.

So innocent arch, so cunningly simple. She accepted it as the kind cruelty of the surgeons knife.

Epigram An epigram is a brief pointed saying. It is used to introduce ideas which invoke surprise.

The child is the father of the man. Fools rush in angels fear to tread.

Here lies our Sovereign Lord the King Whose word no man relies on, Who never said a foolish thing And never did a wise one.

Art lies in concealing art.

Irony Irony is a mode of speech in which the real meaning is exactly the opposite of that which is literally conveyed. Here under leave of Brutus and the rest (For Brutus is an honorable man: So are they all, all honorable men) Come I speak in Caesars funeral. He was my friend, faithful and just to me; But Brutus says he was ambitious And Brutus is an honorable man. Pun A pun is employed to produce a ludicrous effect. It consists in the use of a word in such a way that it is capable of more than one application.

An ambassador is an honest man who lies abroad for the good of his country. Is life worth living? It depends upon the liver?

Figure of Speech Part III

September 29, 2010

Metonymy Metonymy literally means a change of name. In metonymy an object is denoted by the name of something which is generally associated with it. For example

The Bench, for the judges The laurel, for success Bluejackets, for sailors Red-coats, for British sailors The Crown, for the king

Since there are different kinds of association between objects, there are several varieties of metonymy. For example, a metonymy may result from the use of the sign for the person or thing symbolized.

From the cradle to the grave (= from infancy to death)

Lilotes In Lilotes an affirmative is conveyed by negation of the opposite. It is the opposite of hyperbole.

I am a citizen of no mean city. (= I am a citizen of a very celebrated city.) He is no fool. (= He is very clever.)

Exclamation In this figure of speech, the exclamatory form is used to draw greater attention to a point.

What a piece of work is man! How sweet the moonlight sleeps upon this bank!

Climax Climax is the arrangement of a series of events or ideas in the order of increasing importance.

What a piece of work is man! How noble in reason, how infinite in faculties! In action, how like an angel! In apprehension, how like a God.

Anticlimax Anticlimax is the opposite of climax. It shows a sudden descent from the higher to the lower. The anticlimax is employed for the purpose of satire or ridicule.

Here thou great Anna! whom three realms obey, Dost sometimes counsel take and sometimes tea.

Prepositions: Some special points to be noted

September 30, 2010 Cases where prepositions are omitted Prepositions of time are generally omitted before words like last, first, next or this.

I met him last Friday. (NOT I met him on last Friday.) We will discuss the matter next time. I will visit my parents this week.

The use of preposition in the following types of sentences is optional.

I was here (in) the July before last. They visited us (on) the day before yesterday. He left the city (on) the next day. We lived there (for) three months.

Prepositions are after certain verbs Some intransitive verbs become transitive when a preposition is placed after them. Examples are: listen to, apply to, partake of, aware of, beware of, depend upon, dispense with, dispose of and prevail upon Different prepositions Some words which differ slightly in form and meaning from each other take different prepositions after them. Examples are: Desire for; desirous of Confidence in; confident of According to; in accordance with Sensible of; insensible to Affection for; affectionate to Ambition for; ambitious of Fond of; fondness for Neglectful of; negligent in Dislike to; liking for

Gerund after preposition The infinitive cannot be used with certain words which require a preposition followed by a gerund.

I am thinking of visiting my parents. He is bent of attending the meeting. You have no excuse for being late.

Uses of the verb have

October 1, 2010 The verb have is used in a number of ways in English. It can be used as an auxiliary verb. It can also be used as an ordinary verb. As an ordinary verb have indicates ideas such as possession of objects, individual characteristics, relationships etc. Examples:

He has a brother in Germany. She has long hair. The baby has blue eyes. I have two kids.

Notes Have is used in the present tense when the subject is a plural noun or the pronouns I / you / they / we. Has is used in the present tense when the subject is a singular noun or pronoun. Had is used in the past tense with subjects of all numbers and persons. Have and Have Got Have got means the same as have in most cases. It can also be used to indicate possession of objects and similar ideas. Examples:

She has got black hair. I have got seven sisters.

Common expressions with have

The ordinary verb have is used in a number of common expressions. have a bath, wash, shower, etc. have breakfast, lunch, dinner have fun have a party have a walk, hike, ride, etc. have a discussion, fight, argument etc. Examples:

We usually have dinner at 9 oclock. She is having a bath. Lets have fun.

Have as an Auxiliary Verb As an auxiliary verb have is used in the formation of perfect tenses. Remember that the verb have will change its form depending on the number and person of the subject and the tense of the verb. Here is a quick review of the tenses that use have as an auxiliary verb. Present Perfect:

They have come. I have finished the work. It has stopped raining.

Present Perfect Continuous:

We have been waiting for a long time. It has been raining since yesterday.

Past Perfect:

The train had already left before we reached the station.

Past Perfect Continuous:

She had been working for two hours when he came.

Future Perfect:

I will have finished working by 6 oclock.

If sentences

October 2, 2010 Sentences containing the word if are called conditional sentences because they usually express a condition. Examples:

If he comes, ask him to wait. If it rains, we will get wet. If you study hard, you will pass your exam.

There are four types of if sentences in English. 1. 2. 3. 4. The zero conditional The type 1 conditional The type 2 conditional The type 3 conditional

The zero conditional In a zero conditional sentence, we use a present tense in both parts of the sentence.

If you give respect, you get respect. If you heat ice, it melts.

The type zero conditional sentences are used to talk about real and possible situations. Type 1 conditional Type 1 conditional sentences are used to talk about possible situations and their probable results. In these sentences we use the simple present in the if clause and the simple future in the result clause.

If you work hard, you will succeed. If you ask him, he will help you. If you invite them, they will come.

Type 2 conditional These sentences are used to talk about an unlikely condition and its probable result. Here the tense in the if clause is the simple past and the tense in the main clause is the present conditional (would + get).

If you asked him, he would help you. If you studied hard you would pass your exam. If you invited them, they would come.

Type 3 conditional In a type 3 conditional sentence, the tense in the if clause is the past perfect and the tense in the main clause is the perfect conditional (would have + infinitive).

If you had invited them, they would have come. If you had asked him, he would have helped you.

The infinitive
October 4, 2010 The infinitive is the base form of a verb. Examples are: write, run, break, read, walk etc. The infinitive may be preceded by the marker to. It is then called the to-infinitive. Examples of to-infinitives are given below:

I want to go. Birds love to sing. To err is human. He refused to go.

Uses of the infinitive The infinitive can be the subject of a verb.

To err is human; to forgive divine. To find fault with others is easy.

In sentence 1, the infinitive to err is the subject of the verb is. In sentence 2, the infinitive phrase to find fault with others is the subject of the verb is. As the object of the verb The infinitive can be the object of a verb. Study the following examples.

He wants to go. She likes to sing.

In sentence 1, the infinitive to go is the object of the verb wants. Similarly in sentence 2, the infinitive to sing is the object of the verb likes. As subject complements The infinitive can also be used as the complement of the subject. Study the following sentences:

The mistake she made was to get his attention. The best thing to do now is to retreat.

In sentence 1, the infinitive to get is the complement of the subject mistake. In sentence 2, the infinitive to retreat is the complement of the subject thing. As an adjective qualifying a noun The infinitive can function like an adjective.

That was a place to visit. It is time to go.

Here the infinitives to visit and to go function like adjectives modifying the nouns place and time. The forms of the infinitive The infinitive has the following forms: Simple present Active: to write; passive: to be written Present perfect Active: to have written; passive: to have been writen Present continuous Active: to be writing; no passive form Present perfect continuous Active: to have been writing; no passive form

Uses of the bare infinitive

October 4, 2010 The infinitive can be used with or without the marker to. These two forms of the infinitive are distinguished by the terms to-infinitives and bare infinitives. Uses of the bare infinitive The infinitive without the marker to (bare-infinitive) is used after the auxiliaries shall, should, will, would, may, might, do, did, can, could, must, need and dare.

I shall invite them.

We must go now. He can speak English. You need not go. He dare not refuse.

Notes When dare and need are used as principal verbs, they are followed by the to-infinitive.

Did he dare to do that? We will need two weeks to complete the work.

The infinitive is used without to after some principal verbs like bid, watch, see, let, make, help and hear.

I bade him come. (NOT I bade him to come.) Let him go. (NOT Let him to go.) We heard her sing. (NOT We heard her to sing.) I watched them play. (NOT I watched them to play.)

After rather, better and had better The infinitive is used without to after rather, better and had better.

You had rather visit him. I would rather wait. You had better consult a doctor.

After some prepositions like except, but, save and than

She can do everything but cook. She did nothing except cry.

The Participle
October 5, 2010 Read the following sentence

Seeing the snake the boy ran away.

Seeing is a form of the verb see and has an object, namely snake. At the same time seeing is also like an adjective because it qualifies the noun boy. It is, therefore, called a verbal adjective or participle.

The participle has two forms: the present participle and the past participle. The present participle

The boy cried thinking that he would be punished. I see a boy running across the field.

In the examples given above, the words in bold text are examples of present participles. As you can see all of them end in -ing. The present participle represents an action as going on or incomplete. In the first sentence the action takes place in the past, while in the second sentence the action takes place in the present. Thus, the present participle does not indicate the present time but unfinished action. The present participle can be used with all the tenses. The time of the action is shown by the finite verbs (cried, see) in the sentence, and not by the participle. The past participle Study the following examples.

Stricken with grief, she killed herself. We saw trees laden with fruits. Bent with old age the old man tottered along.

In the sentences given above, the words in bold text are examples of past participles. As you can see, the past participle usually ends in -ed, -d, -t or -en. They represent a completed action. Now look at the following sentence:

Not having applied in time he could not get the scholarship.

Here having applied is not a simple past participle. It is actually a perfect participle which represents an action as having been completed some time in the past.

Some uses of the participle Part I

October 6, 2010 The participle has the following uses: 1. To form the continuous and perfect tenses. Here is a quick review of the tenses that use the present and past participles.

I am writing. (Present continuous) I was writing. (Past continuous) I will be writing. (Future continuous) I have written. (Present perfect) I had written. (Past perfect) I will have written. (Future perfect)

2. As an adjective The participle can serve all the functions of the plain adjective.

Barking dogs seldom bite. A rolling stone gathers no moss. Dont cry over spilt milk.

In the following examples, the participles are used as part of the predicate.

The story was interesting. He was left stranded.

In apposition to a noun The participle can be used in apposition to a noun.

The woman, quivering and trembling, ran away.

As an object complement A participle can be used as an object complement.

I found him somewhat recovered. She found the story quite interesting.

Here the participles recovered and interesting are the complements of the objects him and study. The participle can be used as a noun by placing the definite article before it.

The injured were taken to the hospital. The dead leave their blessing upon the living.

As an adverb The participle may be used as an adverb modifying an adjective.

It is piping hot.

He was dead drunk.

Uses of the participle part II

October 6, 2010 Participles are also used in absolute phrases with a noun or pronoun going before them. God willing, we shall meet again. The fog having lifted, the plane took off. Notes: Each of these absolute phrases can be transformed into a subordinate clause. If God is willing, we shall meet again. When the fog had lifted, the plane took off. A common error As the participle is a verbal adjective it should have a proper subject of reference. If the subject is missing or a wrong subject is used the whole sentence will be wrong. The following sentences are wrong because the participle has no proper subject.

Standing at the gate, a scorpion stung him. (This sentence means that it was the scorpion that was standing at the gate.) Going up the hill, an old temple was seen.

We should, therefore, rewrite these sentences as given below.

While he was standing at the gate, a scorpion stung him. OR Standing at the gate, he was stung by a scorpion. When we went up the hill, we saw an old temple.

More examples are given below:

Incorrect: Being a rainy day, we did not go out. Correct: It being a rainy day, we did not go out.

Uses of the perfect infinitive

October 7, 2010

The perfect infinitive has the following structure: (to) have + past participle. Examples are: to have missed, to have written, to have worked, to have left etc. Perfect infinitives can have the same kind of meaning as perfect or past tenses.

I am glad to have found a new job. (= I am glad that I have found a new job.) She was sorry to have missed the concert. (= She was sorry that she had missed the concert.) You seem to have annoyed him. (= It seems that you have annoyed him.) The perfect infinitive is often used after the modal auxiliary verbs could, would, might, ought, should and neednt to talk about unreal situations. You should have asked my permission before going out. (The person didnt.) She should have discussed the matter with him. (She didnt discuss the matter with him.) I would have gone to university, if I had passed my exam. (I didnt pass my exam.) You shouldnt have provoked him. (You provoked him.) We neednt have waited for his approval. (We waited for his approval.)

Notes The structure modal auxiliary + perfect infinitive is not always used to talk about unreal past situations. It can also be used to express certainty.

She should have arrived by now. They will have reached the station by now.

Demonstratives and Possessives

October 8, 2010 Demonstratives Demonstratives show where a person or thing is in relation to the speaker. There are four demonstratives in English this, that, these and those. This and these are used to refer to a person or thing near the speaker. This is used with a singular noun. These is used with a plural noun.

This is my bag. This is my car. These are my books.

That and those are used to refer to a person / persons or thing / things further away from the speaker. That is used with a singular noun. Those is used with a plural noun.

That is an apple. Those are apples.

Position of demonstratives Demonstratives can go in the following positions: Before the noun.

This tree is taller than that tree. This boy is smarter than that boy.

Before the word one. This chair is larger than that one. (= This chair is larger than that chair.) Before an adjective + noun. I still remember that fateful day in February. A demonstrative can be used alone when the noun is understood. I will never forget that. The Possessives Possessives show who the thing belongs to. The possessive has two forms: Possessive pronouns Examples are: mine, yours, ours, theirs, his, hers and its Possessive adjectives Examples are: my, your, our, his, her, their and it. Notes The possessive adjectives are used to modify a noun.

Jane is my fathers colleague. Susie is his friend.

The possessive pronouns can be the subject or the object of a verb or preposition.

That car is mine. (NOT That car is my.) That is my car. This is my car. Where is yours? (NOT Where is your?)

Determiners Part II
October 9, 2010 Two group B determiners can be put together if the combination makes sense.

We meet every few days. I have seen all seven films directed by him.

When a group B determiner is directly used before a noun, we do not use of.

Have you got any rice? (NOT Have you got any of rice?) Few children came. (NOT Few of children came.) Most people like babies. (NOT Most of people like babies)

But if we have to put a group B determiner before a noun which has a group A determiner (articles, possessives, demonstratives) we use of. Compare:

Few children (Group B determiner + noun) Few of the children (Group B determiner + of + group A determiner + noun) Each boy Each of the boys Neither color Neither of the colors Most shops Most of the shops

In a few cases of can be used directly before a noun even if there is no group A determiner. This, for example, happens with proper nouns such as place names. Most of Wales was under water. The determiners no and every cannot be used before of. Instead we use none and every one. Compare:

No child None of the children Every boy Every one of the boys

We can use all, both and half without of before a noun with a group A determiner.

All my friends OR All of my friends Both my parents OR Both of my parents Half his income OR Half of his income

Of cannot be left out before a pronoun.

All of us (NOT All us)

The determiners each, every, either and neither are followed by singular nouns. But when these determiners are followed by of, the nouns should be plural in number. Compare:

Each boy Each of the boys (NOT Each of the boy) Neither girl Neither of the girls Every girl Every one of the girls

Determiners Part III

October 10, 2010 If we have to put a group B determiner before a pronoun, we use of

Neither of them came. All of us will come.

Group A + Group B The Group B determiners many, most, little, least and few can be used after Group A determiners.

His many ideas A few doubts The most money The least time

Other determiners There are a few determiners that do not fit into group A or B. Examples are: other, such, what, another and only. Other and only are used after group A determiners. Such and what (in exclamations) come before the indefinite article a/an.

My other brother (NOT Other my brother) The other day

The only reason What a pity (NOT A what pity) Such a beautiful girl (NOT A such beautiful girl)

Determiners without nouns Determiners can be used without nouns if the meaning is understood.

Which color do you want? This will do. (= This color will do.) Do you like Hemingways books? I havent read any.

Possessive determiners Possessives (except which and his) have different forms when they are used without nouns. The forms without nouns are: mine, yours, his, hers, theirs, and ours. These are often called possessive pronouns. The possessive forms used with nouns are: my, your, his, her, their and our. Compare:

That is my bag. That bag is mine.

Note The possessives its and ones are not used without nouns.

Position of Adverbs Detailed Rules

October 11, 2010 Different kinds of adverbs go in different positions in a sentence. Here are some general rules. Adverbs cannot go between a verb and its object.

He speaks English well. (NOT He speaks well English.) I often visit my parents. (NOT I visit often my parents.)

An adverb particle (e.g. up, down, off, on etc.) can go between a verb and its object.

She switched off the light. OR She switched the light off.

An adverb can go in three positions:

1. At the beginning of a clause 2. With the verb (mid-position) 3. At the end of the a clause Many adverbs can go in all three positions. Some adverbs can go in mid- and end positions. Longer adverb phrases do not usually go in mid-position. Adverbs that can go at the beginning of a clause Adverbs which join a clause to what came before usually go at the beginning. Examples are: however, then, next, besides, anyway etc.

Some of us wanted to go on a picnic; however, John did not like the idea. He finished his work. Then he went home.

Mid-position is also possible in a formal style.

He then went home. He, however, didnt like the idea.

The adverbs usually, normally, often, frequently, sometimes and occasionally can go at the beginning or end of a clause.

Sometimes I think I should find a better job. Often I get headaches.

Adverbs of place can also go at the beginning of a clause, especially in literary writing.

At the end of the street there was a toy store.

Distributives
October 12, 2010 Each, every, either and neither are distributive adjectives. These are normally used with singular nouns. Position Distributives are placed immediately before the nouns they qualify.

Each boy wore a hat. Neither answer is correct. Every child needs love.

Note Each, either and neither can be used with plural nouns when they are followed by of

Each of the boys wore a hat. Neither of the answers is correct.

Each Each is used when we are talking about the members of a group as individuals.

Each boy was given a watch. Each of the boys was given a watch.

Each and every Each is preferred when we are thinking of people or things separately, one at a time. Every is similar to all. Every is preferred when we are thinking of people or things together.

Each patient went to see the doctor. (In turn) He gave every patient the same medicine.

Either and Neither Either and neither are used to talk about distribution between two things. Either is used in affirmative clauses. Neither is used in negative clauses.

Which shirt do you want? Either shirt will do. I will take either shirt, they are both good. Neither answer is correct. Neither of them came.

Interchange of the degrees of comparison

October 13, 2010 It is possible to change the degree of comparison without changing the meaning of a sentence. Study the following examples.

Positive: I am as strong as him. Comparative: He is not stronger than me.

As you can probably see, both sentences mean the same.

Positive: No other girl in the class is as tall as Alice.

In the sentence given above a comparison is made between Alice and other girls in her class using the positive adjective tall. The same idea can be expressed using the comparative adjective taller and the superlative adjective tallest.

Comparative: Alice is taller than any other girl in the class. superlative: Alice is the tallest girl in the class.

More examples are given below:

Positive: No other metal is as precious as gold. Comparative: Gold is more precious than any other metal. Superlative: Gold is the most precious of all metals. Superlative: India is the largest democracy in the world. Comparative: India is larger than any other democracy in the world. Positive: No other democracy in the world is as large as India. Superlative: Susie is one of the cleverest girls in the class. Comparative: Susie is cleverer than most other girls in the class. Positive: Few girls in the class are as clever as Susie.

Notes We use the comparative to compare one person, thing or group with another person, thing etc. Therefore, the thing that is compared must be excluded from the group of things with which it is compared. This is usually done by using the word other.

Interchange of degrees of comparison part II

October 13, 2010 Study the given sentence:

Iron is more useful than any metal.

The sentence given above doesnt make sense because it means that iron is more useful than iron itself. (When you say any metal it includes iron.). It should, therefore, be rewritten as Iron is more useful than any other metal. More examples are given below:

John is taller than any other boy in the class. (NOT John is taller than any boy in the class.) Shakespeare is greater than any other English poet. (NOT Shakespeare is greater than any English poet.)

The superlative is used to compare somebody or something with the whole group to which he/she/it belongs. Compare:

John is taller than any other boy in the class. (John is excluded from the group.) John is the tallest boy in the class. (John is a part of the group.) He is the best player in the team. (He is part of the team.) He is better than any other player in the team. (He is excluded from the group.)

After superlatives, we do not usually use of with singular nouns.

I am the happiest man in the world. (NOT I am the happiest man of the world.)

However, of can be used before plural nouns or pronouns.

She is the tallest of them all.

Interchange of active and passive voice

October 15, 2010 A sentence in the active form can be changed into the passive form. Similarly a sentence in the passive form can be changed into the active form.

Active: Brutus stabbed Caesar. Passive: Caesar was stabbed by Brutus. Active: The boy killed the spider. Passive: The spider was killed by the boy. Active: The teacher punished the boy. Passive: The boy was punished by the teacher. Active: His behavior vexes me. Passive: I am vexed by his behavior.

Notes When it is clear who the agent (doer of the action) is, it is not necessary to mention it in the passive form. In fact, this omission often makes the sentence look neater.

Active: The audience loudly cheered the Mayors speech.

Passive: The Mayors speech was loudly cheered (by the audience).

The active voice is preferred when the agent (i.e. the person who performs the action) is to be made prominent. The passive voice is preferred when the agent is unknown or when we do not care to mention the agent. The passive form is preferred in the following sentences because the agent is either unknown or unimportant.

Passive: My pocket has been picked. Active: Somebody has picked my pocket. Passive: I shall be obliged to go. Active: Circumstances will oblige me to go. Passive: Promises should be kept. Active: One should keep ones promises.

Grammar Terms Part I

October 17, 2010 Dangling participle The term dangling participle refers to a participle which is not grammatically linked to the rest of the sentence. For example, in the sentence Standing at the gate, a scorpion stung him, the participial phrase standing at the gate is dangling. It appears to be linked (wrongly) to a scorpion. It should therefore be rewritten as: Standing at the gate, he was stung by a scorpion. Dangling participles are not unusual in speech, but in formal writing they are considered inappropriate and should be avoided. Declarative The label declarative refers to the sentence type commonly used to make a statement. The following sentences are examples of declarative sentences:

Susie is a teacher. Ann is my friend. The cat chased the mouse.

Degree The grammatical category which shows the degree to which some quality is present. English adjectives and adverbs show three degrees: the positive, the comparative and the superlative. The adjective or adverb in its base form is in the positive degree. The comparative form is formed with -er or more and the superlative form is formed with -est or most.

Degree modifier A degree modifier is a word used to modify an adjective or adverb. It expresses the degree to which some quality is present. Degree modifiers are used to show the finer distinctions of degree. Examples are: very, too, rather, so, somewhat etc. This book is very useful. She is too fat. I am somewhat convinced. In colloquial English some additional degree modifiers are also used. Examples are: pretty, kind of, sort of, bloody etc. That is pretty good.

Grammar Terms Part II

October 17, 2010 Dialect The label dialect refers to any distinctive speech variety associated with the people of a particular region (regional dialect) or a social group (social dialect). English has a number of regional dialects. The English spoken in London, for example, is somewhat different from the English spoken in New York or Chicago. There are also plenty of social dialects. A taxi driver, for example, does not speak like a school teacher. Even standard English is merely a dialect of English, but it does enjoy a very special status. Direct question A direct question is a sentence which has the form of a question expecting an answer. Examples are: What are you doing? What is the capital of South Africa? Are you going to Susies birthday party? Discourse marker A discourse marker is a word or a phrase which serves chiefly to keep a conversation flowing smoothly. Examples are: yes, so, of course, nevertheless, well etc. A discourse marker is only weakly linked to an adjoining sentence. Sometimes it is not linked at all.

Double negative Any grammatical construction in which two or more negative words appear in a single clause. Double negatives are common in most vernacular forms of English, but it is considered inappropriate in standard English. Note that a double negative is not equivalent to a positive. For example, the sentence I didnt say nothing does not mean that I said something. It merely happens to be a non-standard, yet familiar and understandable way of saying I didnt say anything.

How to join two or more simple sentences into a single complex sentence
October 19, 2010 Method Change one of the simple sentences into a principal clause and the others into subordinate clauses. By using a noun clause A noun clause does the work of a noun. It can act as the subject or the object of the verb in the principal clause.

A good education is essential for success in life. He believes this. He believes that a good education is essential for success in life. Could he depend on the guide? The traveler did not know. The traveler did not know whether he could depend on the guide. He is bent on mischief. It is known to everybody. That he is bent on mischief is known to everybody.

By using an adjective clause An adjective clause does the work of an adjective. It can modify a noun or pronoun in the main clause.

The slave had to fight with a hungry lion. The lion was kept in a cage. The slave had to fight with a hungry lion which was kept in a cage. He is a prince. Trouble had driven him from home. He is a prince whom trouble had driven from home.

By using an adverb clause An adverb clause does the work of an adverb. It can modify a verb, an adjective or another adverb in the main clause.

He got the first prize. He was happy. He was happy when he got the first prize. He was happy because he got the first prize. Jack fought very well. As a result of that the captain asked him to join his band of soldiers. Jack fought so well that the captain asked him to join his band of soldiers. He worked hard. His goal was to gain promotion. He worked hard that he might gain promotion.

Sequence of tenses
October 22, 2010 The verb in the subordinate clause changes its tense in accordance with the tense of the verb in the main clause. This principle chiefly applies to adverb clauses of purpose and noun clauses. Here are the basic rules 1. A past tense in the principal clause is usually followed by a past tense in the subordinate clause.

She said that she would come. I realized that I had made a mistake. I worked hard that I might succeed. I found out that he was guilty.

There are a few exceptions to this rule. A past tense in the principal clause may be followed by a present tense in the subordinate clause when the subordinate clause expresses a universal truth.

The teacher said that honesty is the best policy. (NOT The teacher said that honesty was the best policy.) Galileo maintained that the earth moves around the sun.

When the subordinate clause is introduced by than, it may be in any tense even if the verb in the main clause is in the past tense.

He loved me more than he loves his own children. He loved me more than he loved his own children. He loved me more than he will love his own children.

A present or future tense in the principal clause may be followed by any tense in the subordinate clause.

He says that she was at the club. He says that she is at the club. He says that she will be at the club. He will say that she was at the club. He will say that she is at the club. He will say that she will be at the club.

Notes When the verb in the main clause is in the future tense, we often use a present tense in the subordinate clause to refer to future time.

I will call you when he comes. (NOT I will call you when he will come.)

Question Tags
October 22, 2010 Question tags are the small questions that often come at the end of sentences. Question tags are common in speech and informal writing. They are unusual in formal writing.

It is very hot, isnt it? She can swim, cant she? She sings well, doesnt she?

In question tags negatives are usually contracted, but full forms are possible in formal speech.

Thats the postman, isnt it? (Informal) They said they would finish the work in six months, did they not? (Formal)

Question tags are used to check whether something is true, or to ask for agreement. Negative after affirmative, and vice versa

Question tags are used after affirmative and negative sentences. They are not used after questions. Compare:

You are the new Chairman, arent you? You arent the new Chairman, are you? (BUT NOT Are you the new Chairman, arent you?)

To check information or ask for agreement, we most often put negative tags after affirmative sentences, and non-negative tags after negative sentences.

Its cold, isnt it? (NOT is it?) It isnt very cold, is it? (NOT isnt it?)

Auxiliaries If the main sentence has an auxiliary verb, this is repeated in the question tag.

You arent busy, are you? She cant swim, can she? They didnt come, did they? We shouldnt wait, should we?

If the main sentence has no auxiliary, the question tag has do.

You like fish, dont you? He likes fish, doesnt he? She came, didnt she?

Tenses Quiz 1
October 24, 2010 Fill in the blanks with the correct form of the verb. 1. I waited for my friend until he a) came b) had come c) comes d) will come. 2. He ran as quickly as he a) can b) could c) may b) might 3. He went where he - find work. a) will b) can

c) could d) shall 4. As he was not there, I - to his brother. a) speak b) spoke c) was speaking d) will not speak 5. He finished first though he - late. a) would start b) started c) start d) starts 6. Just as he the room the clock struck seven. a) enter b) entered c) will enter d) enters 7. Answer the first question before you - any further. a) proceed b) proceeded c) will proceed d) would proceed 8. I forgive you since you a) repent b) repented c) will repent d) would repent 9. He because he was in a hurry. a) runs b) ran c) run d) had run 10. He stayed at home because he feeling ill. a) is b) was c) were d) had Answers 1. came 2. could 3. could 4. spoke 5. started 6. entered 7. proceed 8. repent

9. ran 10. Was

Abbreviation, Acronym and Initialism

October 25, 2010 Abbreviation The label abbreviation refers to the practice of writing a word or phrase that could also be written out in full using only the letters of the alphabet. Examples are: Mr for mister, Dr for doctor and Capt for captain. In British English full stops are uncommon after abbreviations that contain the first and last letters of the full expression. Examples are: Dr and Mr In American English, full stops are common, and Mr. and Dr. are preferred. An abbreviation usually does not have a distinct pronunciation of its own: we pronounce Mr as mister and Dr as doctor. There are, nevertheless, a few exceptions to this rule. For example, the abbreviation p. for pence is sometimes pronounced as pee. Acronym An acronym is a word constructed from the initial letters of the main words in a phrase. Examples are: LASER and SCUBA. An acronym can be pronounced as a word and it has the same meaning as the original phrase. SCUBA for Self Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus LASER for Light Amplification by the Stimulated Emission of Radiation NATO for North Atlantic Treaty Organization Initialism An intialism is a word constructed from the initial letters of the principal words in a phrase. It is formed in the same way as an acronym but cannot be pronounced as a word. Examples are: BBC for British Broadcasting Corporation and UNO for United Nations Organization.

Grammar terms beginning with letter A

October 25, 2010 Absolute comparative The label absolute comparative refers to a comparative form used without a standard of comparison. Example: the younger generation. There is no answer to the question younger than who? Absolute construction

A phrase which has no grammatical link of any kind to the sentence containing it. An absolute construction is linked to the sentence only by meaning and intonation. In the following examples, the italicized phrases are absolute constructions.

The day being rainy, we decided to stay home. The two men, their business concluded, went back.

Adjectival The label adjectival applies to any word or phrase which modifies a noun in the same way that an adjective does. In the following examples the bold italic item is adjectival.

My new phone (An adjective phrase consisting only of an adjective) A very long journey (An adjective phrase containing a degree modifier and an adjective) The woman you are talking about (Here the adjectival is a relative clause.)

Adjunct Any part of a sentence which can be removed without leaving behind an ungrammatical fragment. In the sentence I met an old friend of mine yesterday, the words old and yesterday are adjuncts since they can be removed without producing ungrammaticality. Note that an adjunct is always an adverbial of some kind. Adverbial A label applied to any linguistic item that behaves like an adverb. An adverbial may be an adverb phrase, a prepositional phrase or an adverbial clause.

Question Tags Advanced Points

October 26, 2010 The question tag for I am is arent I?

I am late, arent I? (NOT amnt I?)

Imperatives can be followed by will you / would you / can you / cant you / could you?

Keep quiet, cant you? Give me a hand, would you? Open a window, will you?

After a negative imperative, we use will you?

Dont forget, will you?

The question tag for lets is shall we?

Lets go for a walk, shall we?

Negative words Sentences containing negative words like never, no, nobody, hardly, scarcely and little are followed by non-negative question tags.

You never let me finish a sentence, do you? (NOT dont you?) She hardly steps out of her home, does she? There is little we can do about it, is there?

It is used in question tags to refer back to nothing and everything.

Everything is alright, isnt it? (NOT isnt everything?)

We use they in question tags to refer to nobody, somebody, everybody, no one etc.

Nobody came, did they?

After have When have is used as a principal verb, question tags with both have and do are possible in British English. Do is more common in American English.

She has a boyfriend, hasnt / doesnt she?

Easily confused words Quiz 1

October 27, 2010 Confusing words are words that are very similar in spelling or pronunciation. Choose the correct word to complete each sentence. Each question has only one correct answer. 1. The speaker made several to mythology in his speech. a) Illusions b) Allusions 2. We must make every effort to - a Third World War. a) Avert b) Invert 3. He has great for his daughter. a) Affection b) Affectation 4. He is an - rogue. a) Artful b) Artificial 5. Success often depends on a persons ability to himself / herself to changing circumstances.

a) Adapt b) Adopt 6. I hate in speech or manner. a) Affection b) Affectation 7. The writer has failed to support his arguments with quotations. a) Apposite b) Opposite 8. She looked lovely in her dress. a) Bridle b) Bridal 9. A childs mind requires - surroundings to develop well. a) Congenital b) Congenial 10. He is to violent methods. a) Averse b) Adverse 11. I can - the bare principles of the Special Theory of Relativity, but I cant the full implications of that theory. a) Apprehend, comprehend b) Comprehend, apprehend 12. Her - qualities endear her to everybody. a) Amiable b) Amicable Answers 1. Allusions 2. Avert 3. Affection 4. Artful 5. Adapt 6. Affectation 7. Apposite 8. Bridal 9. Congenial 10. Averse 11. Apprehend, comprehend 12. Amiable

Grammar terms adverb, adverb phrases, adverb clauses and adverbial participles
October 28, 2010 Adverbs

Adverbs are words like slowly, happily, here, now and tomorrow. An adverb usually modifies a verb and provides more information about the manner, time, place or circumstances of the activity denoted by the verb or verb phrase. An adverb may also modify an adjective or another adverb. Most adverbs can be modified by degree modifiers: slowly, very, rather, too etc.

She drove very slowly. He drove rather carelessly.

Most adverbs form their comparative and superlative forms with more and most.

Slowly; more slowly; most slowly Carefully; more carefully; most carefully

Adverb clause Any subordinate clause which behaves like an adverb. An adverb clause may express place, time, manner, cause, purpose, concession or circumstance. Adverbial participle An adverbial participle is a kind of non-finite verb phrase. It behaves like an adverb with respect to the rest of the sentence and is headed by a participle. In the following examples, the bold italic items are adverbial participles.

Undeterred by the setbacks, she persevered. Arriving a little late, I couldnt meet him.

Adverb phrase A phrase built around an adverb. An adverb phrase acts in the same way as an adverb. Examples are: slowly, now, very soon, rather, rather cunningly etc. The simplest type of adverb phrase is a bare adverb. Adverb preposing The construction in which an adverb occurs at the beginning of a sentence.

Outside the strong wind howled. Sometimes koalas grunt. Wildly she rushed into the room.

Antecedent and Anaphor

October 29, 2010 An antecedent is a linguistic expression which provides the interpretation for a second expression (anaphor) which has little meaning of its own. An antecedent is usually a noun phrase. In the examples given below, the first bold item is the antecedent and the second is the anaphor referring to it.

If you see Alice, give her my love. (Antecedent Alice; anaphor her) She ran into her room. (Antecedent She; anaphor her) John injured himself playing cricket. (Antecedent John; anaphor himself)

An antecedent usually comes before its anaphor. Occasionally it follows its anaphor.

If you see her, give Alice my love.

An anaphor that precedes its antecedent is sometimes called a cataphor. It is possible for the antecedent and its anaphor to be in different sentences.

Alice is my sister. She is an architect. (Antecedent Alice; anaphor she)

It is possible for an antecedent to be a verb phrase, an adjective phrase or a prepositional phrase.

She asked me to post the letter and I did it. (Here the antecedent is the verb phrase post the letter) I thought she was in the room, but I didnt find her there. (Here the antecedent is the prepositional phrase in the room)

The antecedent can also be a complete sentence.

Alice: John is getting married. Peter: Who told you that?

Here the anaphor that refers to the entire sentence John is getting married.

How to improve your vocabulary?

October 30, 2010 There are several ways to improve and expand your English vocabulary. Reading, for example, is great way to learn new words. There are plenty of other methods too. Create Vocabulary Themes

Vocabulary themes are a great way to enrich your vocabulary. Create themes that include words, their definition and example sentences. Watch English films Watch English TV channels and films. They will help you to understand native English speakers. You will also learn many new words used in context. Use Specific Vocabulary Lists Instead of studying a long list of unrelated words, use specific vocabulary lists that will help you learn the kind of vocabulary you need for your work or school. Word Formation Charts Use word formation charts. Knowing how words are formed will help you score high marks in advanced level examinations like TOEFL and IELTS. A word formation chart will show the noun, adjective, verb and other forms of the key words in alphabetical order. Visual Dictionaries Visual dictionaries are great tools for learning vocabulary. Plenty of English learner visual dictionaries are available on the internet. Learn Collocations Collocations are common word combinations that always go together. Learning some of the most important collocations is essential to sound natural. Tips: Instead of learning a large number of words which you may never use, learn the vocabulary you need to study. Dont make random word lists. Try to group them in themes. This will help you memorize them more quickly. It is easy to learn new words when you add context to them. Write a few example sentences using the new words you have learned. This will help you learn these words in context. Keep a notepad in hand when you are reading something in English. Write down unfamiliar words and look them up in a dictionary.

Some useful spelling rules

October 31, 2010 Rule 1 When a weak verb ends in a short vowel + consonant, the final consonant is not doubled to form the past tense, unless the accent falls on the last syllable. Budget budgeted (NOT budgetted)

Offer offered (NOT offerred) Benefit benefited (NOT benefitted)

Notes Worship is an exception to this rule. Its past tense is formed by doubling the final consonant.

Worship worshipped (NOT worshiped)

If the accent falls on the last syllable, the consonant is doubled even if the word ends in a short vowel + consonant. So we have

Occur occurred (NOT Occured) Transfer transferred (NOT transfered) Begin beginning (NOT begining)

If the final consonant is l, it is always doubled.

Travel travelled Level leveled

Parallel is an exception to this rule. Its past tense is paralleled (NOT parallelled). Nowadays traveled is also considered correct. Rule 2 Short monosyllables always double their final consonant.

Shop shopping Let letting

ie and ei The general rule is i before e except after c.

Examples are: siege, believe, friend But receive, deceive, ceiling etc.

There are several exceptions to this rule.

Reign, neighbor, heir, seize, leisure, weird

Dis and mis Never double the s of these prefixes. When a second s occurs it is the first letter of the next syllable. Examples are: dismiss (not dissmiss), misplace (not missplace) dissent (dis-sent), misspell (mis-spell) us and ous Nouns end in us. Adjectives end in ous. So we have:

Census, genius (nouns) Jealous, tremendous,

Useful Spelling Rules Part II

November 2, 2010 se and ce; sy and cy When two words, verb and noun, are spelt alike, se and sy are verb endings; ce and cy are noun endings. The following are therefore verbs: license, practise, prophesy, advise. The following are nouns: licence, practice, prophecy, advice Promise is an exception to this rule. It is a noun. This rule does not hold good when verb and noun are not spelt alike, so suspense and hypocrisy are nouns. The final e 1. When followed by ment Till recently the final e was dropped from words ending in dge. Example: judgment

Nowadays, it is not necessary to drop the final e before ment. So you can write judgement, acknowledgement, arrangement and advertisement. (See The Concise Oxford Dictionary) 2. The final e must be dropped before able.

Move; movable (NOT moveable) Like; likable (NOT likeable)

The exceptions are words ending in ge and ce. For instance

Change; changeable (NOT changable) Peace; peaceable (NOT peacable)

3. The final e is also dropped before ous, age or ish.

Virtue; virtuous Mile; milage (occasionally still: mileage) Blue; bluish

Courage is an exception to this rule. We write courageous and not couragous. 4. The final e is always dropped before ing except when it is preceded by a vowel with which it forms one sound.

Love; loving Like; liking See; seeing (Here the final e and the preceding vowel forms one sound.) Dye; Dyeing (Here the final e and the preceding y forms one sound.)

Words ending in c and ck Words ending in c take k after the c before adding edor ing. Examples:

Frolic; frolicked Mimic; mimicked

Spelling : capital letters

November 2, 2010 Capital letters are used at the beginning of the following kinds of words.

1. the names of days, months and public holidays. The names of seasons do not usually begin with capital letters.

Sunday; Monday; Friday January; March, August Christmas; Easter; summer; autumn; winter; spring

2. the names of people and places, including stars and planets

John; Mary; Alice India; Tokyo; Paris; Singapore Jupiter; Mars; Neptune (But the earth, the sun and the moon)

3. peoples titles

Mr Smith; Dr James; the Chairman; the Managing Director

4. nouns and adjectives referring to nationalities and regions, languages, religions and ethnic groups

He is French. She is Spanish. He is a Sikh. Chinese history

5. the first word in the title of books, magazines, plays, pictures, magazines etc. Sometimes other nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs in the title also begin with capital letters.

The Adventures of Tom Sawyer or The adventures of Tom Sawyer Gone with the Wind OR Gone with the wind

Spelling :-ly We normally change an adjective into an adverb by adding -ly.

Late lately Real really Right rightly Definite definitely Hopeful hopefully Complete completely

Exceptions

There are some exceptions to this rule.

True truly (NOT truely) Full fully (NOT fullly) Due duly (NOT duely)

Y and I The final -y in an adjective changes to -i- before adding -ly.

Happy happily Merry merrily Easy easily

Adjectives ending in consonant + le -le changes to -ly after a consonant

Idle idly Noble nobly

Adjectives ending in -ic Adjectives ending in -ic, have adverbs ending in -ically.

Tragic tragically Phonetic phonetically

Exception

Public publicly

Hyphens
November 3, 2010 Hyphens are the short lines that separate the words in the expressions non-English and exhusband. When to use hyphens? We usually use a hyphen between the two words in a two-part adjective in which the second part ends in -ed or -ing.

Good-looking

Broken-hearted Blue-eyed

Two-part adjectives which contain the sense of between are also hyphenated.

the India-Pakistan match (= the match between India and Pakistan) the Anglo-French agreement

A longer phrase used as an adjective before a noun is also hyphenated. Compare:

An out-of-work singer He is out of work. (NOT He is out-of-work.)

Prefixes The prefixes co-, non- and ex- are sometimes separated from the following words by hyphens.

Ex-lover Non-cooperation Co-production

Hyphens are also used to separate the parts of a long word at the end of a written or printed line. To see where to divide words look in a good dictionary. Are hyphens disappearing? The rules about the usage of hyphens are very complicated. Needless to say, people seem to be using hyphens less. Many short compound words are now written with no separation between the two parts. Examples are: weekend, takeover etc. Many longer compound words are now written as completely separate words. Examples are: bus driver, living room etc. It is also not unusual to find the same word written in three different ways. Example: livingroom, living room, livingroom If you do not know whether to use a hyphen or not, the best thing to do is to write the words without a hyphen.

Words ending in ar, er, or, our, re, ure, ur

November 5, 2010 The pronunciation of these different terminations is often very similar. In fact, it is not easy to decide when to use one or another. The lists given below give some common words ending in each of these terminations and these should be learned by heart. Note that this is not an exhaustive list. Words ending in -ar Pillar, scholar, calendar, vicar, particular, pedlar, beggar, solar, grammar, circular, similar, altar Words ending in -er Miner, traveller, saddler, conjurer (or conjuror) Robber, summer, alter, clever, character, prisoner Leather, manner, messenger, villager, farmer, meter, tiger, interpreter Words ending in -or Minor, impostor, inventor, traitor, debtor, surveyor, actor, tailor Doctor, ancestor, governor, emperor, sailor, author Professor, visitor, liquor, director Words ending in -our -Our is the common termination of abstract nouns. Endeavour, humour, hour, vigour, rigour, valour Colour, ardour, candour, demeanour Words ending in -re Centre, massacre, theatre, sombre, calibre, metre Sceptre, manoeuvre Words ending in -ure Leisure, signature, manufacture, agriculture

Literature, imposture, nature, venture, enclosure, miniature Words ending in -ur Murmur, sulphur, augur Words ending in ceed and cede Common words ending in these terminations are given below and students should add to this list as they come across fresh examples. -ceed Proceed, exceed, succeed -cede Accede, precede, concede, intercede, secede Note the spelling of supersede Notes A number of words end in -or in American English and -our in British English. Examples are: color and humor (US). Similarly some words end in -er in American and -re in British English. Examples are: center and meter (US)

-ing form or infinitive?

November 6, 2010 Some adjectives and verbs can be followed by either a gerund (-ing form) or an infinitive. I started teaching when I was 20. OR I started to teach when I was 20. She was proud of having won. OR She was proud to have won. Notes In some cases there is a difference meaning. Remember / forget + -ing Remember and forget are usually followed by -ing forms in the structures I will never forget ing or I will always remember ing.

I will never forget winning my first national award. I still remember buying my first car. When remember or forget is followed by an infinitive, it usually refers to things one has or had to do at the moment of speaking. I forgot to post the letter. (NOT I forgot posting the letter.) Remember to call me when you arrive. Go on When go on is followed by an -ing form, it means continue. He went on talking about his exploits until I went to sleep. Regret + -ing form Regret is followed by an -ing form when it refers back to the past. I regret quitting my job it was a stupid thing to do. Regret + infinitive is usually used in announcements of bad news. We regret to say that we cannot help you at the moment. Advise, allow, permit and forbid The verbs advise, allow, permit and forbid are followed by -ing forms if there is no object. If there is an object, we use an infinitive. Compare: We dont allow / permit smoking in the kitchen. We dont allow / permit people to smoke in the kitchen.

-ing form or infinitive part II

November 7, 2010 See, watch and hear After these verbs, an -ing form refers to an action in progress. An infinitive refers to a completed action. Note that these verbs are followed by an infinitive without to.

When I looked out, I saw him crossing the road. (He was in the middle of the action.) I saw him get off the bus, cross the road and disappear in the crowd. (I watched the whole action.)

Try Try + -ing form is used to talk about making an experiment.

Susie is in a foul mood. Try sending her some flowers.

Try + infinitive is used to talk about making an effort to do something difficult.

I tried to stand up, but I couldnt.

Like, love, hate and prefer After these four verbs, infinitives and -ing forms have similar meanings.

I like reading detective novels. I like to read detective novels. I hate working late in the evening. I hate to work late in the evening.

After would like, would love, would prefer and would hate, infinitives are more common than -ing forms.

I would like to know what my duty is. (NOT I would like knowing what my duty is.)

Afraid Afraid of + -ing form is used to talk about fear of things that happen accidentally.

I didnt make any noise, because I was afraid of waking the children.

In other cases afraid can be followed by an infinitive or -ing form with no difference in meaning.

I am not afraid of telling the truth. OR I am not afraid to tell the truth.

Tagged as: -ing form, gerund, infinitive

The question words who, which and what

November 8, 2010 Which and what There is little difference of meaning between which and what. They are often both possible.

Which is your favorite song? OR What is your favorite song?

Which writer / what writer has influenced you most in your life?

We prefer which when the number of choices is limited.

We have got small or large eggs. Which will you have? (More natural than What will you have?)

What is preferred when the number of choices is unlimited.

What is your phone number? (More natural than Which is your phone number?) What is your name? (NOT Which is your name?)

With Determiners What and which are usually used to ask about things.

What would you like for breakfast? Do what you think is right.

Before nouns, which and what can be used to ask questions about both things and people.

What books have you read on this subject? What time is it? What authors do you like best? Which teacher do you like best? Which way shall we go? Tell me which books on my shelf you would like to borrow.

Before a noun with a determiner (e.g. the, my, this etc.), we use which of. Who and what are not normally used with of.

Which of your teachers do you like best? (NOT Who of / what of your teachers do you like best?)

Who, what and which as pronouns When these words are used as pronouns, without nouns immediately after them, we generally use who for people.

Who won John or Peter? (NOT Which won John or Peter?) Who is she going out with?

Notes Which can be used in questions about peoples identity and what can be used in questions about peoples jobs and functions.

Which is your boy? The one in blue shirt. What is your husband? He is a doctor.

Spelling and Pronunciation

November 9, 2010 Words ending in -ize and -ise In British English some words can be spelt with either -ize or -ise. In American English, the forms with -ize is more common. Examples are given below: British English

Realize / realise Computerize / computerise Mechanize / mechanise Baptize / baptise

American English

Realize Mechanize Computerize Baptize

Most words of two or more syllables have -ise in both British and American English. Examples are:

Surprise, revise, exercise, advise, comprise, despise, compromise, improvise, supervise, televise, advertise

Notes: In American English, advertize is also possible. If in doubt, remember that -ise is almost always correct in British English. Spelling and pronunciation In English, spelling words is not easy. In fact, even native English speakers often find it difficult to spell words correctly. This is mainly because the pronunciation of many English words has

changed over the last few hundred years. The spelling system, on the other hand, has stayed more or less the same. Here is a list of some common words that often cause difficulty. In the following words the letters in brackets are not pronounced.

Ev(e)ning Asp(i)rin Bus(i)ness Choc(o)late Diff(e)rent Ev(e)ry Marri(a)ge Om(e)lette Rest(au)rant Sev(e)ral Med(i)cine

The following four syllable words are usually pronounced like three syllable words. The letters in brackets are usually not pronounced.

Comf(or)table Int(e)resting Temp(e)rature Us(u)ally Veg(e)table

Silent letters In the following words b is silent.

Climb, comb, dumb

In the following words d is silent.

Handkerchief, sandwich, Wednesday

The gh is silent in the following words.

Bought, caught, ought, thought, daughter, height, high, light, might, neighbour, right, sight, tight, straight, through, weigh

In the following words h is silent

What, when, whip, why, honest, hour, honour

Verbs with two objects

November 10, 2010 Many English verbs take two objects one direct object and one indirect object. The direct object usually refers to an object. The indirect object usually refers to a person and comes first.

He gave his daugther a camera for Christmas. (Indirect object his daughter, direct object camera) Could you lend me some money? (Indirect object me, direct object money) Let me get you a cup of coffee. (Indirect object you, direct object a cup of coffee)

Some common verbs which can be followed by two objects are given below: Bring, buy, cost, get, give, leave, lend, make, offer, owe, pass, pay, play, promise, read, refuse, send, show, sing, take, teach, tell, wish, write Position of the direct and indirect objects The indirect object usually comes before the direct object. We can also put the indirect object after the direct object. When the indirect object comes after the direct object, it usually has the preposition to or for before it.

She sent the flowers for me, not for you. I handed my credit card to the salesman.

When both objects are pronouns When both objects are pronouns, it is common to put the indirect object last. In informal style, to is occasionally dropped after it.

Lend them to her. Send some to him.

It is also possible to put the indirect object first.

Send him some.

The verbs explain, suggest and describe The verbs explain, suggest and describe are not used with the structure indirect object + direct object.

Please explain your decision to us.

Can you suggest a good cardiologist to me? (NOT Can you suggest me a good cardiologist?)

One object or two Some verbs can be followed by either a direct object, or an indirect object, or both.

I asked him. I asked a question. I asked him a question.

What is an appositive?
November 12, 2010 The label appositive refers to a noun phrase which immediately follows another noun phrase of identical reference. An appositive is usually non-restrictive which means that it only gives additional information about the first noun phrase whose reference in quite clear. In writing a non-restrictive appositive is set off by commas. The phrases set off by commas in the following sentences are examples of non-restrictive appositives.

Mexico City, the largest city in the Americas, is heavily polluted. (Here the noun phrase the largest city in the Americas is used in apposition to the noun phrase Mexico City.) Alice, my neighbour, has seven cats. Tagore, the great poet, is the first Asian to win the Nobel Prize for literature.

An appositive can be easily removed from a sentence without leaving behind anything ungrammatical. The sentence Alice has seven cats, for example, is both grammatical and sensible. An appositive can also be restrictive, although it is not very common. A restrictive appositive is required for the identification of the reference of the first noun phrase. A restrictive appositive is not set off by commas in writing. An example is Tagore in the sentence I am writing a biography of the poet Tagore. Here removing Tagore will make it impossible to interpret the meaning of the sentence.

Prepositions Quiz
November 12, 2010 Although prepositions are small words they are very important ones and their correct usage shows your mastery over the language. Complete the following sentences using the most appropriate preposition. 1. He is very sensitive - criticism.

a) at b) to c) for d) in 2. The Japanese are used - periodic cyclones and earthquakes. a) to b) in c) at d) for 3. He is wanting sympathy and understanding. a) in b) at c) for d) with 4. I warned him her treachery. a) against b) with c) on d) from 5. We will not yield such temptations. a) to b) in c) on d) at 6. He has a zest adventure. a) for b) in c) on d) at 7. I am sure passing this time. a) in b) for

c) of d) at 8. As she was ill, we send a doctor. a) with b) for c) out d) in 9. I am thankful to you your co-operation. a) to b) for c) with d) at 10. He is worthy our reverence and esteem. a) of b) at c) for d) with 11. I am tired repeating this. a) with b) at c) of d) by 12. I am suspicious - his true intentions. a) with b) of c) in d) for Answers 1. b) to 2. a) to 3. a) in 4. a) against

5. a) to 6. a) for 7. c) of 8. b) for 9. b) for 10. a) of 11. c) of 12. b) of

There as an introductory subject

November 14, 2010 In English the most common way of indicating existence is by using the structure there + to be. Though there is an adverb of place the introductory there has no adverbial sense. It is merely used to introduce the sentence. Consider the sentence There are two men in the room. This sentence may also be written as Two men are in the room. Normally the first form is preferred, though the subject is two men. More examples are given below.

There is a bridge over the river. There is a way out. There is no such thing. There is no denying the fact that she did it. There is no knowing when he will return.

In the last two sentences we use a peculiar structure after there + be no + gerund which shows impossibility.

There is no denying the fact that she did it. = It is impossible to deny the fact that she did it. There is no knowing when he will return. = It is impossible to know when he will return.

Notes The sentence There is no question of going back on it is not correct in standard English. But you can say, Going back on it is out of question. Introductory there can also be used with some intransitive verbs.

There arose a dispute about the ownership of the property.

There grew a strange relationship between them.

Sometimes the introductory there is used with an intransitive verb + to be.

There seems to be some misunderstanding between them.

What are copular verbs?

November 15, 2010 A copular verb is a special kind of verb used to join an adjective or noun complement to a subject. Common examples are: be (is, am, are, was, were), appear, seem, look, sound, smell, taste, feel, become and get. A copular verb expresses either that the subject and its complement denote the same thing or that the subject has the property denoted by its complement. For example in the sentence Peter is my boyfriend the copular verb is asserts that Peter and my boyfriend are the same person whereas in the sentence Peter is British the copular verb is assigns the quality of Britishness to Peter. More examples are given below.

Honey is sweet. (Here the copular verb is assigns the quality of sweetness to honey.) The stew smells good. The milk turned sour. The night grew dark. She became a writer.

After copular verbs we use adjectives, not adverbs. Compare:

She spoke intelligently. (Here the adverb intelligently modifies the ordinary verb spoke.) She appears intelligent. (NOT She appears intelligently. Appears is a copular verb. It should be followed by an adjective, not an adverb.)

The copular verbs like become, get, grow, go, turn, stay, remain, keep etc., are used to talk about change or the absence of change.

I am becoming older. I am getting older. I am growing older. The leaves are going yellow. The leaves are turning yellow.

What are complements?

November 16, 2010 The label complement is applied to several different things. A subject complement A subject complement is a word or phrase which follows a copular verb. It either modifies the subject or denotes something identical to the subject. The bold italic items in the following sentences are examples of subject complements.

Jane is an advocate. Susie became a travel writer. I am very excited. Alice is in the office.

Object complement An object complement is a phrase which follows a direct object. An object complement either modifies the object or denotes something identical to it.

I consider hang-gliding dangerous. They appointed him monitor.

The complement of an adjective or a noun is a word or phrase which directly follows it. Read the following sentences:

He is fond of his grand children. (Here the phrase of his grand children is the complement of the adjective fond.) Lets get a bottle of wine. (Here the phrase of wine is the complement of the noun bottle.)

Notes The complement of a preposition is the same as the object of a preposition.

The cat is on the roof. (Here the phrase the roof is the complement of the preposition on. It is also the object of the preposition on.)

The complement of a verb is the same as the object of a verb.

Jane bought a new car. (Here the phrase a new car is the complement of the verb bought. It is also the object of the verb bought.)

Grammar Terms Conditional Sentence, Conjugation, Conjunct, Coordinate structure

November 17, 2010 Conditional is a traditional label for the modal auxiliary verbs would and should when they do not express obligation. The name is given because sentences with these auxiliary verbs often imply an unstated condition. For example, the sentence I would like a drink appears to imply something like If I had a choice. In practice, however, it is merely a polite way of asking for a drink. Conditional sentences Any sentence of the form if(then) is a conditional sentence. There are basically two kinds of conditional sentences. In an open conditional sentence the fulfilment of the condition is real and possible. Examples are given below:

If I get a promotion, I will buy a car. If you heat ice, it melts. You will have to work hard if you want to succeed.

In a counterfactual conditional, the condition is seen as contrary to fact.

If you spoke better English, you could get a good job. (Here we are talking about unreal conditions because the person doesnt speak English well.)

Conjugation The label conjugation refers to the practice of changing the form of a verb for grammatical purposes. For example, the English verb write may appear as any of write, writes, wrote, written or writing, depending upon its grammatical position in a sentence. Conjunct The label applied to an adverbial which connects its sentence to neighbouring sentences. Examples are: moreover, nevertheless, however, finally etc.

Coordinate structure Any grammatical construction in which two or more grammatical units are connected with a conjunction like and, or or yet.

Comma
November 18, 2010 The punctuation mark comma (,) has the following uses. To connect the items in a list Commas are used to connect the items in a list, except for the last two which are usually connected by a coordinating conjunction like and or or.

My favorite writers are Charles Dickens, Emily Bronte and Jane Austen. The Three Musketeers were Arthos, Porthos and Aramis.

To join two complete sentences into a single sentence A comma is used to join two complete sentences into a single sentence. It is usually followed by a connecting word like and, but, or, while or yet.

She had very little to live on, but she would never take what was not hers.

Notes Short clauses connected by and, but or or are not usually separated by commas.

She is poor but she is honest. (NOT She is poor, but she is honest.)

To show that certain words have been omitted A comma can be used to show that certain words have been omitted.

Alice decided to order to steak pie and Peter, the chicken pathia. (The omitted words are decided to order.)

Subordinate clauses When subordinate clauses begin sentences, they are often separated by commas.

When the rain stopped, we went out. OR We went out when the rain stopped.

Commas are also used to set off words or expressions that interrupt the natural progression of a sentence

My friends, however, did not come. John had, surprisingly, did everything.

Comma Part II
November 19, 2010 To separate adjectives used in the predicative position Adjectives used in the predicative position are always separated by commas.

He is tall, dark and handsome. That was a lovely, long, cool drink.

Sometimes commas are not used between the last two adjectives which are usually separated by a conjunction like and or or. Commas are sometimes dropped between short adjectives. In direct speech A comma is generally used between a reporting verb and a piece of direct speech.

Looking at the painting, she said, I like this one.

If the reporting verb follows a piece of direct speech, we usually use a comma instead of a full stop before the closing quotation mark.

I dont like this, said Jane.

Numbers Large numbers are often divided into groups of three figures by using commas. Examples are:

5,768 (NOT 5.768) 6, 567, 873

Commas are sometimes not used in four figure numbers.

5,378 or 5378

Commas are never used in dates.

The Year 1953 (NOT The Year 1,953)

Cases where commas are not used Commas are not used before that, what, where etc in indirect speech structures.

Nobody realized that the child was missing. (NOT Nobody realized, that the child ) She didnt know what to do. (NOT She didnt know, what to do.)

Commas are not used between two grammatically independent sentences. Instead we use a full stop or a semicolon.

The blue dress was cheap. On the other hand, the pink dress was better. OR The blue dress was cheap; on the other hand, the pink dress was better. (NOT The blue dress was cheap, on the other hand, )

Punctuation: Colon
November 20, 2010 The colon (:) marks a bigger pause than that is expressed by the semicolon. It is sometimes used with a dash after it.

We cancelled our decision to go on a holiday: we had too little money. Jane had to be hospitalized: she had heart trouble.

Direct speech A colon is used when famous sayings are quoted.

Bacon says: Reading makes a full man, writing an exact man, speaking a ready man.

A colon is also used when direct speech is introduced by a name. Polonius: What do you read, my lord? Hamlet: Words, words, words. In other cases, direct speech is usually introduced by a comma.

Peter looked at the photo and said, Who is this beautiful girl?

Lists

A colon can introduce a list.

The three tenses are: the present tense, the past tense and the future tense. We need three kinds of support: financial, political and moral.

In a title or heading, a colon is often used to introduce a subdivision of a subject.

Tenses: the present tense Punctuation: colon

Capital letters In British English, we do not normally use a capital letter after a colon. In American English, colons are more often followed by capital letters.

Verbs: transitive verbs (GB) Verbs: Transitive verbs (US)

Letters In letters Americans usually put a colon after the opening salutation. Dear Mr. Mathews: I am writing to British people prefer a comma in this case. Sometimes they do not use any punctuation mark at all. Dear Mr Mathews, I am writing to

Present progressive and simple present: differences

November 21, 2010 Long lasting situations The present progressive is not normally used to talk about long lasting or permanent situations. Instead, we use the simple present.

My sister lives abroad. (Long lasting or permanent situation) She is living with me at the moment. (Temporary situation) Who is that boy standing at the gate? (Temporary situation)

A big castle stands on the hill. (Permanent situation)

Repeated actions We often use the present progressive to talk about repeated actions and events.

Why is he hitting the dog?

We do not normally use the present progressive to talk about repeated actions that arent happening around the moment of speaking. Compare:

The water is boiling. (=The water is boiling at the moment of speaking.) Water boils at 100 degree Celsius. (NOT Water is boiling at )

Physical feelings Many verbs that refer to physical feelings (e.g. feel, hurt, ache etc.) can be used in simple or progressive tenses without much difference of meaning.

I feel fine. OR I am feeling fine. My tooth aches. OR My tooth is aching.

Verbs not used in the progressive Some verbs are not normally used in progressive forms. Examples are: believe, doubt, imagine, know, like, dislike, love, hate, prefer, realise, recognise, remember, suppose, understand, want, wish, seem, sound, hear, see, smell, taste etc.

I like this color. (NOT I am liking this color.) I dont believe this. (NOT I am not believing this.)

Using Perfect Infinitives

November 22, 2010 The structure have + past participle is called a perfect infinitive. Perfect infinitives can have the same kind of meaning as perfect or past tenses.

I am glad to have found my soul mate. (= I am glad that I have found my soul mate.) She was sorry to have missed the show. (= She was sorry that she had missed the show.) I hope to have finished the job by next Monday. (= I hope that I will have finished the job by next Monday.) She seems to have quit the job. (= It seems that she has quit the job.)

Unreal past situations The perfect infinitive is often used after verbs like mean, be, would like etc., to talk about unreal past situations.

She was to have returned yesterday, but she fell ill. I meant to have posted the letter, but I forgot. (I did not post the letter.)

After modals The perfect infinitive is also used after the modal verbs could, might, ought, should, would and neednt to refer to unreal situations.

You should have telephoned I was getting worried. (The person didnt phone.) She neednt have come. (She came.) I would have gone on a vacation if I had had more money. (I didnt go.)

Notes Note that the structure modal verb + perfect infinitive does not always refer to unreal past conditions. It can also be used to express certainty or possibility.

She should have arrived by now. (=It is possible that she has arrived by now.)

Negative verb forms

November 23, 2010 The negative verb forms are made by putting not after an auxiliary verb.

She has invited us. (Affirmative) She has not invited us. (Negative) It was raining. (Affirmative) It was not raining. (Negative) She can knit. (Affirmative) She cannot knit. (Negative)

If there is no auxiliary verb, do is used to make the negative verb forms.

I like reading. (Affirmative) I do not like reading. (Negative)

Note that do is followed by an infinitive without to.

She didnt come. (NOT She didnt to come.)

Do is not normally used if there is another auxiliary verb.

You should not go. (NOT You dont should go.)

Infinitives and -ing forms The negative forms of infinitives and -ing forms are made by putting not before them. Do is not used.

The best thing about weekends is not working.

Not can be put with other parts of a clause, not just the verb.

Ask John, not his father. Come early, but not before six.

We do not usually use not with the subject. Instead we use a structure with it.

It was not John who broke the window, but his brother. (NOT Not John broke the window, but his brother.)

Other negative words Not isnt the only word that can make a clause negative. There are some other negative words too. Examples are: never, hardly, seldom, rarely etc. Compare:

He does not work. He hardly ever works. He never works. He seldom works.

Non-assertive words We do not normally use words like some, somebody, something etc in negative clauses. Instead, we use non-assertive words like any, anybody, anything etc.

I have caught some fish. I havent caught any fish.

Negative questions
November 24, 2010

Contracted and uncontracted negative questions have different word order. Uncontracted negative questions are usually used in a formal style.

Arent you coming? (Contracted auxiliary verb + nt + subject) Doesnt he understand? (Auxiliary verb + nt + subject) Are you not coming? (Uncontracted auxiliary verb + subject + not) Does he not understand? (Auxiliary verb + subject + not)

Two meanings A negative question can have two different kinds of meanings. It can, for example, be used to ask for confirmation of something you believe to be true.

Didnt you see Ann yesterday? How is she doing? (= I believe that you saw Ann yesterday.)

You may also express your opinions in a more polite way by changing them into negative questions.

Wouldnt it be nice to paint that wall green? (More polite than It would be nice to paint that wall green.)

A negative question can also be used to ask for confirmation of a negative belief. In this case the speaker is surprised that something has not happened or is not happening.

Hasnt the postman come yet?

Polite requests, offers, complaints etc Pressing offers and invitations often assume the form of negative questions. They usually begin Wont you? Wouldnt you? or Why dont you?

Wouldnt you like something to drink? Why dont you come and spend the evening with us?

In other cases we do not normally use a negative question to ask people to do things.

Can you help me with my homework? (Ordinary question used as a request.)

Negative questions
November 24, 2010 Contracted and uncontracted negative questions have different word order. Uncontracted negative questions are usually used in a formal style.

Arent you coming? (Contracted auxiliary verb + nt + subject) Doesnt he understand? (Auxiliary verb + nt + subject) Are you not coming? (Uncontracted auxiliary verb + subject + not) Does he not understand? (Auxiliary verb + subject + not)

Two meanings A negative question can have two different kinds of meanings. It can, for example, be used to ask for confirmation of something you believe to be true.

Didnt you see Ann yesterday? How is she doing? (= I believe that you saw Ann yesterday.)

You may also express your opinions in a more polite way by changing them into negative questions.

Wouldnt it be nice to paint that wall green? (More polite than It would be nice to paint that wall green.)

A negative question can also be used to ask for confirmation of a negative belief. In this case the speaker is surprised that something has not happened or is not happening.

Hasnt the postman come yet?

Polite requests, offers, complaints etc Pressing offers and invitations often assume the form of negative questions. They usually begin Wont you? Wouldnt you? or Why dont you?

Wouldnt you like something to drink? Why dont you come and spend the evening with us?

In other cases we do not normally use a negative question to ask people to do things.

Can you help me with my homework? (Ordinary question used as a request.)

Parts of Speech
November 26, 2010 On the basis of their grammatical behavior the words of a language are divided into several classes. These different classes of words are called the parts of speech. Languages differ in the parts of speech they have. English, for example has eight parts of speech: noun, pronoun, adjective, adverb, preposition, conjunction, verb and interjection.

Some dictionaries recognize more than eight parts of speech. For example, determiners and degree modifiers are also sometimes considered as different parts of speech. Words are assigned to parts of speech according to their grammatical behavior. For example, words are classified according to the positions in which they can occur in a sentence and the way they change their forms for grammatical reasons. Words placed together in a single part of speech have important grammatical properties in common, but that doesnt mean that all the words in a single part of speech have grammatical properties which are entirely identical. In English, it is possible to assign a single word to two or more parts of speech. For example, book is a noun in the sentence Give me that book but a verb in the sentence Book your tickets early. Similarly fast is an adjective in the sequence a fast car but an adverb in the sentence He drove fast. A few words exhibit behavior that cannot be assigned to any part of speech at all. English examples include the negative not and the polite please.

Double negatives
November 27, 2010 In some languages, a negative word like nobody, nothing or never has to be used with a negative verb. In English, these words are themselves enough to give a negative meaning, and not is not necessary.

I opened the door, but I could see nobody. (NOT I opened the door, but I couldnt see nobody.) You never understand me. (NOT You dont never understand me.) Nothing worries him. (NOT Nothing doesnt worry him.)

Nobody or not anybody The words nobody, nothing, never etc are very emphatic. Instead we often use not anybody, not anything, not ever etc. Note that anybody, anything, ever etc are not themselves negative words they have to be used with not to give a negative meaning.

I didnt see anybody. OR I saw nobody. (NOT I saw anybody.) I cant tell you anything. OR I can tell you nothing. (NOT I can tell you anything.)

Notes Not anybody, not anything etc., cannot be used at the beginning of a clause. Instead we use nobody, nothing etc.

Nobody is perfect. (NOT Not anybody is perfect.) Nothing matters. (NOT Not anything matters.) Nowhere is safe. (NOT Not anywhere is safe.)

In many British, American and other dialects, two or more negatives can be used with a single negative meaning. I didnt see nobody. (= I didnt see anybody.) Note that a double negative is not equivalent to a positive. The sentence He didnt say nothing does not mean that He said something. It is simply a non-standard but understandable way of saying He didnt say anything.

Imperative
November 28, 2010 The label imperative refers to the formal sentence type which has the following distinctive sentence pattern: Keep quiet! This pattern commonly expresses a command. In English, an imperative usually doesnt have a subject (though you is understood as its subject). In writing an imperative is often punctuated with an exclamation mark. Examples:

Wash your hands! Get lost! Shut up! Dont smoke in the kitchen!

It is possible, however, to put you into subject position, as in the following example: You do your homework. Ideally, the label imperative should be reserved for sentences which have this form. However, in English it is possible to use an imperative sentence for a function other than giving a command. For example if you are going on a picnic I may say Have a nice time. Although this sentence has the form of an imperative, it is not an order, only a hope. Similarly it is possible to use another sentence form to give an order. For example an army officer is more likely to say I order you to hold your position instead of Hold your position. This is certainly an order, although it doesnt have the form of an imperative sentence. Instead it has the form of a declarative sentence.

Singular and plural nouns

November 29, 2010

The label number refers to the grammatical category which relates to the number of countable objects in the world. In English, number is important with nouns. An English noun exhibits a two-way distinction of number: a singular form and a plural form. The singular form denotes one of something. Examples are: tree, cat, flower, girl, boy etc. The plural form denotes two or more of something. Examples are: trees, cats, flowers, girls, boys etc. In English, a singular noun usually has no marking while the plural form carries the suffix -s or -es.

Cat / cats Dog / dogs Fox / foxes Fruit / fruits

A few dozen nouns form their plurals irregularly. Examples are:

Child / children Man / men Woman / women Foot / feet Tooth / teeth Mouse / mice

Nouns with only a singular form or only a plural form Some nouns have only a singular form or only a plural form. Nouns which have only a singular form include the following: furniture, wheat, happiness, scenery, news, information, luggage, bread, advice etc. Nouns which have only a plural form include the following: police, cattle, oats, tweezers, pants, remains etc. Nouns with identical singular and plural forms A few nouns in English have identical singular and plural forms. An example is sheep.

The sheep is hungry. (Sheep singular) The sheep are hungry. (Sheep plural)

What are reflexive pronouns?

November 30, 2010

Reflexive pronouns are words like myself, yourself, herself, himself, itself, oneself, ourselves and themselves. Uses A very common use of reflexive pronouns is to talk about actions where the subject and object are the same person.

The old woman killed herself. (Here the subject and object are the same person the old woman.) I am going to the shops to get myself some clothes.

Emphatic use We can use reflexive pronouns as subject or object emphasisers. When used emphatically a reflexive pronoun means that person / thing and nobody / nothing else.

The manager himself said this. (= The manager and nobody else said this.) I myself talked to him. I will see the President himself if I have to.

Reflexives used instead of personal pronouns Reflexive pronouns are used instead of personal pronouns after words like as, like, but (for) and except (for).

Everybody turned up except yourself. OR Everybody turned up except you.

By oneself / yourself etc The expressions by oneself / yourself etc can mean alone or without company.

She said that she would like to spend some time by herself. (= She would like to spend some time alone.)

No possessive forms The reflexive pronouns do not have possessive forms. Instead, we use my own, your own, our own etc.

I always cook my own food. (NOT I always cook myselfs food.)

Reflexives not used Certain verbs are not used with reflexive pronouns. Examples are: open, sell, feel, hurry etc.

Hurry! (NOT Hurry yourself!) I felt strange. (NOT I felt myself strange.)

Participial adjective and participial relative clause

December 2, 2010 Participial adjective A participial adjective is a word which is identical in form to the present or past participle of a verb. A participial adjective functions as an adjective. Examples (in brackets)

(Stolen) watch (Broken) wings (Fallen) heroes (Missing) child (Smiling) face An (unexpected) visitor A (surprising) visit Barking dogs seldom bite. (Here the participle barking functions as an adjective and modifies the noun dogs.) A rolling stone gathers no moss. (Here the participle rolling functions as an adjective and modifies the noun stone.) Just then an unexpected visitor turned up.

Participial relative clause A participial relative clause is a clause which resembles a relative clause but which contains a participle instead of a finite verb. In the following examples, the first member of the pair contains a participial relative clause while the second contains an equivalent full relative clause.

The passengers injured in the accident were taken to hospital. The passengers who were injured in the accident were taken to hospital. The boy standing at the gate is my son. The boy who is standing at the gate is my son. The man arrested for stealing the watch has been released. The man who was arrested for stealing the watch has been released.

Complement clause
December 3, 2010 A complement clause is a clause introduced by a complementizer like that or whether. A complement clause is attached to a preceding noun, adjective or verb. In the sentence The news that she was dead shocked us all, that she was dead is a noun complement clause attached to the noun news. In I am sure that she is coming, that she is coming is an adjective-complement clause attached to the adjective sure. In My mother suggested that I should consult a doctor, that I should consult a doctor is a verb-complement clause attached to the verb suggested. In some cases the complementizer may be optionally omitted.

I am sure she is coming. OR I am sure that she is coming. My mother suggested I should consult a doctor. OR My mother suggested that I should consult a doctor.

Note that a noun-complement clause is different from a relative clause, even though the two often look similar. Complementizer The label complementizer refers to that part of speech which includes the words which introduce complement clauses. Examples are that and whether. If is also a complementizer when it means whether.

She said that she wasnt coming. I dont know whether she will come. She asked me if I was coming.

The adverb too

December 5, 2010 Too is an adverb. It is used before adjectives without nouns and before adverbs.

I arrived too late. You are too generous.

Too and too much Too much cannot be used before adverbs and adjectives without nouns.

She is too fat. (NOT She is too much fat.)

Too with other determiners Too is not normally used before adjective + noun.

I could not lift the bag because it was too heavy. (NOT I could not lift the too heavy bag.) I could not solve the problem it was too difficult. (NOT I could not solve the too difficult problem.)

Structures with too An infinitive can be used after too + adjective / adverb.

It is too hot to go out. He is too old to work.

If the infinitive has its own subject, it is usually introduced by for.

It is too early for the shops to be open.

Note that object pronouns are not normally used after the infinitive in this structure.

The tea is too hot to drink. (NOT The tea is too hot to drink it.)

Note that object pronouns can be used in structures with for.

The tea is too hot for us to drink. OR The tea is too hot for us to drink it.

Too and very Too is different from very. Too has a negative meaning. It means more than enough or more than is wanted.

She is very beautiful. (NOT She is too beautiful.) He is very intelligent. (NOT He is too intelligent.)

Notes In informal English, too is sometimes used to mean very.

That was too kind of you. (= That was very kind of you.)

Contractions

December 6, 2010 The forms like Ive, dont etc. are called contractions. There are two kinds: Auxiliary verb + not

cant (= cannot) wouldnt (= would not) shouldnt (= should not) wont (= will not) havent (= have not) isnt (= is not) You shouldnt do it. I cant come. He wont go.

Noun / pronoun / etc + auxiliary verb

Im. (= I am.) Shes gone. (= She has gone.) Theyve come. (= They have come.) Wheres the station? (= Where is the station?) Nobodys there. (= Nobody is there.)

Contractions are formed with modal auxiliary verbs, and also with be and have when they are not auxiliary verbs. The contracted form s can be written after nouns, pronouns, questions words, here and now.

Shes ready. (= She is ready.) Heres our bus. (= Here is our bus.)

The short forms ll, d and re are written after pronouns and unstressed there.

Shed like to talk to you. (= She would like to talk to you.) Youre very late. (= You are very late.) Hell come. (= He will come.)

In other cases we usually write the full forms.

Alice will be surprised to find you here. (NOT Alicell be )

Contractions are not usually written with double subjects.

John and I have decided to go on a vacation. (NOT John and Ive decided to go on a vacation.)

Note that in a contraction the apostrophe goes in the same place as the letters that we leave out. Examples are:

hasnt = has not (NOT hasnt) theyd = they would (NOT theyd)

Note that shant and wont have only one apostrophe each although words are left out in more than one place.

shall not = shant will not = wont

Precis-writing
December 7, 2010 A precis is a summary. Precis writing is an exercise in compression. A precis is the gist of a passage expressed in as few words as possible. A precis should give all essential points so that anyone reading it will be able to understand the idea expressed in the original passage. Note that precis writing is different from paraphrasing. In a paraphrase you should give all the details: you should not leave out any details. A paraphrase will be at least as long and sometimes longer than the original. A precis, on the other hand, must always be shorter than the original. It should express only the main theme that too as briefly as possible. How long should a precis be? There are no rigid rules regarding the length of a precis. But as a general rule, it should not contain more than a third of the total number of words in the original passage. Uses of precis writing Most people read carelessly and fail to fully comprehend the meaning of the passage. Precis writing forces them to pay attention to what they read because no one can write a summary of a passage unless they read it carefully. So summarizing teaches one to read with concentration. Precis writing also improves your overall writing skills. It teaches you how to express your thoughts clearly, concisely and effectively.You learn to choose your words carefully and construct your sentences in a logical and concise manner.

The need for auxiliary verbs

December 8, 2010 In English, we use special forms of the verb phrase to express a lot of important meanings for example, questioning, willingness, possibility, obligation, certainty etc. The problem is that

English verbs do not have many different forms: the maximum is five. So to express all of these meanings we use a special kind of verbs called auxiliaries. There are two kinds of auxiliary verbs: primary auxiliaries and modal auxiliaries. Be, do and have Be (is, am, are, was, were) is used with other verbs to make progressive and passive verb forms.

It is raining. She was punished for stealing.

Do is used to make questions, negatives and emphatic forms of non-auxiliary verbs.

Does she smoke? He didnt come. Do sit down.

Have is used to make perfect tense forms.

What has she done?

Modal auxiliary verbs The verbs will, would, shall, should, can, could, may, might, must and ought are called modal auxiliary verbs. Modal auxiliary verbs are used with other verbs to express various ideas, mostly to do with degrees of certainty or obligation. Other verbs Other verbs which are used in verb + verb structures are not usually called auxiliary verbs. An important difference between auxiliary verbs and other verbs is that in auxiliary verb structures, questions are made by simply changing the order of the subject and auxiliary verb. In other verb + verb structures the auxiliary do has to be added.

She seems to understand. She doesnt seem to understand. Does she seem to understand? He is swimming. He isnt swimming. Is he swimming?

Uses of shall and will

December 9, 2010 With first person pronouns With first person pronouns shall simply expresses the strong possibility or near certainty of an action or event which is to take place in the future.

We shall leave for Mumbai tomorrow. I shall invite them to dinner.

With second and third person pronouns When used with second and third person pronouns shall may express a command.

You shall not steal. He shall obey my instructions. You shall go at once.

Shall is sometimes used to make a promise.

You shall be given a present if you stand first in the exam.

Shall can also be used to express a threat.

He shall regret this. You shall be dismissed from service.

Uses of Will When used with first person pronouns will expresses determination on the part of the speaker. It may also express ideas such as promise, threat or willingness. Determination

I will go whatever happens. We will not wait any longer.

Promise

I will try to get you a good job.

Threat

I will teach you a lesson. We will punish any one who creates trouble.

Willingness Will may also express willingness.

There is the door bell. I will go. He is taking a bath at the moment. OK, I will wait.

With second and third person pronouns When used with second and third person pronouns, will expresses simple futurity.

The train will leave at 6 am. He will be back in an hour.

Notes Will and shall are followed by an infinitive without to.

I will wait. (NOT I will to wait.)

There is no -s in the third person singular.

He will wait. (NOT He will waits.)

Questions and negatives are made without do.

He will come. Will he come? He will not come.