Sedimentary Geology, 85 (1993)339-374 33~

Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., A m s t e r d a m

Terminal fans a review with reference to Devonian examples

S e a n B. K e l l y a a n d H e n r i k O l s e n b
a Department of Geology, Unit'ersity College Cork, Ireland
h Department of Geology and Geotechnical Engineering, Danmarks Tekniske Hojskole Building 204, DK-2800 Lyngb~'. Denmark

Received August 17, 1992: revised version accepted D e c e m b e r 1, 1992

ABSTRACT

Kelly, S.B. and Olsen, H., 1993. Terminal f a n s - - a review with reference to Devonian examples. In: C.R. Fielding (Editor),
Current Research in Fluvial Sedimentology. Sediment. Geol., 85: 339-374.

Terminal fans occur where sediment-laden streams decrease in size and vanish as a result of evaporation and
transmission losses. They tend to form in arid or semi-arid regions which are characterized by a moisture deficit.
Distributary channel patterns are characteristic of terminal fans, and reflect both loss of stream power and spatially/tem-
porally fluctuating discharge.
In a n u m b e r of Devonian basins, terminal fan sediments form conspicuous sequences with examples from Spitsbergen,
England, Ireland and Greenland. Examples of terminal fan systems from the Northeast Greenland Basin and the Munster
Basin in Ireland are presented in this paper.
The ancient examples are used in combination with modern distributary systems to construct a simple facies model for
terminal fans and their deposits. The model includes a tripartite zonation of terminal fans into feeder, distributary and
basinal zones. The feeder zone is characterized by large channel bodies associated with interchannel fines. An increase in
channel body frequency may occur at the transition from the feeder zone to the distributary zone, reflecting the downstream
multifurcation of channels. The distributary zone is characterized by a downstream decrease in both the scale and frequency
of channel deposits, which are mainly replaced by sheetflood deposits. This is the result of the decline of both water depth
and stream power downslope. Further evidence of terminal fan systems is the downstream transition from distal to basinal
zone deposits of floodbasin, playa mudflat or aeolian origin, reflecting the absence of a terminal base level in the form of a
lake or the sea.

Introduction p a p e r is to review fluvial sand-dominated and

Several ancient fluvial systems can be inter-
preted as terminal fans (Friend, 1978), and "as
our understanding of 'terminal fan' systems in-
creases it would seem there is as great a variabil-
ity of facies models as is already well-perceived
for meandering and braided stream systems"
(Tunbridge, 1984, p. 713). The purpose of this
Correspondence to: Sean B. Kelly, G e o c h e m Group Limited,
Unit 3, Commerce Centre Souter Head Road, Altens Indus-
trial Estate, Aberdeen AB1 4LF, UK.
mixed-load terminal fans, both ancient and mod-
ern, in terms of process and product.
Initially, the processes characteristic of termi-
nal fans and related systems are discussed and
incorporated into a generalised environmental
model. The applicability of this model is then
illustrated with several examples of M i d d l e - U p -
per Devonian terminal fan systems from Green-
land and Ireland. Finally, a general facies model
is proposed which incorporates the observations
from both modern and ancient systems. It is
hoped that this model may serve as a framework
for future studies of terminal fan systems.

0037-0738/93/$06.00 © 1993 - Elsevier Science Publishers B.V. All rights reserved

340 '-,,B. KEI_I?YAN[) H ()LS.}'".
.....................

Terminal fans

The term terminal fan is used here to describe

fluvial distributary systems in which the drainage
is wholly dissipated internally via a distributary
network from which no water escapes by surface
-f ~ - - - ~ ~ OR DISTRIB UTAF]IE.
flow to a take or the sea during normal condi-
tions.
There are notable differences between conven-
'~. 20krrL !
tional coarse-grained alluvial fans (e.g. Heward,
1978) and the sand-dominated/mixed-load, low- .,',

gradient, terminal fan systems considered in this

paper. Alluvial fans generally result from a
marked drop in local base level, e.g. along moun-
"~ ~'~ ~, " \, DISTRIBUTAR"
tain fronts, typically "where a heavily laden £
-o -, \,, '~ CHA~'~LS

stream reaches the plain after flowing swiftly

through a ravine or canyon" (Holmes, 1965). In
contrast, the parent river of a terminal fan is
N ~,,,, ql J ~r \\\

generally mobile and not restricted to a ravine or

FEEDER ~" . \
canyon. Terminal fans develop primarily as a
response to high evaporation/low precipitation \
i ..2 \
rates (i.e. moisture deficit) and high infiltration {2
rates. \ i:,,
I O
c~
The only strictly terminal modern fans to have 77
oo
been described in any detail are the Markanda "2
Fan (Mukerji, 1975, 1976; Parkash et al., 1983) 4

and the Gash Fan (Abdullatif, 1989). Unfortu- SHEETFLOOO

nately, both of these have been modified by the
cultivation of fan surfaces and the construction of
irrigation channels and artificial levees (Parkash
et al., 1983; Abdullatif, 1989), and this should be
taken into account when using them as analogues
for ancient terminal fan systems. Although the
Gangetic Plains contain some of the best modern
examples of terminal fan systems (Mukerji, 1975,
1976; Parkash et al., 1983; Friend in North et al.,
1989), it has been demonstrated that many of the
rivers which develop terminal fans are underfit
streams occupying larger river valleys that formed
during a wetter climatic phase (Mukerji, 1975;
Singh, 1987; Singh et al., 1990). In addition, an-
cient systems often appear to have been much
larger than these modern examples (Nichols,
1987).
The Medano Creek, Colorado, is an example
of a terminal fan which terminates in an aeolian
sand sheet environment (Langford and Bracken,
1987; Langford, 1989). This system is rather lira-
~EPO~TS
Fig. 1. Map of the terminal fan developed by the Rwer Gash.
Sudan (after Abdultatif, 1989; pers. commun., 1992). The
Gash Fan is an excellent example of a modern terminal fan
system although it has been subjected to modification by
human cultivation and irrigation. The feeder, distributa~' and
basinal zones discussed in the text are indicated.
ited in lateral extent (the fan measures 1(1 km in
length and 7 km in width). The Mojave River
Wash, California, is another small terminal fan
which terminates partly in aeolian sand sheets
and dunes, and partly in playa mudflats (Lang-
ford, 1989). Aeolian environments can also form
a significant component of larger terminal fan
systems; for example, approximately 11% of the
surface of the Gash Fan (Fig. 1) comprises aeo-
lian sediments (O. Abdullatif. pers. commun..
1992).
Terminal fans can be subdivided into single
entry systems (supplied from a point source) and
T E R M I N A L F A N S - - A R E V I E W WITH R E F E R E N C E T O D E V O N I A N E X A M P L E S 341

multiple entry systems. Only single entry systems gence, the proportion of diverted bedload may
have been described in detail from modern set- decrease down-system. Observations on natural
tings (e.g. Mukerji, 1975, 1976; Parkash et al., channel bifurcations indicate that the diversion of
1983; Abdullatif, 1989). Examples of modern bedload as well as the diversion of suspended
multiple entry systems possibly include the wadi load is mainly dependent on the relative trans-
belts and piedmont alluvial plains described from porting capacities of the parent and minor dis-
north Africa (Glennie, 1970; G.E. Williams, tributary channels (Axelsson, 1967).
1970a). Mukerji (1975) also observed that the lengths
of successive distributary channels increase pro-
Processes gressively with increasing distance down-system.
This may also be explained by a decrease in
The two primary processes involved in the angles of channel divergence allowing the diver-
development of terminal fans are the break up of sion of greater discharge volumes into the dis-
a stream into a network, and subsequent water tributaries and thereby increasing their survival
loss through evaporation and infiltration. An un- lengths.
derstanding of these phenomena is critical in the The effects of diversion on an alluvial stream
assessment of such systems. are related to the hydraulic effects mentioned
above and the erodibility of the bed. While a
Channel diversion and bifurcation minor distributary channel will often draw a rela-
tively large share of the bedload, the parent chan-
The cause and mechanism of diversion and nel downstream of a bifurcation will carry rela-
bifurcation in terminal fans is frequently unclear, tively less bedload. This may lead to erosion in
although the ultimate result is always to dissipate the parent channel downstream of the diversion,
the energy of a system. Highly variable or sea- although sediment deficiency may be partially
sonal discharge results in wide fluctuations in the balanced by erosion of channel banks (Garde and
amount of transported sediment load and can Ranga Raju, 1978).
result in rapid deposition. Rapid aggradation may
choke a channel midstream ("mid-channel over- Ecaporation and transmission loss
loading" of Leopold and Wolman, 1957) with the
result that subsequent flow is divided around the Downstream reduction in discharge is a char-
obstruction. If channel threads do not rejoin then acteristic feature of terminal fans and is largely
the channel may bifurcate (Parkash et al., 1980). due to the combined effects of infiltration and
Alternatively, diversion and bifurcation may oc- evaporation. Evaporation and evapotranspiration
cur via a process analogous to avulsion or crevasse can be important causes of water loss in
splay development, with turbulence induced scour ephemeral streams, especially if vegetation colo-
being concentrated at a particular point on a nizes ephemeral channel courses (Hellwig, 1973a,
channel bank. This may result in breaching of the b). Data from streams in arid climates such as the
bank or levee and the establishment of a minor Gila (Arizona) and the Swakop (South Africa)
distributary channel (Mukerji, 1975). indicate evaporation losses of 20-30 m 3 ha 1
The angle of divergence, the inner angle be- day -I from stream beds alone (Culler, 197(I;
tween the parent and minor distributary meas- Hellwig, 1973b). Evaporation on the floodplain is
ured in the downstream direction, is generally also important and can lead to the local develop-
< 90 ° in most distributary systems. Mukerji (1975) ment of salt flats or "salinas".
observed in the Markanda fan that with increas- Infiltration into a channel perimeter is termed
ing distance down-system, the angle of divergence "transmission loss". Ephemeral streams domi-
decreases. Experimental data summarized by nate tropical to subtropical semi-arid and arid
Garde and Ranga Raju (1978) suggest that as a drainage networks and are characterized by
consequence of the decreasing angles of diver- downstream changes as they lose water to the
342
surrounding alluvium (Leopold and Miller, 1956;
Schumm and Hadley, 1957; Schumm, 1961). Rates
of transmission loss are mainly a function of the
permeability of the channel perimeter (Simon
and Richardson, 1966; FAO, 1981). Transmission
losses cause flood peaks and total discharge val-
ues to decline in the downstream direction
(Babcock and Cushing, 1941: Burkham, 1970). In
addition, transmission losses recharge groundwa-
ter aquifers (Renard and Keppel, 1966), increase
the suspended-load concentration (Leopold and
Miller, 1956) and promote aggradation (Schumm
and Hadley, 1957; Bull, 1991).
The magnitude of transmission losses is influ-
enced by the relationship between inflow volume
and the cross-sectional form of the channel. Many
ephemeral channels are characterized by rectan-
gular cross-sections with high w i d t h / d e p t h ratios
(Schumm, 1961) and consist of an inner "axial
zone" of low flow bordered by an "outer zone"
which is only active during floods (e.g. Abdultatif,
1989). This means that a small increase in depth
during flooding will yield rapid increases in the
wetted perimeter with a consequent increase in
transmission loss.
Transmission losses are often so great in arid
and semi-arid zones that eventually most surface
flows decline to zero (Graf, 1988). If primary
drainage channels of arid and semi-arid zones do
TABLE I
Characteristic discharge regime and dominanl facies of each zonal subdivision used in the description ot terminal lan~
Dominant processes
eeedt'r Zone
Channel flow > or ~- interchannet
(interchannel: sheetflood _+ lacustrine ._+ aeolian)
Distributary zone
Proximal: streamflow >> sheetflood
Medial: streamflow > or -~ sheetflood + aeolian
Distal: sheetflood > streamflow + aeolian
Basinal zone
Sheetflood _+ aeolian _+ chemical
~ II K F I 1 ~ k N t ? ~t. i ~1 S l , %
not terminate at lakes or the sea, they often braid
into a complex of micro-channels and are lost
(Twidale, 1972; Rust, 1981). It is unusual for the
active reach of an ephemeral water-coursc tt,
extend more than 100 km downstream of its poini
of emergence onto an alluvial plain (FAO, 1981,
p. 5). This distance may therefore represent a
broad upper limit for the downstream extent ot
terminal fan systems.
Modern terminal fan systems
A simple model is presented li,~ .,,and
dominated and mixed-load tcrminal fans, I'hc
model utilizes a subdivision of systems into feeder.
distributary and basinal zones. This is largely
based on descriptions of modern lcrminat fan
systems (e.g. Fig. l), but also incorporates aspects
of closely related systems. Each zone is character-
ized by different discharge regimes (Table' 1!.
Feeder zone
The feeder zone or "'inner" fan area is domi-
nated by the main feeder channel(s) and associ-
ated interchannel areas (Fig. 1). Although a well
developed channel network may exist wilhin the
feeder zone, a main channel, carrying a discharge
greater than any other channel, can often be
identified. This is usually characterized by its
Dominant facies association
Single or multistorey channel sandstone/conglomeralc bodies,
lt)'s m thick, l()0's m wide. Overbank m u d s t o n e s / ~ a n d s t o n e s
± aeolian sandstones
Multistorey channel sandstone bodies,
up 100 m thick (individual storeys < 5 m), 100s m wide
Channel sandstone bodies (single and multistoreyL
2~5 m thick (generally < 100 m wide)
Sheetflood sandstones + floodplain siltstones,
depositional units < 2 m thick, 10s to 100s m wide,
+ aeolian sandstones
Floodbasin siltstones + aeolian sandstones _+ playa mudstoncs and
cvaporites
T E R M I N A L F A N S - - A R E V I E W WITH R E F E R E N C E T O D E V O N I A N E X A M P L E S 343

greater width rather than its depth (e.g. Abdul- ephemeral and often characterized by features
latif, 1989). such as low-stage braiding and bar emergence
Feeder channels generally occupy relatively (Abdullatif, 1989). However, perennial, though
long-lived courses and are often slightly (or even fluctuating flow may occur in larger distributary
deeply) entrenched. The reoccupation of chan- channels (Mukerji, 1976).
nels is also more probable in the feeder zones of The characteristics of ephemeral distributary
systems (cf. Rachocki, 1981). The main channel channels, particularly channel width, fluctuate
may define the "dynamic axis" of a system spatially and temporally in response to variations
(Rachocki, 1981). This axis may gradually migrate in mass and energy input (Stear, 1985; Graf,
across a system or "fan" surface (cf. Kosi River, 1988). The behaviour of an aggrading ephemeral
Gole and Chitale, 1966). Current directions from channel will reflect its constant tendency toward
the main channel at any specific point in the dynamic equilibrium and the lagged responses
feeder zone will generally show a limited spread when flows change rapidly (Schumm and Hadley,
(cf. Bluck, 1980). 1957; Thornes, 1980; Howard, 1982). As a conse-
Although the primary channel(s) may be quence, overall channel morphology is often diffi-
perennial, it is likely that they are subject to cult to predict, although it will probably be re-
dramatic variations in discharge due to marked lated to the scale and duration of the last major
seasonal variations in precipitation. If sufficiently flood discharge. Detailed morphology in terms of
coarse sediment is available, gravel deposition bar and repetitive bedforms often reflects the
may characterize the feeder zones. Such gravelly falling stage history of scour and fill (Thornes,
zones or "Bhabar" occur on the Gangetic Plain 1980).
and extend for 8-24 km in a downstream (Geddes, Incised distributary channels die out down-
1960; Parkash et al., 1980). However, these rela- stream, and flows become progressively less well
tively coarse-grained zones quickly pass down- defined. These more distal areas may be charac-
stream into regions dominated by finer-grained terized by aggrading fan-like lobes (Mukerji,
deposition, probably accompanied by a decrease 1975). Sheetfloods tap the bedload of the dis-
in slope. tributaries and their deposits are therefore sand-
Interchannel areas generally receive little dominated (cf. McKee et al., 1967). Finer-grained
coarse-grained sediment although lateral over- sediments are deposited at low stage and are also
bank flooding can produce sandy "splays" and carried beyond distributary lobes at high stage.
deposit large amounts of mud/silt (Parkash et The erosive capability of sheetfloods is relatively
al., 1983). In mixed-load fluvial systems, inter- minor (Kirkby and Morgan, 1980) and most of the
channel sequences within feeder zones are gener- transport takes place in relatively high velocity
ally dominated by mudstones and occasional threads, possibly related to longitudinal spiral
sheetflood sandstones, possibly with local lake vortices (cf. Olsen, 1989, pp. 217-218). The dif-
deposits. In sand-prone systems aeolian facies ferentiation of sheetfloods from streamfloods is
may dominate the interchannel environment (e.g. not always clear (Rahn, 1967; G.E. Williams,
the Great Sand Dunes along the Medano Creek, 1970b, Hogg, 1982; Graf, 1988) and observations
Colorado, Langford, 1989). of modern sheetfloods are rare (Davis, 1938;
Aldridge and Eychaner, 1984). Like their chan-
Distributary zone nelized counterparts, unconfined flows display
spatial and temporal variation in their hydraulic
Distributary zones are dominated by distribu- characteristics (Hogg, 1982). Consequently, ero-
tary channels which are the result of the down- sion and scouring may or may not occur at the
stream bifurcation of the main feeder channel(s). sheetflood base and a sheetflood may terminate
Interehannel areas are often limited in extent due in a minor mudflow.
to the active nature of the distributary channel After flood events, temporary lakes or termi-
courses. Distributary channels are commonly nal " p a n s " (cf. Ward, 1988) may persist for some
344
months, possibly developing ephemeral lake de-
posits. Prolonged exposure of interchannel areas
may on the other hand result in aeolian rework-
ing and development of aeolian sand sheets and
dunes (Wopfner and Twidale, 1988; Langford.
1989).
Distributary zones of terminal fan systems are
thus characterized by a combination of channel,
sheetflood and suspension dominated flows and
aeolian activity which can result in a complex
mixture of deposit types and facies. There is.
however, a general tendency for distributary
channels to dominate in proximal reaches and to
be gradually replaced by sheetfloods down cur-
rent (Fig. I; Table 1). Deposits and sedimentary
structures related to distributary channels and
sheetfloods are described by Parkash et al. (1983),
Sneh (1983) and Abdullatif (1989) from modern
distributary systems.
Basinal z o n e
In addition to the active zones of a terminal
fan system there is also the region into which the
system drains. This area may simply be an alluvial
floodbasin (Parkash et al., 1983), or a playa mud-
flat (Langford, 1989). Alternatively the basinal
area may be characterized by aeolian environ-
ments (Langford, 1989). The basinal zone will
generally only receive very fine-grained sediment
after large floods, and distributary channels will
extend into this zone only during extreme flood
events.
Devonian terminal fan systems
There are several limitations related to the
study of terminal fan deposits. Firstly, the scale of
many characteristic features of terminal fan sys-
tems generally exceeds that of a single exposure
(Friend, 1978, p. 531). This is further complicated
by the frequent inability to accurately correlate
between outcrops (Friend, 1978). These problems
are discussed further in relation to specific case
studies.
Additional problems occur when comparing
modern and ancient systems, particularly the ef-
fect of sediment-binding vegetation on fluvial
s B KLq_~ '~ ~."H~ it O l hi: ~,
processes (Schumm, 1968, pp. 1583-1584). In
many modern semi-arid regions riparian phrcato-
phytic vegetation often grows in or near river
channels (Schumm, 1961: Heltwig, 1973b; GraL
1988). Such plants have tap-root systems thal
connect directly with the ground-water table
(Robinson, 1958). Because of this relationship a
strong interdependency exists between phreato..
phytic vegetation and channel processes (Graf,
1988). Although M i d d l e - U p p e r Devonian land
plants were widespread (Allen and Dinelcy. 1988).
their ability to bind top-stratum sediment is ques-
tionable. This is thought to have been a critical
aspect of sedimentation during the Devonian as it
will have led to a decrease in the cohesion of
channel banks, thereby promoting channel mobil-
ity (Friend, 1978). It will also have increased the
rate of run-off and ability to transpori sedimenl
(Friend, 1978). As a result of these influences ~l
controls on depositional style, it is generally noi
possible to find precise modern analogues for
ancient terminal fan depositional systems (Miall.
1980, p. 711.
In the following section, examples of Devonian
terminal fan systems from the Easi Greenland
Basin and the Munster Basin. southwest Ireland
are described, and a general sedimentological
model is proposed which incorporates the most
important aspects of these ancient systems and
relates them to processes within modern terminal
fans and related systems. The tripartite subdivi-
sion of modern systems is applied to these an-
cient examples such that sedimentary products
are correlated with the relevant discharge charac-
teristics of each zone (Table 1 ).
Northeast Greenland Basin
The Devonian Basin of Northeast Gr~renland
covers an exposed area of c. 10,000 km :. The
basin is oriented N - S and exhibits a sedimentary
fill in excess of 8 km thick (Olsen and Larscn.
1993a). The sediments are mainly M i d d l e - U p p e r
Devonian fluvial deposits (Friend et al.. 1983;
Olsen, 1993). The basin was intensively studied
from a sedimentological viewpoint during the late
1960's and early 70's (reviewed by Friend et al..
1983) and subsequently re-evaluated during the
TERMINAL F A N S - - A REVIEW WITH REFERENCE TO DEVONIAN EXAMPLES 345

late 1980's and early 1990's (Olsen, 1990, 1993;
Olsen and Larsen, 1993a, b). Several formations
within the basin have the characteristics of large-
scale terminal fan systems (Friend, 1978; Friend
et al., 1983; Olsen, 1993). Two of these systems,
the Snehvide Formation and the Rodebjerg For-
mation, are dealt with in this paper. The terminal
fans are single entry, sand-dominated systems
terminating in aeolian environments. The two
systems share many characteristics in both scale
and sedimentary architecture. The exposures
available are located in different parts of the
systems. Collectively, however, the two systems
form the basis for a composite model of sand-
dominated terminal fans in the Northeast Green-
land Basin.
Snehvide Formation
Stratigraphic relationships and general interpreta-
tion
The Snehvide Formation attains its maximum
thickness of c. 250 m at the mountain Snehvide in

23~30'
FORMATION

TORBERN
~RjF_ER~BERGMAN

23°30'
R U M P E ~ RODEBJERG
DUSEN FORMATION
FJORC I 5KM j

sOF~ sUND

Fig. 2. Map of the Middle-Upper Devonian Northeast Greenland Basin. The distribution of formations investigated in this study is
illustrated in the two inset maps.
346 ~ B. K E L I , ' t ANI} H, O1.SEN

northern Hudson Land, where it occurs sand-
wiched in the braidplain deposits of the Sofia
Sund Formation (Figs. 2 and 3A). At the moun-
tain Torbern Bergman Bjerg in southern Hudson
Land, the top and base of the Snehvide Forma-
tion interdigitates with the Sofia Sund Formation;
the Snehvide Formation wedging out towards the
west (Fig. 3A). In western Gauss Halve, west of
the dome-shaped fold, the so-called "Moskusok-
sefjord inlier" (Biitler, 1959), the Snehvide For-
mation dips down into the Moskusoksefjord in a
westward direction. Towards the east, the forma-
tion is seen to wedge out into the Sofia Sund
Formation (Olsen and Larsen, 1993a). In Mosku-
sokselandet the formation is bounded laterally in
the east by volcanic rocks, representing a large
volcanic centre (Olsen, 1993). Palaeocurrents in
the Snehvide Formation are well defined towards
south-southeast at Snehvide and less well defined
towards the west-southwest around Genvejsdalen
and Torbern Bergman Bjerg in Moskusokse-
landet (Fig. 4).
The feeder zone is situated at Mt. Snehvide
and is composed of conglomeratic feeder channel
bodies with subordinate interchannel fines. The
distributary zone occurs at and south of Mt. Sne-
hvide. The "proximal" part of the zone is a sandy
braidplain succession (upper part of section al
Mt. Snehvide), grading downcurrent into the
"medial-distal" part with distributa~ channel
sandstones embedded in sheetflood sandstones
(middle part of succession in Moskusokselandet t.
The basinal zone (lower and upper part of suc-
cession in Moskusokselandet) is characterized b~
aeolian dune and sand sheet deposits associated
with subordinate sheetflood, floodbasin and
ephemeral stream deposits. The laterally rc
stricted nature of the formation indicates :~

A TORBERN
BEFIGMAN SNEHVIDE
BJERG
I

II- 300

/~'
SOFIA / / / ~
SUND •
FM

1/
/

C
i- 200

SNEHVIDE

d FORMATION

f J
f 10o

0
)PIll I
MUD SAND CG~ MUD S A N D C~L

Fig. 3. (A) Snehvide Formation. Facies association logs illustrating the downstream variation within the terminal fan system. At Mr.
Snehvide, feeder zone deposits form the lower part of the succession transitionally overlain by "'proximal" distributa~' zone
deposits. At the mountain Torbern B e r g m a n Bjerg " m e d i a l - d i s t a l " distributary zone deposits dominate. The terminal fan system is
enveloped in braidplain deposits of the Sofia Sund Formation which exhibits interfingering with aeolian basinal zone deposits at
Torbern Bergman Bjerg. (B) Legend for the logged sections in this paper. Facies association key is used only for Figs. 3A and 13A
'ERMINAL FANS--A REVIEW WITH REFERENCE TO DEVONIAN EXAMPLES 347

FACIES ASSOCIATIONS
B '0 -':o o ~,o. 'o'.:

AEOLIAN DUNES SHEETFLOODS FEEDER CHANNELS

Iiiiiiiiimiiii]
AEOLIAN SANDSHEET FLOOD BASIN DISTRIBUTARY CHANNELS
(multi/single story)

LITHOLOGY
i . . . . .

. ' o - -~ 13 .

SANDSTONE PEBBLY SANDSTONE SANDSTONE WITH

INTRACLASTS

,o. ¢.,,0.o.o,o o

IoI~ .o"o:o.Oo-.0°1
"

o: o'o.-o.O.0:° o
.-,O~;, .oo ,O r
Fo .o. c~0.'." ,.o o.

CONGLOMERATE MUDSTONE/SILTSTONE

SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES

AEOLIAN HORIZONTAL AEOLIAN IRREGULAR AEOLIAN LOW-ANGLE

LAMINATION LAMINATION INCLINED LAMINATION

AEOLIAN
CROSS-BEDDING
I~~ WIND RIPPLE
FORMSETS
I..~.i~~-~.1
MASSIVE

PLANAR FESTOON TROUGH

CROSS-BEDDING CROSS-BEDDING CROSS-BEDDING

LOW-ANGLE SCOUR AND FILL DEFORMED

INCLINED LAMINATION BEDDING BEDDING

I~ ~ ~ ~._~d
E HORIZONTAL
LAMINATION
I RIPPLE CROSS
LAMINATION
WAVE RIPPLE
LAMINATION

DIFFUSE LAMINATION
I
UNDIFFERENTIATED
STRUCTURES IN
MUDSTONE/SILTSTONE

MISCELLANEOUS FEATURES

f
CURRENT DIRECTION
d
C U R R E N TDIRECTION
g
CURRENT DIRECTION
/
CURRENT DIRECTION
--~--
DESICCATION
(cross-lamination) (cross-bedding) (imbrication) (parting Imeation) CRACKS

A C ®
ROOT BURROW CALCRETE MPS
Imean of laroest nartlcles, Iocallvl

Fig. 3 (continued)
348 ~,l~ K[.I ['t ANI) tt (ll~l-X

24' / from the north-northwest (Fig. 4). In that direc-

74

I
tion, c. 20 km from Mt. Snehvide, a narrow half-
graben appears to have developed. This was elon-
SNEHqlDE
gated in a N N W - S S W direction and may haw:
, ~j._~'f" been initiated prior to deposition of the Snehvidc
,, ~.~... Formation (P.-H. Larsen, pets. commun., i99(b,
thus forming a narrow valley through which coarse
clastics were transported by a gravelly rivet, tn
Moskusokselandet, a volcanic centre and 1he
"~ ~1~ 3~ , , ~ '
"Moskusoksefjord inlier'" formed topographic ~
barriers. The volcanoes forced the fluvial system
to turn to the western flank of the "Moskusok-
sefjord inlier".

7 bKM
Fig. 4. Snehvide Formation. Palaeocurrents from the Sneh-
vide Formation at three localities. Notice the larger spread in
palaeocurrent directions in the distributa~, zone at Genvejs-
dalen. N u m b e r of m e a s u r e m e n t s is indicated at each locality.
point-source and the system should therefore be
classified as a single entry system.
The palaeocurrent directions at Mt. Snehvide
indicate that the coarse sediments were derived
Feeder z o n e
In the most proximal part around Mr. Snch-
vide the formation comprises a lower portion
dominated by conglomerates and an upper por-
tion dominated by pebbly sandstones, Only the
lower conglomeratic portion is considered as rep-
resenting the feeder zone of the sy,qem. The
conglomerates occur in channel-shaped units I-4,
m thick (Figs. 5 and 6), and are dominated b'¥

Fig. 5. Snehvide Formation, feeder zone deposits. Two feeder channel fills occur interbedded in fine-grained mterchannel
sandstones. The lower channel fill is a small and simple type composed entirely of conglomerate with sandstone olfl.v as thiJl
lowstage deposits. The upper channel fill represents the main channel in the feeder zone. It is thicker and wider and composed o f ,
lower conglomeratic part (channel axis) and an upper part of pebbly sandstone (outer channel zone). See also Fig. 6. Nt~te rucksack
for scale.
TERMINAl. FANS--A REVIEW WITH REFERENCE TO DEVONIAN
1O's OF METRE~
Fig. 6. Snehvide Formation. Diagrams illustrating the two
types of channel fills found within the feeder zone. The large,
complex type represents the main feeder channel.
scour-and-fill structures, horizontal lamination
and massive bedding (Fig. 7). The scour-fills are
interpreted as trough-fills associated with the mi-
gration of gravel dunes (e.g. Rust, 1978, 1979),
although the coarse grain size has resulted in
poor foreset definition. The horizontal lamina-
tion and massive bedding are interpreted as the
products of longitudinal bars (cf. Smith, 1974).
Two main types of feeder channel fill occur in
these sediments. The smaller type is < 3 m thick,
tens of metres in lateral extent (Fig. 6) and is
entirely composed of conglomerates except for
thin, sandy low-stage deposits. The larger type is
3 - 6 m thick, hundreds of metres wide, and is
composed of conglomerate in the deep central
portion with pebbly trough cross-bedded sand-
stones in the shallow lateral parts of the channel
and in the top part of the central channel fill
(Fig. 6). These two types of feeder channel fill
reflect the co-existence of relatively small, simple
channels and larger more complex channels. The
latter were characterized by a deeper central
zone with gravel transport and shallow lateral
parts typically carrying migrating sandy dunes. In
one exceptionally well exposed outcrop, perpen-
dicular to the current direction, a convex-up mor-
phology of the pebbly sandstone unit in the shal-
low lateral part was observed. Fine-grained sand-
stones occupied the space between the cross-bed-
ded pebbly sandstone unit and the erosive chan-
nel margin. This example suggests that the sandy
dunes (pebbly sandstones) migrated on large braid
bar complexes (cf. Ashley, 1990) in the lateral
part of the channels.
Between the feeder channel bodies, very fine
and fine-grained pebble-free sandstones occur, in
units up to 5 m thick. The sandstones are domi-
nated by parallel lamination and cross-lamina-
tion, associated with low-angle festoon cross-bed-
EXAMPLES 349
ding (Fig. 7). Mudstones also locally occur. Chan-
nel features are lacking in these fine-grained de-
posits, which suggests deposition from uncon-
fined flows. The distinct separation between
channel-shaped conglomerates and fine-grained
deposits suggests that the fine-grained deposits
accumulated at flood stage, when otherwise inac-
tive high-level tracts or interchannel areas were
inundated.
The characteristics of the large feeder channel
fills resemble the model for distal gravelly braided
rivers presented by Rust (1978, 1979), based
mainly on the middle reach of the Donjek River.
The middle reaches of the Donjek River are
characterized by a deeper axial part with gravels
and shallow lateral parts with sandy bedload.
Inactive tracts are mainly subject to deposition of
mud due to abundant vegetation, unlike this an-
cient example. The subdivision of the channels in
the axial and outer zone also finds an analogue in
the feeder channel of the Gash Fan (cf. Abdul-
latif, 1989).
The four sections shown in Fig. 7 illustrate the
downcurrent variations in sediment characteris-
tics along a 3 km stretch approximately parallel to
the palaeocurrents (Figs. 4 and 8). Individual
channel fills clearly decrease in thickness down-
current and there is a corresponding decrease in
maximum pebble size (MPS). The abundance of
feeder channel bodies also decreases downcur-
rent. These deposits are gradually replaced by
sandy braidplain deposits. In the conglomerates,
scour-and-fill bedding and trough cross-bedding
are replaced by horizontal lamination and mas-
sive bedding in a downcurrent direction. A few
hundred metres downcurrent of the most distal
section in Fig. 7, the feeder channel bodies with
associated overbank deposits are replaced en-
tirely by braidplain deposits.
In conclusion, the feeder zone was composed
of well defined gravelly channels and associated
overbank areas which graded downcurrent into a
broad sandy braidplain ("proximal" distributary
zone; see below). The thickness of the feeder
channel units suggests that the gravelly channels
were relatively deep (up to 6 m) in the proximal
part of the feeder zone but decreased to 2-3 m in
the distal part of the zone. This decrease was
 o ~'
g~ ;DI,

e~" ~T;:'~:~<=--:;~¢;:;:~:~--~;':::'";:::::~hb:P';s~£;~TJ~.:,~t~; :'" :'.-<~z~;:".~;e:!~:zz~'~<;'+_d:._;:~::':&t;U':'~ :.: ~.,~:-£ i'i~'~:~,:':: :'";. ~: : "

_¢
-. '\ " t " " ! ~ i i ° \ ,' ~ [ <:
=" / / -. ,/
;-4 \- I " z ' \ , ~ _ _ It i - ' ' "~

~, o ~~,,,~ . . . . . . . .~. . . . . . . . . ~ . . . . . . . .

-' ' ~' ~,' ~I,,', : " i l J ~ . .... ~P r°"~'l '', " ~':'.~ ....... , : " s ........ ~ . ~ " "~ ~ t , , ~ q ~ :

Y\ / . . . . . . .
I r-
j ,,1 t . .j
/ \ m ,'/
$ I/ i

: . ~ "
'i ,,' , N"JJ~ij' o r
!. , , ~s/~!t, li,
,:o~: r m

/ :'>
~~
0 I / (b
e~
~.~ _>
z z " z z
o o \ / ,
~e~.
~ "

~" I
>
_Z .. i. a
P.
~R

C
TERMINAL FANS--A REVIEW WITH REFERENCE TO DEVONIAN E.XAMPLES 351

combined with a general change from gravelly
dunes to longitudinal bars as the dominant bed-
form.
Distributary zone
Downcurrent and up section of the feeder
zone succession at Mt. Snehvide, medium-grained
pebbly sandstones with subordinate fine pebble
conglomerates occur (Fig. 7). The sandstones are
mainly trough cross-bedded, but horizontal lami-
nation is common, interbedded on a metre-scale.
The conglomerates exhibit scour-and-fill bedding
and trough cross-bedding and occur as decime-
tre-scale beds within the sandstones. The in-
terbedding of facies is apparently unsystematic.
The conglomerates decrease in abundance from
c. 40% in the most upcurrent section to < 5% in
the section 3 km downstream.
These sediments are interpreted in terms of
shallow braided channels in which sand dunes
dominated, with gravel dunes in the deeper parts
of channels and upper plane beds in shallow
parts. In contrast to the gravelly braided chan-
nels, these sandy braided channels are not associ-
ated with finer-grained overbank deposits. This
suggests a braidplain origin for the sediments of
the "proximal" distributary zone.
Approximately 15-20 km south of the Sneh-
vide locality, in Moskusokselandet at the moun-
tain Torbern Bergman Bjerg and around Genve-
jsdalen (Figs. 2 and 3), the main body of the
Snehvide Formation comprises very fine to fine-
grained sandstones (c. 75%) and 2-5 m thick
fine-to medium-grained sandstone units (c. 20%).
Both components are of fluvial origin, and arc
associated with decimetre-scale fine-grained
sandstone beds of aeolian dune and sand sheet
origin (Fig. 9A).

Fig. 8. Vertical aerial photograph of the Snehvide Formation exposed on the Mt. Snehvide in H u d s o n Land (Fig. 2). The positions
of the sections in Fig. 7 are indicated. Photo courtesy (route 872A, no. 55) of Kort-og Matrikelstyrelsen. D e n m a r k (permission
A200/87).
352 s B KEI.LY A N l ~ H ~)[ g~- N

The very fine to fine-grained sandstones are

characterized by the dominance of parallel lami-
nation, which may be horizontal, low-angle or
represent the concordant infilling of shalto~.
troughs (Fig. 10). The lamination is associated
>-
with parting lineation. Individual sedimentation
units in these deposits are difficult to define duc
to the lack of irregular erosion surfaces. How-
b- ever, aeolian interbeds, desiccation cracks and
wave ripples on parting planes indicate that sedi-
mentation units are probably of the order of ] m
thick or less. These deposits are interpreted as
the products of sheetfloods, with flow conditions
around the transition between u p p e r and lower
flow regime (cf. Shaw, 1972; Saunderson and
Lockett, 1983; D a m and Andreasen, 1990).
The fine- to medium-grained sandstone units
n-
b-
are mostly trough cross-bedded and composed of
1-3 storeys. No signs of emergence occur within
the units. This may, however, be a consequence
of low preservation potential. They were probably
o
deposited in low sinuosity, braided channels char-
acterized by ephemeral or fluctuating perennial
flow and channel depths of the order of 2 m.
w~ In conclusion, the main body of the formation
wO
in Moskusokselandet is interpreted as a system of
distributary channels with extensive sheetflood
a areas. The latter were inundated during floods
and temporarily exposed to aeolian rcworking.
a The succession represents the "medial--distal"
0
0 part of the distributary zone.

W Basinal zone
W

The lower and u p p e r parts of the formation in

Moskusokselandet around Torbern Bergman
Bjerg are characterized by a dominance of aeo-
B 2
lian dune and sand sheet deposits (c. 80%) with
subordinate sheetflood, ephemeral stream and

4(4( Fig. 9. Snehvide Formation at the valley Genvejsdalen (Fig.

X~
4). (A) Log through a sequence developed within the "'me-
dial-distal" distributary zone. Distributary channel deposits
are interbedded with sheetflood deposits and rare aeoliat~
dune ( A D ) deposits. (B) Basinal deposits dominated by aeo-
lian sediments. A D = aeolian dune; FB = flood basin; ES =
ephemeral stream deposits. Notice the different scale com-
pared to (A).
VERMINAL FANS--A REVIEW WITH REFERENCE TO DEVONIAN EXAMPLES 353

Fig. 10. Snehvide Formation at the Genvejsdalen locality. Parallel laminated fine-grained sheetflood sandstones of the "medial-
distal" distributary zone.

flood basin deposits (Fig. 9B). These sediments Fjord, the limited lateral extent of the formation
probably represent the basinal part of the system, and the increasing dominance of aeolian deposits
with abundant aeolian deposition and only occa- in the downcurrent direction collectively suggest
sional inundation by extreme floods. that the Rodebjerg Formation was a single entry

]
Rodebjerg Formation

Stratigraphic relationships and general interpreta-

tion

The Rodebjerg Formation is exposed on the

islands of Ymer O, Geographical Society O and
Traill O (Fig. 2). The formation was studied in
detail on Ymer 0 at the mountains Rumpen,
Angelin Bjerg and Rodebjerg, and at the valley
junction of Jfilut Dal/Fladedal. The formation is
dominated by fluvial sandstones in the northern
outcrops grading southwards into aeolian sand-
stones.
Palaeocurrents in the Rcdebjerg Formation
are directed towards the southeast, palaeowinds
are from the south (Fig. 11). Reconnaissance
studies of the formation south of Ymer O show a
dominance of aeolian dune deposits and indicate
Fig. 11. Rodebjerg Formation. Palaeocurrent rose diagrams.
that the formation wedges out in an eastward Black = fluvial; white = aeolian. Number of measurements is
direction on Traill O (Olsen and Larsen, 1993a). indicated. Notice the large spread in fluvial current directions
The absence of the formation north of Dus6n in the "distal" distributary zone at R0debjerg.
 , m
i
i

i if)

i
~o] >-
, <

5~ m

B,.

:z

C3

k/
M

Fig. t2. Rt~debierg Formation. " m e d i a l " distributary zone. (A) Distributary channel and sheetflood deposits outcropping between Rumpcn arid Angelin Bjc~g. /',,~t~o~ ,~ the =
close-up photograph is indicated. (B) Close-up from (A). Note the macroform elements with downcurrent descending cross-sets in the d smhut~tr3 channel sandstones Shcetfh~od _
deposits (SF) interbed with the distributary channel bodies. (C) Detailed log through the main part of the succcs~i~,~ ~b.,,~ i~ ~ (A). 5"
T E R M I N A L F A N S - - A R E V I E W WITH R E F E R E N C E T O D E V O N I A N E X A M P L E S 355

terminal fan system. The formation rests on T h e s e d i m e n t s e x p o s e d southeast of R u m p e n

braidplain deposits of the Sofia Sund Formation and on A n g e l i n Bjerg are c o m p o s e d of multi-
on Ymer ~ (Olsen, 1993), and the terminal fan storey distributary channel sandstones and sheet-
system is interpreted as being surrounded by this flood sandstones with rare aeolian sandstones.
braidplain system of perennial rivers. T h e y are interpreted to represent the "medial"

700~
A ... :,,.:..j

600"

500"
c~ e~ u~ o o
KI me0! ¢)o

E
400" ~ 10- °
oo
rn c~ e~ L° c~ ~ o

~ C ~ _ _ .
.
.

- -
~ 2-2 ~

300'
i

200
" N
L~ 2-2:.

[_.:
10(:

FM i
( , i , , ,

m ~SAND m ~,o ~ ~ o m ~o ~ ~ o

Fig. 13. R~debjerg Formation at Mt. R~debjerg. (A) Facies association log illustrating the basinal and "'distal" distributary zone
deposits, and position of the detailed logs. (B-E) Detailed logs through the distributary zone of the Rodebjerg system.
 A

hg. 14. Rodebjerg Formation, "distal" distributary zone. (A) General field appeaJ~wc dlustrating the thin beds of constituent facies associations. (B) Ephemeral distributar~,
,:hannel deposits. Pencil for scale. (C) Sheetflood deposits, 10 cm scale bar in upper right, (D) Aeolian sand sheet deposits. Translatent stratification is seen in the upper and lower
part. Irregular adhesion lamination l~ ~ccn in the central part. ll)-cm bar for scale.
TERMINAL FANS--A REVIEW WITH REFERENCE TO DEVONIAN
part of the distributary zone. Current directions
occurred within a relatively narrow range (Fig.
11).
The sediments at Mt. Rodebjerg (except the
basal part) are dominated by minor distributary
channel and sheetflood deposits associated with
multistorey distributary channel sandstones, flood
basin siltstones and aeolian sandstones. This se-
quence is interpreted as the distal part of the
distributary zone where ephemeral flow was dom-
inant and aeolian reworking common. Current
directions from the variety of channelized streams
and sheetfloods are highly variable (Fig. 11).
The thick basal part of the Rodebjerg succes-
sion is dominated by aeolian sand sheet deposits
and represents the basinal tract of the terminal
fan system. Aeolian dune deposits are dominant
in the Jfilut D a l / F l a d e d a l area. Similar deposits
occur on Geographical Society ~ (Fig. 2) and
they are probably characteristic of the basinal
portion of the system further south.
The feeder zone is not exposed in the present
day outcrops. A large feeder channel may have
entered the basin through a valley, represented
by W N W - E S E trending normal faults around
Noa Dal (western continuation of Dus6n Fjord,
see Larsen and Bengaard, 1991; Fig. ll). The fact
that the Rodebjerg Formation is not present north
of Dus~n Fjord (Fig. 2) seems to support this
suggestion.
Distributary zone
The northern outcrops, southeast of Rumpen
and on Angelin Bjerg, are characterized by 5-10
m thick and > 100 m wide multistorey bodies of
fine- to medium-grained sandstone alternating
with 0.5-2 m thick units of very fine to fine-
grained sandstones (Fig. 12). Both are of fluvial
origin and are associated with rare aeolian dune
interbeds. The sediments resemble the " m e d i a l -
distal" distributary zone of the Snehvide Forma-
tion, exposed in Moskusokselandet (compare with
Fig. 6) and are likewise interpreted as the de-
posits of braided distributary channels, sheet-
floods and aeolian reworking. The channel bodies
are, however, thicker and comprise more than
80% of these sequences. Individual storeys range
EXAMPLES 357
in thickness from 1.5 to c. 4 m, probably corre-
sponding to local channel depth. Relatively large-
scale trough to wedge-shaped cross-sets are com-
mon. They tend to occur in the lower part of
storeys. Occasionally downcurrent dipping inter-
nal bounding surfaces are observed, associated
with descending cross-bedding (Fig. 12B). This
probably indicates braid bar complexes with de-
scending dunes, growing in size as they entered
deeper water in the lee of the macroforms (cf.
Banks, 1973; Haszeldine, 1983a, b). The sheet-
flood deposits are entirely composed of parallel
laminated sandstones and form only c. 10-15%
of the formation in these outcrops. Individual
flood units are difficult to differentiate due to
lack of irregular downcutting. Aeolian dune de-
posits form less than 5% and occur in metre-scale
beds. The R u m p e n / A n g e l i n Bjerg sequences are
interpreted to represent the "medial" distribu-
tary zone with braided distributary channels asso-
ciated with sheetflood-dominated plains and local
aeolian dunes.
Downcurrent, at Mt. R0debjerg a succession
of fluvial, aeolian and floodbasin deposits occurs
(Figs. 13A and 14A). The fluvial sediments are
dominant, except in the lower 200 m of the for-
mation, and comprise channelized ephemeral
stream, sheetflood and braided channel deposits.
Trough cross-bedded fine- to medium-grained
sandstone is the dominant facies of the ephemeral
stream deposits (Figs. 13B, 13C and 14B). These
sandstones generally occur as single storey sheet-
like ( < 100 m wide) channel bodies less than 1 m
thick which commonly fine upwards. The sheet-
flood deposits are dominated by very fine to
medium-grained parallel laminated, cross-lami-
nated and massive sandstones in decimetre-scale
beds (Fig. 14C). Intervals up to 40 m thick are
similar to the northern outcrops, being domi-
nated by trough cross-bedded sandy braided
channel deposits (Fig. 13E). The fluvial sand-
stones are closely associated with siltstones of
floodbasin origin (Fig. 13B, 13C and 13E) and
sandstones of aeolian sand sheet and (minor)
aeolian dune origin (Figs. 13D and 14D). This
succession (excluding the basal 200 m) is inter-
preted as the "distal" part of the distributary
zone.
358 %.B. KEE.LY A N I ) H I,)[.SI:.N

Fig. 15. Rodebjerg Formation, basinal deposits. Aeolian sediments, exposed in the Jfilut Dal gorge. A large sample trough cmss-sel
is observed. Palaeowind obliquely into the exposure.

Basinal zone inated, with translatent strata (cf. Hunter. 1977)

and irregular lamination of adhesion ripple ori-
The basal 200 m of the Rodebjerg Formation gin, indicating alternating dry and damp surface
at Mt. Rodebjerg is dominated by aeolian sand conditions (Olsen, 1993). Ephemeral stream de-
sheet deposits. These sandstones are parallel lam- posits form only c. 5% of the basal part. These

A! A
MARINE ~1 1 - ~ "

FLOODBASIN . ~
2kn~

_~ CSF
~,.7 L~.,. IRELAND I
I
I

Fig. 16. Schematic cross-section through the Middle-Upper Devonian succession of western part of the Munster Basin, southwest
Ireland. S S F = the Sherkin Sandstone Formation; C S F = the Chloritic Sandstone Formation: P S F = the Purple Sandstone
Formation. Arrows on inset map indicate general transport directions.
TERMINAL FANS--A REVIEW WITH REFERENCE TO DEVONIAN EXAMPLES
sediments probably formed in the proximity of
the distributary zone where shallow ground water
flow frequently resulted in damp surface condi-
tions.
At the Jfilut Dal/Fladedal valley junction the
formation is composed almost entirely of aeolian
sediments (Fig. 15). These deposits correlate with
the basal deposits at Mt. R0debjerg (Olsen and
Larsen, 1993a; Olsen, 1993). The sediments are
dominated by large-scale dune cross-bedding with
simple sets up to 10-15 m thick which are later-
ally associated with cosets of smaller scale trough
sets. Such cross-bedded units alternate with 1-2
m thick parallel laminated and medium-scale
cross-bedded sandstones, deposited in interdune
areas. The sequence is interpreted in terms of a
dune field with compound dunes comparable with
the Algodones dune field in California (Havholm
and Kocurek, 1988). The sediments were proba-
bly deposited in a more distal setting than the
basal Mt. R0debjerg succession.
Munster Basin, SW Ireland
The Munster Basin of SW Ireland lies within
the Variscan Orogen and presently outcrops over
KILLARNEY
Fig. 17. Location map of main study sections used to assess the Chloritic Sandstone Formation. Note dominance of southerly
directed palaeocurrents (transverse drainage).
35~t
an area in excess of 12,500 km 2 (Fig. 16). The
basin is oriented WSW-ENE and was the site of
prolonged alluvial deposition during Middle-Up-
per Devonian times with an observed sediment
pile thickness of over 6 km (Graham, 1983;
Williams et al., 1989). Several formations within
the Munster Basin have the characteristics of
large terminal fans (Graham, 1983; Williams et
al., 1989). Although some detritus was derived
locally from the basin margins, sandstone petrog-
raphy suggests generally distal sources (Graham,
1983).
The deposits of two large, broadly coeval,
"mixed-load" terminal fan systems have been
identified in the western part of the Munster
Basin; these are the Chloritic Sandstone Forma-
tion and the Sherkin Sandstone Formation (Fig.
16). These systems prograded into "terminal
floodbasin" areas which were characterized by
the deposition of fine-grained sediment (Valentia
Slate, Bird Hill, Caha Mountain and Castlehaven
formations). The Chloritic Sandstone represents
a transverse system that prograded from the
north, whereas the Sherkin system was axial, pro-
grading from the west (Fig. 16). Aspects of the
stratigraphy and sedimentology of these units have
0 5
i I KiIometres
N72
97
Chloritic Sst
GLENFLESK
OERREENAGULLIG
360
been discussed by Graham (1983), Kelly (1988a
and b, 1992, 1993) and Williams et al. (1989). A
third terminal fan system, the Purple Sandstone-
Gun Point Formation is dealt with elsewhere
(Sadler and Kelly, 1993).
The two fluvial systems share many character-
istics on both a gross and detailed scale. It is
uncertain whether the systems were single- or
multi-entry systems. However, considering the size
of the systems (estimated palinspastically restored
"radii" of approximately 100 km, Williams et al.,
1989; Fig. 4) suggests that they developed from
more than one feeder system. This is supported
by the regional palaeocurrents which do not ap-
pear to radiate (Williams et aI., 19891 in the
manner described by Nichols (1987). Although
many of the observations and conclusions con-
cerning these deposits are based on a limited
number of thick vertical profiles, they are sub-
stantiated by proximal-distal observations (cf.
Friend, 1978, pp. 531-533; Friend et al., 1983, pp.
4l -44).
Chloritic Sandstone Formation
Stratigraphic relationships and general interpreta-
tion
Recent detailed mapping indicates that this
formation locally attains a stratigraphic thickness
in excess of 3800 m (P. Meere, pers. commun.,
1989). The Chloritic Sandstone Formation is best
observed near the Killarney-Mallow Fault in the
region of the Derrynasaggart Mountains and the
Macgillicuddy's Reeks. The main section used in
this study is located between Glenflesk village
and Derreenacullig, Co. Kerry (Fig. 171, The
Chloritic Sandstone Formation passes laterally
and vertically into the Caha Mountain, Bird Hill,,
and Valentia Slate formations which are its basi-
nal equivalents.
Although there is a gradation between feeder
zone, distributary zone and basinal zone associa-
tions, it is apparent that the Chloritic Sandstone
Formation is dominated by the channelized ele-
ments of a distributary system. Palaeocurrents
indicate southerly inclined slopes (Walsh, t968;
s.B. K E L L Y A N O H. ~IlAI, N
Graham, 1983; Kelly 1988a; Williams et al., 1989;
Fig. 171. Proximal drainage was locally diverted
by volcanic centres (Avison, 1984; Kelly, 1988a).
In sections located 311-4(t km down-basin
(palinspastically restored distance) the Chloritic
Sandstone Formation is reduced in thickness to
approximately 670 m (O'Sullivan, 1987; Williams
et al., 1989) and is composed of approximately
55% sandstone (O'Sullivan, 1987), compared with
approximately 72% determined for more ' prox-
imal" sections. The downbasin thinning and fin-
ing are clear indicators of the distributary nature
of system (cf. Williams et at., 19891.
Feeder zone
Within the feeder zone, channel deposits arc
composed of individual storeys 5-12 m thick
which are generally stacked into multistorey se-
quences 15-60 m thick. These medium- to
coarse-grained multistorey channel sandstone
bodies alternate with siltstone units 3-11 m thick.
Internally the sandstone bodies exhibit a wide
variety of cross-bedding types, although they arc
most commonly dominated by sets of medium- to
large-scale trough cross-strata (Fig. 19D), Subor-
dinate forms of cross-strata include large-scale
tabular sets up to 2.8 m thick. Also present arc
cosets of laterally extensive parallel lamination up
to 6 m thick (Fig. 19A and 19B). Laminae within
these cosets are inclined at angles up to 20".
although generally not steep enough to have
formed by avalanche processes. The dip direction
of the plane beds is often at high angles ( > 45 °)
to the local transport azimuth determined from
trough cross-strata.
The major sandstone bodies are interpreted as
products of large braided rivers (Graham. 1983:
Kelly, 1988a; Williams et al., 19891 representing
the main feeder channels of the terminal fan
system. The prominent bedforms of these rivers
were dunes which produced sets of trough cross-
strata. Less common bedforms included features
similar to the "linguoid sandwaves" described by
Blodgett and Stanley (1980) which produced tab-
ular sets of large-scale cross-strata. The cosets of
parallel lamination are interpreted as represent-
ing "sandflats" which grew by a combination of
TERMINAL FANS--A REVIEW WITH REFERENCE TO DEVONIAN EXAMPLES 361

both forward and lateral accretion (cf. Coleman, and incipient calcretes implies desiccation associ-
1969; Cant and Walker, 1978; Bristow, 1987). ated with subaerial exposure. Deposition was
The "interchannel" facies association is domi- mainly from decelerating overbank flows which
nated by thick sequences of massive or weakly spread laterally over the floodplain, eventually
laminated siltstones (Fig. 19C). Disseminated cal- ponding with the deposition of fine suspended
careous nodules (incipient calcretes) are locally sediment. The apparent lack of stratification
developed. Sandstone units are generally rare within many siltstone units probably results from
and comprise thin, sheet-like beds which are an absence of any pronounced lithological con-
dominated internally by parallel lamination, trast and/or bioturbation. Sand was episodically
cross-lamination and/or a solitary set of cross- introduced into interchannel areas in the form of
strata. Individual sandstone beds often fine up- sheetfloods and sandy splays similar to those de-
wards into siltstone. scribed by O'Brien and Wells (1986).
The general sheet-like form of interchannel The environmental setting of the interchannel
units indicates depositional surfaces with little facies is possibly analogous to the "intercone"
relief. The occurrence of polygonal mudcracks areas described by Geddes (1960) which occur

Fir
m m

'..- .

. . .

, ....

25- •. . . .
2=-

'.'..v. "~
10- v.".
'..'." v . '
v..'v'~
v . ' . ' . ' v~
v: v.v~

=.........

v.'v.-.
".v.-.v :
"..'.'..v
"..'vv
-.
. . . .v. - . . '
-." . v . . "
•. v : . ' . •
• :-.:..
-.--
.......
'. .. v. ...' .. .. . " •
•. . . . . . : .

•.'.' v . ' . '

20- 2(3

5-
f,;,i,lii!il
!
;+-3
v.'.'.v.=
....... f
='.;'.;'3
I . r .

. . . . . . . j ".'.'.v.v
.:....... ; _ j r f _ v "." " . v
•. . . " v . "
........ i • " :.v."
. :...
........ I
:'.'.'--4

i -... :
. . .
"..v.
....
•. . v . ' . ' •
'.v. ....

: I ~ I 1.5- •. - . . ; .
....
15
-......

I { " "i

FIclFNICI tic ~l~lc ~Ic ~IMI c IFlcl~l~Ic

MUD S'LTIsA"DOR. MuD s LT SA.Do~. M U D SILT S A N D GR, MUD SILT S A N D GR,

A B
Fig. 18. Chloritic Sandstone Formation. Examples of logged sections. (A) Feeder zone--channel facies association. (B) Distributary
zone--distributary channel, sheetflood and floodplain facies.
362 ,,.J~. K E L I Y , \ N I ~ !-t. O I . S [ f'~

between the m e g a - c o n e s of the Indogangetic flood deposits (Williams et al., 1989; Fig. 18B),
Plains a n d are c h a r a c t e r i z e d by the d e p o s i t i o n of D i s t r i b u t a r y c h a n n e l s a n d s t o n e bodies are fine-
f i n e - g r a i n e d s e d i m e n t s (Parkash et al., 1980). to m e d i u m - g r a i n e d a n d generally 2 - 4 m thick.
T h e s e may be a m a l g a m a t e d with finer-grained
Distributary zone parallel l a m i n a t e d s a n d s t o n e to form multistore~
units u p to 20 m thick. C h a n n e l fills are domi-
I n the d i s t r i b u t a r y zone, c h a n n e l s a n d s t o n e n a t e d by small- to m e d i u m - s c a l e sets of trough
bodies occur t o g e t h e r with f l o o d b a s i n a n d sheet- cross-strata (Fig. 19D). A l t h o u g h lateral exposure

Fig. 19. Chloritic Sandstone Formation. (A) Feeder zone--channel and interchannel facies associations, Glenflesk Valley. A thick
channel sandstone body rests on interchannel sittstones. Top of cliff face is poorly exposed. Large scale low-angle cross-~trata (e.g.
set indicated S) thought to represent the accretion or migration of a large "sandflat". The cliff face is oriented perpendicularly t~
the local transport direction as determined from smaller scale cross-strata. See (B/ for a sketch of the exposure, t(') Fcettc~
zone--interchannel facies association, Glenflesk Valley. Interbedded siltstones and sandstones. (D) Distributary zone, west coast
of lveragh Peninsula. Distributary channel sandstone overlyingfloodbasin siltstones. Note rucksack for ~calc
tERMINAL FANS--A REVIEW WITH REFERENCE TO DEVONIAN EXAMPLES
Fig. 19 ( c o n t i n u e d ) .
is generally limited, the distributary channel
sandstone bodies appear to be broadly lenticular
in cross-section ( < 100 m wide), although sand-
stone body bases generally display little downcut-
ting (cf. Friend, 1978, p. 536). Many units have
sharp tops and are directly overlain by siltstone,
although some display a fining upward motif with
cross-strata being overlain by parallel lamination
a n d / o r ripple cross-lamination.
The distributary channels were probably
formed by relatively small, high-energy streams
which often carried dune fields. Increases in flow
363
strength a n d / o r a decrease in mean grain size
resulted in a transition to upper-stage plane beds.
The lack of evidence for lateral accretion surfaces
and the limited dispersal of palaeocurrent pat-
terns suggests that the streams were of limited
sinuosity.
Sheetflood and floodbasin deposits within the
more distal sequences are characterized by thick
siltstones together with 0.5-2.0 m thick units of
parallel laminated or ripple cross-laminated fine-
grained sandstone. Sandstone beds are sheet-like
and can often be traced for several hundreds of
364
metres where exposure allows. The predomi-
nance of siltstone suggests generally quiescent
conditions punctuated by episodic unconfined
flood events which introduced coarser material.
These distal sequences are considered transi-
tional to the basinal zone.
Basinal zone
The distributary zone of the Chloritic Sand-
stone Formation exhibits a gradual downcurrent
transition to the more basinal deposits of the
Caha Mountain, Bird Hill and Valentia Slate
formations which are dominated by monotonous
sequences of thinly bedded fine-grained sand-
stone and siltstone (Sadler, 1992). Beds are gen-
erally sheet-like with parallel lamination and rip-
ple cross-lamination. The basinal sequences were
deposited as flood basin and sheetflood deposits.
--------1 Formation
Clltiehlven
~ Sherkin
FoIIcoagh
Bay Beds ryT,:+:-:.:.;-:I
Formation
[ i : L J
175 / / / /
' ~ , ~ HARBO4J~
Fig. 20. Sherkin Sandstone Formation. Location m a p illustrating main study section located on Clear Island (after G r a h a m anti
Reilly, 1972). Note the dominance of a large-scale antiform, the Rosscarberry Anticline. Palaeocurrents indicate easterly directed
flow (axial drainage).
~ 1'~ K E I + I ~r A N ~ ) F [ OtSl.~.+
Sherkin Sandstone Formation
Stratigraphic relationships and general interpreta-
tion
The Sherkin Sandstone Formation outcrops in
the region of Roaringwater Bay with the most
extensive exposures occurring on Sherkin and
Clear Islands (Fig. 20). The main section used for
assessing the Sherkin Sandstone Formation is lo-
cated on the western side of the South t-larbott~
on Clear Island. The formation is in excess ot
1100 m thick and is dominated by fine- t,+
medium-grained grey-green sandstones interbed-
ded with grey-green and, or purple siltstones. The
Sherkin Sandstone Formation passes laterally and
vertically into the "Castlehaven Formation" (Re~
illy and Graham, 1976) which is its basinal equiwt-
lent.
t
N
WILES0 I "
~+t OUE TAtS 0 1
TERMINAL FANS--A REVIEW WITH REFERENCE TO DEVONIAN EXAMPLES 365

The nature of the geological structure of the
Roaringwater Bay area, particularly the plunging
character of the Rosscarberry Anticline, renders
proximal-distal relationships of the Sherkin
Sandstone difficult to assess. Such relationships
are mainly interpreted from the study of the
South Harbour Section which clearly documents
the "retrogradation" of the system with time. The
South Harbour Section can be split into "lower",
"middle" and "upper" intervals, all of approxi-
mately equal thickness (c. 300 m). The lower,
basal section is the coarsest with multistorey dis-
tributary sandstone bodies (> 5 m thick) being
dominant (40%), the remainder comprising minor
sandstone bodies of both distributary channel and
sheetflood origin (28%), and siltstone (32%). The
middle section displays an increase in siltstone
content (46%) together with an increase in the

m nl
m m

26"
25

10-
lO

20
2o

15
15-

0,

A B
Fig. 21. Sherkin Sandstone Formation. Examples of logged sections. (A) Distributary zone--"proximal" facies association, South
Harbour section, Clear Island. Dominated by cross-bedded distributary channel sandstones. (B) Distributary zone--"medial"
facies association, South Harbour section, Clear Island. Dominated by cross-bedded distributary channel deposits, together with
parallel and ripple cross-laminated sheetflood sandstones and floodbasin siltstones.
366
number of purple lithologies. Multistorey dis-
tributary channel sandstones constitute 10% and
minor distributary channel and sheetflood units
comprise the remainder. The upper section is
dominated by fine-grained deposits (siltstone con-
tent of 52%) together with minor distributary
channels (24%) and sheetflood sandstones (24%).
The "lower", "middle" and " u p p e r " sections are
thought to relate to the "proximal", "'medial"
and "distal" portions of the distributary zone of
the Sherkin system. Fieldwork in the area of
Roaringwater Bay indicates that the South Har-
bour Section is representative of the formation
and that the vertical changes in depositional style
reflect the behaviour of the system as a whole.
D&tributary zone
No distinctive feeder zone facies has been
recognized within the Sherkin system. The most
proximal deposits comprise fine- to medium-
grained, single and multistorey sandstone bodies,
the latter tending to be more common (Fig. 21A).
Over limited lateral exposures the sandbodies
appear to be tabular or sheet-like in form, al-
though deeply incised channels do occur occa-
sionally (Graham and Reilly, 1972, p. 286). Multi-
storey complexes up to 30 m thick are partitioned
into 2-5 m thick storeys by internal erosion sur-
faces which often display some degree of con-
cave-up downcutting. The predominant sedimen-
tary structure within sandstone bodies is trough
cross-stratification, with larger but less common
sets of tabular cross-strata (up to 2 m thick). In
some instances, sets of cross-strata can be ob-
served to descend in a downcurrent manner with
set boundaries inclined at 10-15 ° in the same
direction as the foresets. It is also quite common
to observe plane beds which "roll over" into
sigmoidal foresets. Other sedimentary features
such as reactivation surfaces and fine-grained
drapes on foresets have also been observed.
Lenticular developments of grey-green siltstone,
generally less than 3.0 m wide and 0.5 m thick,
are quite common within sandstone complexes.
The sandstone bodies are interpreted as the
products of low-sinuosity streams (cf. Graham
and Reilly, 1972; Kelly, 1988b) forming the dis-
", B K E I 3 Y A N D ~:E.()LS,~N
tributary channels of the terminal fan system.
The general lack of pronounced incision reflects
broad, relatively shallow channels often cut into a
sandy substrate. Bedload within the channels was
transported mainly as dunes. Planar .sets of
cross-strata represent larger mesoforms similar tc~
those described from modern low-sinuosity sys--
terns (Smith, 1970, 1971: G.E. Williams, 1971).
The down-current descending sets indicate depo-
sition on the leeside of a larger bedform ~r
macroform (Banks, 1973; Miall, 1988). Reactiva-
tion surfaces and siltstone drapes suggest a fluc-
tuating discharge. Topset preservation and sig-
moidal cross-strata are the result of high-stage
bedforms which are developed in the dune tt~
upper-stage plane-bed transition (Roe, 1987).
Lenticular "in-channel" siltstones probably re-
flect the local abandonment of channel segments
and deposition from suspension at low stage.
Channel depths are estimated to have been gen-
erally less than 5 m judging from the scale ol
sandstone bodies and sedimentary structures con-
tained within them (Kelly, t992).
Within "proximal" sequences of the distribu-
tary zone several varieties of fine-grained facies
are recognized. Most commonly developed arc
sheet-like units of sandstone and siltstone, the
former being dominated by parallel lamination or
ripple cross-lamination. These units can be at-
tributed mainly to sheetflood processes resulting
from channel flooding.
A less common interchannel facies consists of
dark grey laminated siltstones, light grey biotur-
bated, pyritiferous siltstone and fine-grained
sandstones with wave ripples (e.g. the "Foilcoagh
Beds", Graham and Reilly, 1972). These sedi-
ments are interpreted as lacustrine deposits on
the basis of their fine-grained character, dark
colour and the presence of wave generated struc-
tures (cf. Clayton and Graham, 1974). A possibtc
modern analogue for the Foilcoagh Beds are the
"lagoon" deposits of the Lake Eyre Basin. The
so-called lagoons are a type of playa that develop
in local topographic depressions which are fed by
major rivers. Their surfaces are black or grey
owing to a cover of organic material (Twidale,
1972), which also could explain the presence of
pyrite in the ancient deposits.
TERMINAL FANS--A REVIEW WITH REFERENCE TO DEVONIAN EXAMPLES 367

The fine- to medium-grained sandstone bodies
of the " m e d i a l " and "distal" portions of the
distributary zone are generally < 3 m thick (Fig.
22). Medium-scale cross-bedding and parallel
lamination (which may exhibit primary current
lineation) are the most common sedimentary
structures. Thin siltstone units generally < 10 cm
thick occur locally within the sandstone bodies.
Individual sandstone bodies are generally sheet-
like on an outcrop scale (up to several 100 m)
(Fig. 22). Gradual downcutting is often apparent
in extensive outcrops of thicker units although
maximum relief rarely exceeds 2 m. Smaller sand-
stone bodies ( < 1 m thick) are often dominated
by a single set of cross-strata; such units are often
stacked up separated by thin siltstones. It is often
possible to trace sandstone beds laterally from
their more channelized parts. Small- to medium-
scale cross-strata pass through plane-beds with
primary current lineation to ripple cross-laminae,
and eventually the sandstones pass into siltstones
which are the finest deposits of distributary zone
sequences. These observed lateral transitions
clearly indicate flow dissipation across the flood-
plain.
Siltstones are grey-green or purple in colour;
individual beds are generally < 1 m thick al-
though they may be stacked to form units up to
20 m thick. Units often appear to be massive or
faintly laminated; bioturbation is often conspicu-
ous. Sand-filled polygons and incipient calcrete
nodules have been observed, the latter being re-
stricted to purple lithologies.
The thicker sandstone bodies dominated by
cross-strata are interpreted as larger channel fills.
Many of the channels in the distributary zone
were evidently small and were filled quickly by
dune bedforms. The cross-bedded sheet sand-
stones probably formed reflect laterally uncon-
fined to broadly channelized sheetfloods which
dissipated rapidly, with mud drapes deposited at
falling/low stage (Tunbridge, 1981; O'Brien and
Wells, 1986). The formative streams were gener-
ally 1-2 m deep judging from the sandstone body
thicknesses. Other channels which exhibit 3 - 5 m
fining and thinning sequences were probably filled

Fig. 22. Sherkin Sandstone Formation. Distributary zone--"medial" and "distal" facies associations. The section isJapproximately
15 m thick. The deposits are mainly sheetflood sandstones and interbedded floodbasin siltstones. Note the dominance of sheet-like
geometries with minimal downcutting. The photograph has rotated from the horizontal to account for the steep structural dip.
 368 s B K[:l,l."t A N D H ~)1,~1:,",

episodically with increments of sand deposition
separated by thinner silts which accumulated dur-
ing more quiescent phases (cf. Nichols, 1987).
Basinal zone
The distributary zone exhibits a gradual down-
current and upsection transition into the Castle-
haven Formation, which is the "basinal" equiva-
lent of the Sherkin system. The Castlehaven For-
mation is dominated by purple siltstones with
minor ripple laminated fine-grained sandstone
interbeds (Graham and Reilly, 1972; Reilly and
Graham, 1976). Coarser sandbodies are rare and
generally limited to the "Ballylinchy Tower Mem-
ber" which presumably represents a relatively
short-lived rejuvenation of the Sherkin Sandstone
system.
A model
The commonality of ancient terminal fan sys-
tems has been noted by Friend (1978, p. 531).
Many units are thick (hundreds to thousands o/(
metres) and accumulated in relatively small basins
< 105 km 2) near to uplifting mountain sources.
Terminal fan sequences are most readily distin-
guished from other fluvial systems by consistent
downstream trends in various sedimentary pa-
rameters. The grain size and scale of individual
channel sandstone bodies will show a general
decrease downstream (Friend, 1978). This is corn-

Facies associations
Feeder ~ Distributary ~ Sheetflood
:~<~3-o~ ch.... I ~ ch.... I ~ , r ~ u d a b ~ ....

Fig. 23. Facies model for terminal fans, ( ] = feeder zone; (,2-4)= distributary zone, shown as "proximal" (2), "'medial" (3) and
"distal" (4); (5) = basinal zone. "['he proportions of facies associations may vary in accordance to the suspended Ioad/bedload
ratio. The maximum down stream extend of individual terminal fan systems is unlikely to exceed 100 k m
TERMINAL F A N S - - A REVIEW WITH REFERENCE TO DEVONIAN EXAMPLES 369

bined with an overall increase in the proportion mensions of channel bodies may be anticipated
of siltstone if the system carries a mixed load. (Nichols, 1987). However, although the transition
The simple model presented below (Fig. 23; Table from the feeder zone to the distributary zone is
1) summarizes the facies and achitecture of ter- marked by a distinct reduction in the mean grain
minal fan deposits and is based on the observa- size of the channel sediments, it is commonly
tions of modern and ancient systems. associated with an increase in channel body den-
sity. This is thought to reflect the downstream
Feeder zone splitting of major feeder channels, resulting in
networks of distributary channels. In more distal
The feeder zone is characterized by two dis-
reaches, multifurcation is likely to result in a
tinctly different facies associations. Dominant is
complete spectrum of sandstone bodies ranging
the "feeder channel association", which is com-
from those deposited by major rivers to minor
posed of individual storeys measuring a few to
single event, weakly channelized, flood sedimen-
several metres in thickness. The storeys may be
tation units. A simple two-fold subdivision of
stacked into multistorey sediment bodies measur-
facies into coarse "in-channel" and fine "over-
ing tens of metres in thickness and hundreds of
bank" facies therefore seems inappropriate.
metres in width. Smaller single storey sediment
If discharge across a system varies significantly
bodies may also occur in association with the
with time we may expect to see large river chan-
larger ones (e.g. the Snehvide Formation). The
nels reaching distal parts of the system during
sediment bodies are composed of relatively coarse
periods of high discharge and only small channels
sandstones a n d / o r conglomerates (although
in the proximal parts during periods of low dis-
finer-grained sandstones may be expected in the
charge (Nichols, 1987; Kelly, 1992, 1993). The
absence of coarse detritus). The channel deposits
higher preservation potential of larger channel
reflect fluctuating, though generally perennial
bodies may thus blur any proximal-distal trend.
discharge and may contain evidence of the devel-
In addition, bifurcation will produce a pattern of
opment of braid bar complexes (e.g. the Snehvide
varying channel dimensions across the system and
Formation, the Chloritic Sandstone Formation).
this could also result in the local preservation of
The second association present in the feeder
small channels in proximal reaches and large
zone is the "interchannel association", which is
trunk channels in distal parts of the system
most commonly composed of mudstones/silt-
(Nichols, 1987).
stones and relatively fine-grained sandstones de-
The width/depth ratio of distributary channels
posited from overbank flows (e.g. the Chloritic
may increase (cf. Schumm, 1961; Nichols, 1987;
Sandstone Formation). These sediments com-
Bull, 1991), or decrease (Mukerji, 1975) in a
monly exhibit signs of desiccation and may also
downstream direction. Experience from Devo-
reflect periodic ponding of water. Aeolian de-
nian systems suggests that the former case is
posits may occur in association with, or alterna-
generally more common. The connectivity of
tive to the overbank sediments. In the examples
sandbodies would also be expected to decrease
presented in this paper, aeolian deposits are not
down stream as channel frequency and depth
reported from the feeder zone. However, Olsen
decreases, although this may be compensated to
and Larsen (1993b) describe an example from the
some extent by bifurcation which increases the
East Greenland basin in which aeolian sand sheet
number of channels (Atkinson, 1986). Sand-
and dune deposits dominate the interchannel as-
dominated sheetfloods will tend to produce later-
sociation. The interchannel association usually
ally extensive sandstone units with generally good
occurs in sequences several metres thick.
internal connectivity. The development of dis-
Distributary zone
crete lobes in the distal parts of the system may
cause local increases in the density and connectiv-
In passing from the feeder to distributary zones ity between individual channel sandbodies
a downstream decrease in the frequency and di- (Nichols, 1987).
370
A general proximal-distal relationship is re-
flected in the density of distributary channel bod-
ies and a tentative subdivision of the distributary
zone into "proximal", "medial" and "distal" parts
may be possible. "Proximal" parts are dominated
by distributary channel deposits. In sand-prone
systems the entire sequence may be composed of
distributary channel deposits (e.g. the Snehvide
Formation) reflecting braidplain characteristics.
In depositional systems carrying larger amounts
of suspended fines, interbedding of channel and
sheetflood sandstones with mudstones may occur
(e.g. the Sherkin Sandstone Formation).
In the "medial" part, interbedding of channel
sandstone bodies and sheetflood units occurs,
with subordinate to subdominant flood basin
mudstones (e.g. the Sherkin Sandstone Forma-
tion) or aeolian sandstones (e.g. the Rodebjerg
Formation). The channel sandstone bodies gener-
ally exhibit limited thickness variations and may
either reflect perennial discharge (e.g. the Rode-
bjerg Formation) or varying degrees of ephemer-
ality (e.g. the Sherkin Sandstone Formation). Dis-
tributary channel sandstone bodies are generally
sheetlike and commonly exceed 100 m in width
(e.g. the R~debjerg Formation).
In the "distal" part of the distributary zone
channel density decreases. Distributary channel
sandstone bodies may still be dominant (e.g. the
R0debjerg Formation). More commonly, how-
ever, either flood basin fines (e.g. the Sherkin
Sandstone Formation) or sheetflood sandstones
dominate (cf. Tunbridge, 1984; the Snehvide For-
mation). Distributary channel sandstones occur
both as single and multistorey bodies and gener-
ally do not exceed 100 m in width. Distributary
channel deposits in general reflect ephemeral flow
conditions. In fluvial systems carrying large
amounts of suspended fines, flood basin mud-
stones may form a considerable percentage of the
distal sequences (e.g. the Chloritic Sandstone
Formation, the Sherkin Sandstone Formation). In
systems poor in suspended load, aeolian sand-
stones may be common in distal sequences (e.g.
the Rcdebjerg Formation).
s . B K E L I ~ / \ N D ]t f~LSI.N
Basinal zone
The basinal zone of terminal fans is probably
governed by the suspended load/bedload ratios
of the terminal fan systems and the character of
adjacent depositional systems. High suspended
load/bedload ratios resull in a dominance oi
floodbasin mudstones and fine-grained sheet-
flood sandstones with rare ephemeral stream
channel sandstones (Irish examples). Alterna-
tively the basinal zone may be composed of playa
mudflat fines (e.g. Tunbridge, 1984; Olsen. 1987).
Low suspended load/bedload ratios may result in
aeolian reworking of sands and a dominance of
aeolian dune and sand sheet sandstones with
subordinate flood basin mudstones, sheetflood
sandstones and rare ephemeral stream channel
sandstones (Greenland examples).
Summary
(1) Terminal fans occur where sediment-laden
streams decrease in size and vanish as a result of
evaporation and transmission losses. They tend to
form in arid or semi-arid regions which are char-
acterized by a moisture deficit.
(2) Distributary channel patterns are charac-
teristic of terminal fans and reflect both toss of
stream power and spatially/temporally fluctuat-
ing discharge.
(3) Terminal fans are characterized by three
basic zones; the feeder, distributary and basinal
zones, each of which will have characteristic sedi-
mentary deposits related to the subenvironment.
(4) The size and character of terminal fan
systems are closely related to the type of dis.
charge/sediment supplied and the nature of con-
temporary depositional systems. High-discharge/
mixed-load systems tend to develop extensive fans
and associated fine-grained floodbasins into which
they prograde (e.g. Irish examples). Low to mod-
erate discharge, sand-dominated systems tend to
develop smaller fans that can interact in a com-
plex manner with adjacent depositional systems
(aeolian/fluvial) (e.g. Greenland examples).
TERMINAL FANS--A REVIEWWITH REFERENCETO DEVONIAN EXAMPLES
Acknowledgements
S.B.K. acknowledges a BP research stu-
dentship for work in Ireland at University College
Cork, and the continued support of the Reservoir
Geology Division of the Geochem Group Lim-
ited. H.O. acknowledges a Carlsberg Foundation
post doc. grant and additional technical support
from the Geological Survey of Greenland in con-
nection to his research in Greenland. The au-
thors would like to thank Osman Abdullatif for
providing unpublished information corncerning
the Gash Fan, Sudan. Pat Meere and Shaun
Sadler generously provided unpublished informa-
tion on the Munster Basin. Shaun Sadler, John
Collinson and Chris Fielding kindly suggested
improvements to an earlier manuscript.
References
Abdullatif, O.M., 1989. Channel-fill and sheet-flood facies
sequences in the ephemeral terminal River Gash, Kassala,
Sudan. Sediment. Geol., 63: 171-184.
Aldridge, B.N. and Eychaner, J.H., 1984. Floods of October
1977 in southern Arizona and March 1978 in central
Arizona. U.S. Geol. Surv., Water Supply Pap. 1850-C.
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