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AN ELEMENTARY TREATISE
ON
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
OF THREE DIMENSIONS
BY
ROBERT
J. T.
BELL, M.A,
EMERITUS PROFESSOR OF MATHEMATICS IN THE UNIVERSITY OF OTAGO, DUNEDIN, FORMERLY LECTURER IN MATHEMATICS IN THE UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW
THIRD EDITION
LONDON
1963
This book
Reprinted 1914, 1918, 1920, 1923, 1926, 1928 1931, 1937 Third Edition 1944
MACMILLAN AND COMPANY LIMITED St Martin's Street London WC2 also Bombay Calcutta Madras Melbourne
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY OF CANADA LIMITED
Toronto
ST MARTIN'S PRESS INO
New York
PREFACE
present elementary text-book embodies the course in Solid Coordinate Geometry which, for several years, it has been part of my duties as Lecturer in Mathematics at the
THE
University of Glasgow to give to two classes of students. For the student whose interests lie in the direction of
of reference
which he
may
consult
when his reading on Applied Mathematics demands a knowledge, say, of the properties of curves or of geodesies. At the
same time
it is
may
find here a suitable introduction to the larger treatises on the subject and to works on Differential Geometry and
course which includes the properties of conicoids as far as confocals. Certain sections of a less
all
sections
involve the angle- or distance-formulae for oblique axes have been marked with an asterisk, and may be omitted.
Chapter XL has been devoted to the discussion of the This order of General Equation of the Second Degree. arrangement entails some repetition, but it has compensating advantages. The student who has studied the special forms of the equation finds less difficulty and vagueness in dealing with the general.
vi
PREFACE
and have included sections on Ruled Surfaces, Curvilinear It seemed Coordinates, Asymptotic Lines and Geodesies.
more advantageous to make the student acquainted with the new ideas which these sections involve than to exercise him in the application of principles with which his reading in the geometry of two dimensions must have made him to some extent familiar. In teaching the subject constant recourse has been had to the treatises of Smith, Frost and Salmon, and the works of Carnoy, de Longchamps and Niewenglowski have been
to be
obligations to these authors, occasionally consulted. which are probably much greater than I am aware of, are I am specially indebted to Resal, gratefully acknowledged.
My
whose methods, given in his Tkdorie des Surfaces, I have found very suitable for an elementary course, and have followed in the work of the last two chapters. The examples are very numerous. Those attached to the sections are for the most part easy applications of the theory or results of the section. Many of these have been constructed to illustrate particular theorems and others have been selected from university examination papers. Some have been taken from the collections of de Longchamps, Koehler, and Mosnat, to whom the author desires to acknowledge his indebtedness.
have to thank Profs. Jack and Gibson for their kindly interest and encouragement. Prof. Gibson has read part of in manuscript and all the proofs, and it owes much the work to his shrewd criticisms and valuable suggestions. My
I
the proofs and verified nearly all the examples part of that tedious task was performed by Mr. Thomas M. MacRobert. I tender my cordial thanks to these two gentlemen for their most efficient
all
;
help.
I desire also to
BELL.
the earlier part of the book. One or two sections have been rewritten and additional figures and illustrative examples
B.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
I
Segments
Relations between collinear segments
Cartesian coordinates
--..
PAOB
1
2.
3.
4.
5.
6. 7. 8. 9.
Polar coordinates
Change
of origin
10.
U.
......-,_
1
j
7
8
12
CHAPTER
PROJECTIONS.
DIRECTION-COSINES.
DIRECTION-
RATIOS
12.
13.
lines
16
15
14.
15.
16. 17.
its
projection
15
The
projection of a broken
line
16
17
its
17 18
18.
its
x
ART.
CONTENTS
PAGH
19.
Relation
between
-
areas
-
of
a
-
closed
-
curve
-
and
-
its
-
projection
20.
19
19
Direction -cosines
definition
21. 22.
19
23.
The
angle
cosines
between
24.
The angle
cosines
between
with
given
direction-
24
25
two
lines
with
given
direction-
Direction -ratios
-
28 30
31.
32.
30
CHAPTER
III
Forms
32
34. 35.
36.
37. 38.
The plane through three points The distance of a point from a plane The planes bisecting the angles between
planes
----two given
-
33
34
35
37
39.
The equations
The
line
38
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
through two given points The direction -ratios found from the equations
Constants in the equations to a line
.....
.
38 40
40
42
45.
The plane and the straight line The intersection of threp planes
Lines intersecting two given lines
Lines intersecting three given lines
43
47
46.
47.
...
-
63
54
48.
49.
50.
The condition that two given lines should be coplanar The shortest distance between two given lines Problems relating to two given non-intersecting lines
56
57
61
51.
The volume
of a tetrahedron
64
CONTENTS
xi
CHAPTER IV
CHANCE OF AXES
ART.
52.
PAOB
Formulae
68
53.
54.
perpendicular lines Transformation to examine the section of a given surface by a given plane
--------------
69
72
75
55.
Formulae
EXAMPLES
76
CHAPTER V
THE SPHERE
56.
[37.
The equation
to a sphere
81
58,
Tangents and tangent plane to a sphere The radical plane of two spheres
82
83
EXAMPLES
II.
85
CHAPTER
69.
60.
VI
THE CONE
61.
The equation to a cone The angle between the lines in which a plane cuts a cone The condition of tangency of a plane and cone
-
-----.
a given base
-
88
90
92
92
62.
The
--------
63.
93
-
96
CHAPTER
VII
The equation
to a central conicoid
----...
-
99
101
67.
----
102
102
lii
ART.
CONTENTS
Condition that a plane should touch a conicoid
-
68. 69.
70.
71.
103
104
106 107
72.
108
73. 74.
75. 76.
77. 78. 79.
108
110
* -
-111
112
The normals from a given point Conjugate diameters and diametral planes
Properties of the cone
The equation
to a paraboloid
80.
81.
82.
B3.
Tangent planes-
84,
114
119
122
123 124
.....
-**.
VIII
SECTIONS.
EXAMPLES IV.
CHAPTER
THE AXES OF PLANE
85.
CIECULAB
131
-
SECTIONS
The determination
Axes
of axes
86.
87. 88.
131
Axes
Axes
of
any
134
137
of a section of a paraboloid
89.
90.
The determination
of circular sections
138
138
lie
91.
Any two
circular sections
on
139
a sphere
92. 93.
94.
95.
.... ....
-
Umbilics
EXAMPLES V.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER IX
GENERATING LINES
*RT.
PAGE
96.
Euled surfaces
148
The
section of a surface
by a tangent plane
150
152 152 154
155
Line meeting conicoid in three points is a generator Conditions that a line should be a generator
System
of generators of a hyperboloid
...
-
101.
102. 103.
-156
156
156
104.
105.
106.
The
projections of generators
<f>
Along a generator Q
is
constant
158
161
The systems
107.
108.
109.
110. 111.
The equation to the conicoid through three given lines The straight lines which meet four given lines
to a hyperboloid
112.
The equation
when generators
are co-
ordinate axes
113.
114.
166
167
of distribution
-
The
central point
and parameter
169
EXAMPLES VI.
172
CHAPTER X
CONFOCAL CONICOIDS
116.
116.
176
-
176
178
179 179
180
117.
118. 119.
120. 121.
The
The
The parameters
181
xiv
ART.
l'2'2.
CONTENTS
Locus of the poles of a given plane with respect to
confocals
--------through a point
-
181
123.
124.
182
183
self-polar tetrahedron
125.
126.
The axes
of
an enveloping cone
183
184
184
127.
Corresponding points
.-----
186
187
The
The
189
EXAMPLES VI I.
193
CHAPTER XI
THE GENERAL EQUATION 0V THE SECOND DEGREE
131.
Introductory
Constants in the equation
Points of intersection of line
196
132.
133.
196
197
134.
135.
198
201
130.
137.
138.
202
203
-
The
203 204
139.
140.
204
141.
142.
143.
when one
root
is
zero
....
-
206
206
207
Principal planes
when two
144.
1
The
208
45.
The
146. 147.
148.
The The
principal directions
212
149.
150.
151.
The
principal directions
of
when
The transformation
The centres
(abcfgh)(xyzf
...
-
CONTENTS
iBT.
xv
PAGE
152.
of the centres
216
216
153.
154.
origin
is
at a centre
217
-
155-161.
162.
163.
219
228
Invariants
231
EXAMPLES VIII.
233
CHAPTER
THE INTERSECTION OF TWO
164.
XII
CONICOIDS.
SYSTEMS
-
OF CONICOIDS
The quartic curve
Conicoids with a
Conicoids with
of intersection of
two
coriicoids
165.
166. 167. 188.
169.
170.
common
generator
generators
common
.... ....
...
238
239
241
intersection of
-
two conicoids
245
246 248
common
---------
plane sections
248
171.
172.
Circumscribing conicoids
Conicoids through eight given points
249
251
173.
174.
--------...
of a given
-
251
252
EXAMPLES IX.
253
CHAPTER
CONOIDS.
175. 176.
XIII
SURFACES IN GENERAL
Definition of a conoid
-------
257
257
177. 178.
179.
...
259
260
261 261
of a surface
180.
xvi
ART.
CONTENTS
PAOK
181.
182. 183.
The equation
Singular points
=/(,
TJ)
262
-..*...
.
*
....
263
265 266
267
The
indicatrix
185.
Parametric equations
-...... ..--.....
-
270
271
EXAMPLES X.
273
CHAPTER XIV
CURVES IN SPACE
186.
187.
to a curve
275
275
188.
189.
190.
277
191. 192.
193. 194.
The
osculating plane
The
principal normal
and
bi normal
-----....
torsion
......
277 278
279 282
Curvature
Torsion
284
-284
285
The
spherical indicatrices
Frenet's formulae
198.
199.
...
normal
285
288
288
200.
The
direction-cosines
binomial
201.
202.
--------of
the
principal
and
289 289
The radius
of torsion
Curves in which the tangent makes a constant angle with a given line
291
203. 204.
205. 206.
The
circle of
curvature
292
292
298
301
EXAMPLES
XL
303
CONTENTS
xvii
CHAPTER XV
ENVELOPES. EULED SUEFACES
ART.
PAGE
207. 208.
209.
Envelopes
one parameter
307
308
The edge
Envelopes
of regression
-
309
210.
309
311
211.
212.
213.
two parameters
-
312
214.
215.
The tangent plane to a ruled surface The generators of a developable are tangents
....
to a curve
-
313
315
316
316
318
216.
217.
218.
320
EXAMPLES XII.
322
CHAPTER XVI
CUEVATUEE OF SUEFACES
219.
Introductory
326
elliptic
220.
point
326
327
221.
222. 223. 224.
329
330
-
225.
Curvature of an oblique section Meunier's theorem The radius of curvature of a given section -
330
331
226.
227.
The
332
Lines of curvature
228.
229.
...
-
333
333
33?
230.
The
normals
to
surface
at
points
of
line
of
curvature
231.
334
-
335
xviii
CONTENTS
Determination
curvature
of
ART.
232.
the
principal
radii
and
lines
of
337
233.
Determination of umbilics
Triply-orthogonal systems,
342
Dupin's theorem
-
234.
235.
344
346
236.
237.
The measure
The measure
of curvature
of curvature
is
l/pip2
....
-
346
347 348
238.
239.
Curvilinear coordinates
Direction-cosines of the normal to the surface
349
240.
The
linear
elenmt
and
-
350
lines of curvature
-
24L
The
principal radii
350
EXAMPLES XIII,
354
CHAPTER XVII
ASYMPTOTIC LINES-GEODESICS
242.
Asymptotic
lines
358
asymptotic lines
-
243.
244.
The
differential equation of
358
359
245.
369
246.
247.
248.
The
249. 250.
251.
362
363
363 366
367
Geodesies on conicoids
torsion of a goOiiesic
252.
253.
.......
I.
369
370 373
375
EXAMPLES XIV.
xiii
II
xxxi
xlv
CHAPTER
Segments.
Two
and CD have the same direction, BA and CD have opposite If AB and CD are of the same length and in directions. the same direction they are said to be equivalent segments.
2.
line
B C, ... N, P are any points on a straight X'OX, and the convention is made that a segment of
If
A,
f
the straight line is positive or negative according as its direction is that of OX or OX', then we have the following
relations
:
OA
x lt x.2 are the measures of OA and OB, ie. the ratios of and OB to any positive segment of unit length, L, then
and
or the measure of
3.
AB
is
#2
xl
X'OX, Y'OY, Z'OZ be any three fixed intersecting lines which are not coplanar, and whose positive directions are chosen to be X'OX, Y'OY, Z'OZ and let
Coordinates.
Let
planes through any point in space, P, parallel respectively to the planes YOZ, ZOX, XOY, cut X'X, Y'Y, Z'Z in A, B, C,
(fig. 1),
B,G.
is
known when
the segments
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
OA, OB,
[CH.
OC
are
struction for P
would be
given in magnitude and sign. A con* cut off from OX the segment OA,
:
A, equivalent to the
N, equivalent to
OC
are
known when
segment OB, and the segment OC. OA. their measures are known, and
and the planes YOZ, ZOX, The measure of OA, the XOY, the coordinate planes. segment cut off from OX or OX' by the plane through P
is
The point O
parallel to
YOZ,
is
the measures
of OB and OC are the y and ^-coordinates, and the symbol " the point P whose coordinates P, (x, y, z) is used to denote,
divide space into eight parts called octants, and the signs of the coordinates of a point determine the octant in which it lies. The following table shews the signs for the eight octants
z."
:
are x, y,
3,4]
It is generally
"
Ex.
1.
Sketch in a figure the positions of the points - 1, (8, 0, 3), (-2, 5;, (-4, -2, 0), (0, 0, -6).
is 3,
(ii)
Ex. 2. What is the locus of the point, (i) whose ^-coordinate whose ^-coordinate is 2 and whose y-coordinate is -4? Ex.
3. What is = and y=0
the locus of a point whose coordinates satisfy = a and y = (ii) x (in) j; = a and ?/ = & ; (iv)z = c
;
= c, (fig. 1), what are the equations to Ex. 4. If OA = a, OB = 6, the planes PNBM, PMCL, PNAL? What equations are satisfied by the coordinates of any point on the line PN
OC
4. Sign of direction of rotation. By assigning positive directions to a system of rectangular axes X'X, Y'Y, Z'Z, we have fixed the positive directions of the normals to the
coordinate planes YOZ, ZOX, XOY. Retaining the usual convention made in plane geometry, the positive direction of rotation for a ray revolving about O in the plane XOY
is
that given by XYX'Y', that is, is counter-clockwise, if the clock dial be supposed to coincide with the plane and front in the positive direction of the normal. Hence to fix the
positive direction of rotation for a ray in any plane, we have the rule: if a dock dial is considered to coincide
normal
to
the
plane,
the
the other coordinate planes the positive directions of rotation for the planes YOZ, ZOX are seen to be YZY'Z', ZXZ'x'.
Applying
this
rule
to
positive direction of rotation for a plane can also be found by considering that it is the direction in which a right-handed gimlet or corkscrew nas to be turned so that it may move forward in the positive direction of the normal to the plane.
The
plane ABC meets the axes OX, OY, OZ in A, B, C, and the normal from O. If ON is chosen as the positive direction of the normal, and a point P moves round the perimeter of the the sign of the direction triangle ABC in the direction ABC, what is are (i) all positive, (ii) one of rotation of NP when OA, OB,
Ex.
ON
is
OC
negative,
(iii)
two negative,
(iv) all
negative
COORDINATE GEOMETKY
5.
[ce.
Cylindrical coordinates.
If
x'ox,
rectangular axes, and PN is the perpendicular from any point P to the plane XOY, the position of P is determined if ON, the angle XON, and NP are known. The measures
of these quantities, u, </>, z, are the cylindrical coordinates The positive direction of rotation for the plane XOY of P. has been defined, and the direction of a ray originally
coincident with OX, and then turned through the given angle 0, is the positive direction of ON. In the figure,
t6,
<f>,
z are
all positive.
P are
x, y, z,
those of
consider only points in the plane XOY, the Cartesian coordinates of N are x, y, and the polar, u, Therefore
are
x, y, 0.
If
we
z'
FIG. 9,
6.
Polar coordinates.
plane OZPN, (fig. 2), by a given value of (p then we may define the positive direction of the normal through O to the plane to be that which makes an
has been determined
y
+ ^/2 with X'OX. Our convention, ( 4), then fixes angle the positive direction of rotation for a ray revolving in the
plane OZPN. The position of P is evidently determined when, in addition to $, we are given r and 0, the measures
5,6]
The quantities r, 6, are the polar The positive direction of OP is that of a coordinates of P. ray originally coincident with OZ and then turned in the
of
OP and
plane OZPN through the given angle 9. In the figure, OM is the positive direction of the normal to the plane OZPN, and r 0, <f> are all positive.
y
If
we
and ON
OZPN and OZ
lias
Cartesian
coordinates
u,
6.
Therefore
But
if
is (x, y, z)
Whence
u cos
</>,
<f).
is
given by
<J
of the points
7T\
)
Draw * V\
figures
/.,
?
V'"3'4>
What
Ex.
2.
27T
7T
/
J
5;T
IP
2, 1, 2)>
4, 5), (
so that r
may
be positive.
J,
An*. 4 3
tan-^),
(3,
2\/5
,
Shew
Find
3)
from the
the polar
4.
the Cartesian,
(ii)
the cylindrical,
(iii)
equation of the sphere whose centre is the origin and radius 2 2 2 = 2 2 = 4. Ans. 16, (iii) r (ii) w + 2 =16, (i) ^ -hy -h2
Find (i) the polar, (ii) the cylindrical, (iii) the Cartesian of the right circular cone whose vertex is O, axis OZ, and equation
Ex.
5.
(ii)
M = 2tana,
(iii)
Ex. 6. Find (i) the cylindrical, (ii) the Cartesian, (iii) the polar equation of the right circular cylinder whose axis is OZ and radius a. = a, (ii) #2 +y2 = a 2 (iii) rsin = a. Ans. (i) u
,
OOOEDINATE GEOMETRY
[cs.s.
Ex. 7. Find (i) the polar, (ii) the Cartesian equation to the plane through OZ which makes an angle a with the plane ZOX.
A ns.
7.
(i)
<
= a,
(ii)
y = x tan
a.
and
)
y
referred to the
and
^,
second
Let
co
have coordinates
a, b
referred
to
the line of intersection of the planes P parallel to /3o>y cuts /3o>y, XOY, and the plane through ow/3 in GH and XOY in KL.
NM
is
Pro.
8.
Then
therefore
= OM+&>H,
#=a
Similarly,
y^
to parallel
whence
Ex.
1.
axes through
The coordinates of (3, 4, 5), ( 1-5,0), referred - 2, - 3, - 7), are (5, 7, 12), - 2, 7). (
(1,
Ex. 2. Find the distance between P, (^, yn ^) and Q, (#2 the axes being rectangular. Change the origin to P, and the coordinates of Q become y% y ly z2 z l and the distance is given by
;
y2
z2 ),
x^-x^
The axes are rectangular and A, B are the points (3, 4, 5), A variable point P has coordinates #, y, z. Find the satisfied by x, y, z, if (i) PA = PB, (ii) PA 2 + PB 2 =2A2 equations
Ex.
1,
3.
3,
7).
An*,
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
7,8]
CHANGE OF OKIGIN
4.
Ex.
An*.
(J, 1, 2).
Ex.
Ex.
5.
to the sphere
and radius
6.
Prove that aP-ip + z 1 - x +2y + 62+12 = right circular cone whose vertex is the point (2, 1, is parallel to OY and whose semivertical angle is 45.
Prove that x*+f + 2 2 -2#+4#-6*-2 = whose centre is at (1, -2, 3) and radius 4. sphere
Ex.
7.
3),
represents
8.
To find
P,
join of X:l.
(x r y l9 z^)
and
Q, (# 2
Let
R, (x, y,
z\
(fig. 4),
let
planes through
in
P',
YOZ, meet
OX
Q',
R'.
Then, since three parallel planes divide any two straight 7 lines proportionally, P'R P'Q" = PR PQ = X X + 1. Therefore
:
X+l
Similarly,
</
=
-f^-f,
z=
'^+l
These give the coordinates of R for all real values of X If X is positive, R lies between P and positive or negative. Q if negative, R is on the same side of both P and Q.
;
Cor.
The mid-point
of
PQ
is
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
Ex.
1.
[CH.
i.
(2,
- 3,
1), (3, 4,
t
- 5)
in the ratios
3,
3,
- 2.
Ans.
-,
--,
),
Ex.
2.
Given that
P, (3,
2.
-4)
Q.
(5,
4,
-6)
R, (9,
col linear, find the ratio in Q divides PR. found by considering the .^-coordinates only?
which
Why
,
Ex. 3. A, (.r n ?/!, 2,) B, (# 2 ;/ 2 z.2 ) C, (#3 ;/ 3 *3 ) D, (#,, y 4 * 4 ) Prove that A', the centroid of the are the vertices of a tetrahedron. triangle BCD, has coordinates
;
,
'
.% 3
4
'
*2+*3+*4
'
in the ratio
Ex. 4. Shew that the lines joining the mid-points of opposite edges of a tetrahedron bisect one another, and that if they be taken for coordinate axes, the coordinates of the vertices can be written (a, b, c\ (a, -b, -6-), (-</, 6, r), (-, -b, c).
Ex.
in the
5.
Shew
(#,
/>,
form
6.
that the coordinates of any three points can be put 0), (tf, 0, c\ (0, i, <?), a fourth given point being taken
of gravity of the tetrahedra
as origin.
Ex.
(Ex.
The centres
coincide.
ABCD,
A'B'C'D',
3),
Ex. 7. Find the ratios in which the coordinate planes divide the line joining the points ( - 2, 4, 7), (3, - 5, 8). Ans. 2:3, 4:5, - 7 8.
:
which the sphere #2 4-?/ 2 -f-22 504 divides the line joining the points (1-2, - 4, 8), (27, -9, 18).' Ans. 2:3, -2: 3. Ex. 9. The sphere r'2 -t- 2 -f 2 2 - 2 j;-f 6// + 14z + 3 = () meets the line Prove joining A, (2, -1, -4); B* (5, 5, 5) in the points P and Q.
Ex.
8.
in
t?/
that
AP PB - - AQ QB :
L>.
A is the point (-2, 2, 3) and B the point (13, -3, 13). 10. point P moves so that 3PA^2PB. Prove that the locus of P is the sphere given by 2 x*+y* + z + 28.r- 12// + 10* - 247-0,
Ex.
AB
internally
and externally
in
the point (1, -2, 3) lines are drawn to meet the sphere they are divided in the ratio 2:3. Prove that the points of section lie on the sphere
Ex.
11.
From
2
xf*
i/
+ z 2 = 4, and
9.
1 82
+ 22 = 0.
The equation to a surface. Any equation involving one or more of tlie current coordinates of a variable point represents a surface or system of surfaces which
is the locus
0]
The
to a constant a,
whose ^-coordinates are equal a plane parallel to the plane YOZ, and represents that plane. If the equation
a2 a3
,
...
a^,
,
equations
X^OL^ x^a^,
...
# = <xn
a system of planes, real or imaginary, parallel to the plane YOZ. = Similarly, /(i/) 0, f(z) Q represent systems of planes In the same way, if polar coordinates parallel to ZOX, XOY.
represents a system of spheres with a centre at the origin, /(0) = 0, a system of coaxal common = right circular cones whose axis is OZ, /($) 0, a system of
be taken, /(^) =
planes passing through OZ. Consider now the equation f(x 2/) = 0. This equation is satisfied by the coordinates of all points of the curve in the plane XOY whose two-dimensional equation is /(&, 2/) =
9
Q
Y'
Fio.
5.
Let
#o>
P,
(fig.
5),
any point
2/o
0-
Draw
have coordinates through P a parallel to OZ, and let Q be Then the coordinates of Q are # i/ Z
of the curve,
,
,
,
Therefore the cosatisfy the equation f(x, ordinates of every point on PQ satisfy the equation and every point on PQ lies on the locus of the equation. But
y ) = 0, = 0. y)
is
any point
is
equation
by
straight lines
drawn
10
parallel
f(y>
COOEDINATE GEOMETEY
to
[OH.
i,
OZ through
Similarly,
= 0, 3)
parallels to
= f(z, #) OX and OY
by
x2 +y 2 =a?,
(ii)y =4a.r,
Two equations are necessary to determine the curve in the plane XOY. The curve is on the cylinder whose equaand on the plane whose equation is 2 = 0, tion is /(#, y ) =
and hence " the equations
Ex.
(i)
to the curve
"
are f(x y)
y
0, 2
= 0.
What
2
0+y =a
2=0
(ii)
,r>+y
=a2 z=b
,
(iii) $
is
Consider
z=k
f(x,
The equation a plane parallel to XOY, and the equation represents = represents, as we have just proved, a cylinder y, &)
now
9]
11
simultaneously satisfied, i.e. at all points common to the plane and the locus of the equation /(cc, y, 2) = 0, and hence
f(x y,
y
/c)
=
OZ
parallel to
represents the cylinder generated by lines which pass through the common points, (fig. 6).
y
y
/c)
= 0,
of section of the cylinder by the plane z = k, curve of section of the locus by the plane z
all real
If,
now,
values from
/c)
oo
to
be given to
the curve
f(x
y,
= 0,
The
surface.
= 0, for they satisfy, for some satisfy the equation f(x y, z) value of k, f(x, y, &) = 0, z k\ and any point (x ly y ly zj whose coordinates satisfy f(x y, z) = lies on the surface,
y
zl% and therefor the coordinates satisfy f(x, y, 0^ 0, z fore the point is on one of the curves which generate the
surface.
=
y
surface,
Hence the equation f(x y 2) = represents a and the surface is the locus of a variable point
y
whose coordinates
Ex.
1.
by
j?la*+y*l& + z*l# = l.
The
The
section
section
is
if
P<c
2
,
is
and reduces to a point if 2 =c2 The surface is therefore generated by a variable ellipse whose plane is parallel to XOY and whose centre is on OZ. The ellipse increases from a point in the plane z= o to the ellipse in the plane XOY which is given by # 2 /a 2 -f# 2 /& 2 =l, and The surface is the then decreases to a point in the plane z = c.
ellipsoid, (fig. 29).
imaginary
if
Ex.
2.
What
to rectangular axes,
+# 2 +* 2 =a2
y
2
2
(ii)
Ex.
3.
r
(i)
X*
(l) -o-f-VflT 7 2 o2
z --9=1)
....
c2
V 11 7 ) v
2 z* x* y -~9-~l2" 2 C* a2 DL
(ii)
of one sheet
of
(fig. 30).
(fig. 31).
two sheets
COOBD1NATE GEOMETRY
Ex.
4.
[CH.
I.
What
(i)
loci
are represented
(ii)
by
(iii
/()-0,
=0,
(v) f(r,
<)=0,
(vi) f(u,
;
4>)=0
(i) A system of coaxial right cylinders (ii) a system of planes (iii) the surface of revolution generated by rotating parallel to XOY the curve in the plane ZOX whose polar equation is /(r, 6) = about the 2-axis (iv) a cone whose vertex is at O (v) a surface generated by circles whose planes pass through OZ and whose dimensions vary
Ans.
OZ
(vi)
to
section
<)=0.
10.
The equations to a
y>
curve.
fi( x
>
= 0, / (#, 3)
2
y,
= z)
section of the
y> s)
= 0.
we
z,
Y'
Fro.
7.
Fig. 7 shews part of the curve of intersection of the sphere 2 ax The right circular cylinder x*-\-y the curve on the plane # is also shewn. cylinder which projects 2 2 The projection of the curve Its equation is a (^2 -z )-i-2 4 = 0. is the parabola whose equations are y = 0, on the plane
ZOX
z2
= a(a -x).
say,
between the two equations, we obtain an equation. 0(#, i/) = 0, which represents a cylinder whose generators are
If
parallel to OZ.
any values
of
x, y,
and
they satisfy <f>(x, 2/) = 0, and hence the cylinder passes through the curve of intersection of the
f2 (x y
y
= 0, 0)
io,n]
surfaces.
SURFACES OF REVOLUTION
If the axes are rectangular
<f>(x, 2/)
13
represents
the cylinder which projects orthogonally the curve of intersection on the plane XOY, and the equations to the = = 0. projection are <f>(x, 2/) 0, z
Ex.
(i)
1.
2
j8
= 6,
^2 + y2 = a2
(a
what
2
,
loci
>6
o*4y+*
y* = 4az;
are represented
(iii)
by j?+y*=a*,
)?
Ex. 2. Find the equations to the cylinders with generators parallel to OX, OY, OZ, which pass through the curve of intersection of the z = \. surfaces represented by r2 -f# 2 -f 2e 2 = 12, 2 2 Ans. 2i/ -2yz + 3z* + 2y-2z-lI=0, 2^ + 2^-f 3* 2 - 2^-22- 11 ==0,
xy+
So;2
- 4xy'+ 3y 2'- x + ty - 10 = 0.
11.
Surfaces of revolution.
is
Let
P, (0,
y l9 zj,
(fig.
8),
be
in the plane
YOZ whose
Cartesian
equation
= 0.
Then
*,)=o ............................ (i)
The
of revolution.
As P moves
0-axis, is
OZ
2-coordinate of
of
always equal to y r Therefore, by (1), the cylindrical coordinates of P satisfy the equation = 0. But P is any point on the curve, or surface, /*(u, z) and therefore the cylindrical equation to the surface is
,
P from the
z)
= 0.
to the surface
14
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
y
[CH.
I.
2 2 = T is/(y, Vs +# ) 0, an(} similarly /( N/T/ sents a surface of revolution whose axis is OX.
Since the distance of the point (x, y z) from the y-axis 2 2 is *Jz +x' , it follows as before that the equation to the surface formed by rotating the curve f(y, z] = 0, x = about
OY
+^
aj)
repre-
Ex. 1. The equation #2 +y 2 +22 =a 2 represents the sphere formed by the revolution of the circle ,r2 -hy 2 = a 2 2=0, about OX or OY.
,
Ex. 2. The surface generated by the revolution of the parabola 2 2 2 y =4a#, 2=0, about its axis has equation ?/ -j-2 = 4o*r about the at the vertex, equation ?/=16a 2 (22 -Kr2 ). tangent
;
Ex.
3.
its
'4.
+2
,
2
-,
^+*
'
= 1,
2
*/
=1,
^~
+ /2 =s1
'
Ex.
Find the equation to the surface generated by the revolu^2 -f;/2 -f 2ar4-ft2 = 0, 2=0, about the ?/-axis.
Ex.
6.
(i)
(y
4- 2
)(2a-^)=j^,
(ii)
=a
cos2<9,
(iii)
W2 =2c2.
surfaces are generated by rotating (i) the curve y 2 (2a-^r)=^3 2= 2 a cos2#, about about (ii) the lemniscate in the plane ZOX, r
The
;
OX
OZ
(iii)
Ex. 7. Prove that the locus of a point, the sum of whose distances from the points (a, 0, 0), (~a, 0, 0) is constant, (2), is the ellipsoid
i
of revolution V^-hy* *
- =!
__
11-141
CHAPTER
II
PKOJECTIONS.
that a given directed line OP makes with a second directed line OX we shall take to be the smallest
12.
The angle
angle generated by a variable radius turning in the plane XOP from the position OX to the position OP. The sign of
the angle
determined by the usual convention. Thus, in figures 9 and 10, 9l is the positive angle, and 2 the negative angle that OP makes with OX.
is
Fio. 9.
FIG. 10.
13.
and
Projection of a segment. // AB is a given segment A', B' are the feet of the perpendiculars from A, B to a
is the projection
of the
segment AB on X'X.
From
is
the definition
B'A',
and
BA BA
differ
is
the intercept
made on X'X by
and hence
the
A and B normal
to X'X,
If AB
is
whose positive
16
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
AB on X'X
is
II.
equal
to
AB AB
cos
0.
In figures 11 and
is
12,
AB
is
positive,
in figures 13
and
14,
negative.
Fi<*.
18.
Fio. 14,
Draw OQ from
in the
same direction
as
MN,
;
Ij
AB
is
segment equivalent to
AB then
the projection of
AB = the
projection of OP,
.
= OP = AB
// AB
is negative,
cos cos
0,
9.
BA
is
positive,
and therefore
.
the projection of
i.e.
BA = BA
cos
.
0,
- (the
i.e.
projection of AB)
the projection of
...
= - AB cos 0, AB = AB cos 6.
,
15.
If
A, B, C,
M, N are
any n points in
...
space, the
sum
X'X
equal to the projection of the Let the feet of the perpendiculars from A,
B',...M', N'.
is
M, N, to
X'xbeA',
Then, (2),
A'B'+B'C'+...IVrN'=A'N',
14-17]
16.
17
shall take to be the angle that the positive direction of a normal to one makes with the positive direction of a normal to the other.
17.
//
the
proB', C',
A ABC, where
A'B'c'.
first
If the planes ABC, A'B'C' are parallel, the equation A A'B'C' cos A ABC is obviously true.
(i)
ABC, say BC, is parallel to the plane A'B'C', let AA' meet the plane through BC parallel Draw A 9 D at right to the plane A'B'C' in A 2 (fig. 15).
(ii)
,
Then BC
c
is
at right angles tc
Fio. 15.
normal to the plane AA ? D and therefore at right angles to AD. Hence the angle A 2 D/}
M 2 D and AA 2 and
,
therefore
BC
is
is
equal to
0,
or
its
supplement.
But
and
therefore
(iii)
none of the sides of the triangle ABC is parallel to the plane A'B'C', draw lines through A, B, C parallel to the line of intersection of the planes ABC, A'B'C'. These lines lie in the plane ABC and are parallel to the plane A'B'C', and one of them, that through A, say, will cut the
If
B.O.
18
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
[CH. ~i
opposite side, BC, of the triangle ABC, internally. And therefore the triangle ABC can always be divided by a line
to
the given
plane
A'B'C',
and hence, by
(ii),
positive or negative according as the directions of rotation given by ABC, A'B'C' are positive or negative. Then, 4 to figures 16 and 17, we applying the convention of
F
dee that
A'B'C'
if is
Fio. 16.
Fio. 17.
cos 9
is
ABC,
cos# sign, negative, have opposite signs. That is, the areas have the they same sign if cosO is positive, and opposite signs if cos#
if is
and that
Hence the equation AA'B'c' = cos0 A ABC negative. for the signs as well as the true magnitudes of the areas.
18.
is
//
A,
...
B,
C,
...
then
area A'B'C'
is the
area ABC
...
N = cos 0,
and O' be
its
where 6
Let
...
N,
N'.
result
17-21]
DIRECTION-COSINES
19
19. If A is the area of any plane curve and A is the area of its projection on any given plane, A = cos#.A where 6 is the angle between the planes.
For A is the limit, as n tends to infinity, of the area of an inscribed 7i-gon, and A is the limit of the area of the
projection of the 7i-gon, and, areas is cos 0.
by
18,
Ex. 1. AA' is a diameter of a given circle, and P is a plane through AA' making an angle 9 with the plane of the circle. If B is any point on the circle and B' is its projection on the plane P, the perpendiculars from B and B' to AA' are in the constant ratio 1 cos #, and the projection is therefore a curve such that its ordinate to AA' is
:
a constant ratio to the corresponding ordinate of the circle that the projection is an ellipvse whose major axis is AA' and whose The minor axis is auxiliary circle is equal to the given circle. cos0. AA'; therefore if AA' = 2a and cos# = fc/a, the minor axis is 2ft.
in
;
is,
By
19,
Ex. 2. Find the area of the section of the cylinder by a plane whose normal makes an angle of 60 with OZ.
Ans. 24?r
DIRECTION-COSINES.
20.
If a,
makes
are the angles that a given directed line with the positive directions X'OX, Y'OY, Z'OZ of the
j8,
coordinate axes, cosoc, cos/3, cosy are the direction-cosines of the line.
Fia. 18.
FIG. 19.
referred to rectangular axes. the line through O which has direction-cosines Let A'OA be Let P, (x, y, z) be any point on A'OA, cos a, cos /3, cos y.
21. Direction-cosines
20
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
r.
[CH. IL
positive in fig. 19, r is negative. Draw PN perpendicular to the plane XOY, and NM in the plane XOY, perpendicular to OX. Then the
fig. 18,
In
is
y, z respectively.
Since
y = r cos /?, z = r cos y ..... (1) Again the projection of OP on any line is equal to the sum of the projections of OM, MN, NP, and therefore, projecting on OP, we obtain x = r cos a, and
similarly,
y .................. (2)
therefore
.................. (3)
z/r
= cos y
This is the formula in three dimensions cos 2 #-fsin 2 0=l in plane trigonometry.
which corresponds to
Cor.
1.
we
obtain
2.
cos
y in (2) or
(3),
Cor.
If (x, y, z) is
line
through
tyC
)'
x __ cos a
3.
_
z
cos/8, cosy,
f /
.
we
have,
- M,
\
cos/3
cosy'
line
Cor.
( x i>
If (x,
y, z) is
Vi
z i)
through by
oc
cos
/3
cos
Prove that
Ex. 2, If P is the point (#,, y T z { ), prove that the projection of on a line whose direction-cosines are n iHj, n v is l
OP
The projection
of
OP = projn.
of
OM-fprojn.
of
MN
(figs. 18, 19),
f projn. of NP,
If P, of projection
3.
Ex.
Q are
on a
PQ
line
the points (x l% y^ ^), (^2 , #2* z th prove that the is whose direction-cosines are I l3 1}
m %
2.)
21, 22]
DIEECTTON-COSINES
2, 3, 6.
21
Ex. 4. The projections of a line on the axes are the length of the line ? Ex.
5.
What
Ans.
is
7.
OA, OB, OC, whose measures are Find the area of the triangle ABC. Let the positive direction of the normal from O to the plane ABC have direction-cosines cos a, cos/:?, cosy, and let A denote the area ABC. Then since AOBC is the projection of AABC on the = and similarly, cos (3 A = ira, cos y A plane YOZ, cos a. A
a, 6, c,
/><?,
Therefore, since
#+2^4-22 = 9
curve
is
Ex.
6.
Find the areas of the projections of the curve x2 +y*-\-z~ 25, on the coordinate planes, and having given that the
10.)
(Of. Ex.
167T.
are given proportionals to the directioncosines of a line, the actual direction-cosines are found
22.
If a, b
"'
1
the point (a, 6, c) and the direction-cosines of the directed line OP are cosoc, cos/3, cosy, then, since OP is
If
is
positive
v=
The
direction-cosines of
PO
are
b
c
Ex. 1. Find the direction-cosines of a line that makes equal angles with the axes. Ans. COSOL=COS /Jcos y= l/\/3 (whence the acute angles which the line makes with the axes are equal to 54 44').
;
Ex.
2.
cosines of
(2,
3,
-6),
(3,
-4,
5).
A Ans.
23-6.
-,
,
~_,
-4 -~ 1
. ,
_^,
-2 -3 _, _,
,
f
the direction -cosines
Ex.
of
PQ
If P, are (j?j, ?/j, 2-j), (^2 y 2 3. are proportional to a?a -#i, y%-y\i fy
2-
2)
Zi*
22
COOKDINATE GEOMETBY
4.
[CH.
Ex.
If P,
0,
Am. ^1, V2
Ex. Ex.
5.
(1, 0, 5),
(4, 6, 3),
- 1,
Ans.
2, 4),
jj.
6.
(3, 5, 7),
are the points (2, 3, - 1), (3, 5, -3), (1, prove by projections that PQ is at right angles to RS.
2, 3),
23.
lines.
;
//OP and OQ
cos
(3' y
have
y',
direction-cosines cos a,
and 9
angle that
cos
cos 9 = cos
If,
and the measure of OP projecting OP and OM, MN, NP on OQ, we obtain r cos 9 = x cos a'+y cos ft + z cos y'.
as in
21,
But
therefore
<7or. 1.
2
# = rcosoc,
cos 9 = cos
oc
2/
= rcos/3,
7*
cosy;
cos a"
cos
/3
cos
/?'
(I
We have the identity + m + n*) (^ + ?n' + ?i ) - (W + mm + nnj = (mn' - m'n)* + (nl - n'l) 2 + (lm' - I'm)2
2
/2
(This identity
is
known
We
Hence
sin2
= (cos2oc + cos2/? + cos2y )(cos2o/ + cos 2/?' + cos2/) 2 (cos a cos a' + cos /3 cos ft' + cos y cos y') = (cos /3 cos y' cos y cos /3') 2 + (cos y cos a' cos a cos y )2 + (cos a cos ft cos /3 cos a')2
,
Cor.
2.
If
is
lines
whose
and
Cor.
3.
sin
=
a2 + 6 2 + cVa' 2 + [/H c /2
cos oc cos a!
or
23]
23
Cor. 4.
cos
y cos /3' = 0,
cos
y cos oc/
= 0,
(as is
and cos oc cos /3' cos /3 cos a' = 0, whence cos a = cos a", cos /3 = cos /3', and cos y = cosy' evident from the definition of direction-cosines) or a b c
;
Ex.
1.
If P,
are
(2, 3,
- 6),
(3,
- 4,
5),
OP
.
_ 18\/2
35
Ex.
2.
P, Q,
of the triangle
R are PQR.
(2, 3, 5), (
1, 3, 2), (3, 5,
^ ^ ^.^
;
- 2).
^ 3'
Ex. 3. Find the angles between the lines whose direction-cosines - 2, 1. are proportional to (i) 2, 3, 4 3, 4, 5 (ii) 2, 3, 4 1,
;
AM. (iJcoB-'-^L,
5v58
Ex.
4,
(ii)90.
to 2,
1, 1
;
4.
The
lines
\/3-l, -\/3-l; 4, -\/3~l, \/3-l are inclined to one another at an angle 7r/3. Ex. 5. If j, Wj, M! 12 w 2 n2 ^3 M3 ^ 3 are the direction -cosines of three mutually perpendicular lines, the line whose direction-cosines are proportional to /i + 2 + ^3> m l + m 2 + ni^ n^n^n^ makes equal angles with them.
;
Ex.
6.
of a cube.
Ans. cos"
1/3.
Ex. Ex.
a cube
7.
1,
6) are collinear.
makes angles OL, /?, y, 8 with the four diagonals of that prove cos 2o- 4- cos 2 /? + cos 2 y -f cos 2 8 = 4/3.
line
Ex.
9.
6,
c,
shew that the angles between the four diagonals are given by
cos
cosines
If a variable line in two adjacent positions has directionm, n I + 81, ra + 8w, n + 8n, shew that the small angle, 89 between the two positions is given by 8ffi = 81* + &m? + 8n 2
Ex.
10.
?,
We have 2P = 1
But
Therefore
2()2= -
cosW=
2 sin
That
is,
since
sin
-| = |-,
8^=
24
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
Ex.
11.
[CH.
Lines
OA,
OB
are
drawn from
-2,
3).
proportional to (1, -2, -1), (3, the normal to the plane AOB.
_3
-2
Ex.
Ex.
12.
cosines proportional to
13.
/!,
lines
drawn from
3, 0), (1, 0,
1), (2,
3) lie in
cosines
Prove that the three lines drawn from O with directionm 2 n 2 1 3J w 3 7? 3 are coplanar if 2 Wj, H!
;
,,
wn
7^
=0.
cosines proportional to (3, 6, -2), (2, 2, - 1), ( - 1, 2, that the cone also passes through the coordinate axes.
Ex. 14. Find the direction-cosines of the axis of the right circular cone which passes through the lines drawn from O with direction2),
and prove
O with direction-cosines proportional Prove that the axis of the right circular cone through them has direction -cosines -l/v'3, l/v/3, l/v3, and that
Ex.
15.
to (1,
is
cos" 1 l/v/3-
24.
line.
To find
the
distance of P, (x\ y' z') from the line through A, whose direction-cosines are cos a, cos j8, cos y.
(a, 6, c),
Let PN, the perpendicular from P to the line, have measure S. Then AN is the projection of AP on the line,
and
its
measure
(x'
is,
(Ex.
3,
/
21),
a)cosoc+(2/
2
6)cos/3 + (V
2
cjcosy.
But
therefore
8*
PN = AP
-AN
2
,
(of
- a)2 + <y {
(x
fc)
2
,
which,
by Lagrange's
identity, gives
+ (%' + {(#'
{
c) cos oc
(x
(?/'
a) cos
a) cos
is
(3
y} 2 6) cos a}
Cor.
If
(05', 2/'>
0")
line, S
= 0, and
'
?^ = ?^ = ^.
COS
COS/5
COSy
(Cf. v
8 21, Cor.
3.) /
24, 25]
25
Ex.
(3, 4, 5)
Find the distance of (-1, 2, 5) from the line through whose direction-cosines are proportional to 2, - 3, 6.
An,
ifl
Ex. 2. Find the distance of A, (1, -2, 3) from the line, PQ, - 3, 5), which makes through P, (2, equal angles with the axes.
An,
Shew that the equation to the right circular cone whose at the origin, whose axis has direction-cosines cos a, cos /?, cos y, and whose semivertical angle is #, is
Ex.
3.
vertex
is
(?/
cos
y)
-f (a;
cos /?
y cos a)
Ex.
is
4.
P, axis
PQ
Find the equation to the right circular cone whose vertex (Ex. 2), and semivertical angle is 30.
Ans.
Ex.
is
5.
axis
Find the equation to the right circular cone whose vertex PQ, and which passes through A (Ex. 2).
Ans.
Ex. 6. The axis of a right cone, vertex O, makes equal angles with the coordinate axes, and the cone passes through the line drawn from with direction-cosines proportional to (1, -2, 2). Find the equation A ns. 4^2 + 4?y 2 -f 4e 2 + Qyz + Qz.r + 9,r?y = 0. to the cone.
- 3,
(1,
6).
Ans.
Let Direction-cosines referred to oblique axes. X'OX, Y'OY, Z OZ, (fig. 20), be oblique axes, the angles YOZ, ZOX, XOY being X, /x, v respectively. Let A OA be the
*25.
7
line
through
O whose
P, (x, y,
r.
direction-cosines
cos y.
Take
z)
any
measure of OP be
Draw
are cosoc, cos/3, point on A OA, and let the PN parallel to OZ to meet
7
OY
is
to
meet
OX
equal to the
26
COOEDINATE GEOMETEY
[CH. It
sum
(1) (2)
(3)
(4)
Fio. 20.
Therefore, eliminating r, #, y, z we have the relation satisfied by the direction-cosines of any line
y
1,
cos
i/,
cos/x, cosoc
= 0,
cos
i/,
1,
cosX, cos/3
1,
cos/*, cosX,
cosy
1
S sin2 A cos2 ot =1
(7or. 1.
22(cos X
cos X
2
cos
cos
2
/UL
y
/JL
/x
cos 2 y+ 2 cos
X cos
cos z/.
Multiply
by
x> y, z respectively,
and
add, then
x 2 + y 2 + z* + %yz cos X
If P,
are (x lt
y lt
zj, (x2 ,
is
given by
25-27]
27
Ex.
1.
angles to
OX,
the projection of
#+ y cos v + z cos/A=0.
Ex.
plane
2.
If P, (#, y, s) is
to the
XOY,
#-fycos
6,
*26.
If a,
c are
cosines of a line, the actual direction-cosines are given cos a cos /3 cos y
~~
~~
by
2 2 (2 sin \ cos a 22(cos X cos ^ cos y) cos /3 cosy)* 2 2 22 (cos X - cos /x cos 6c } * { S sin X a cos 2 y+ 2 cos X cos /x cos y}* + { 1 cos2 X cos2
.
i/)
/UL
2 sin X a
.
22(cos X
cos
/z
cos
i/)6c }*
*27.
lines.
If
cos
y',
............ (5)
Therefore eliminating
(2),
05,
2/,
0,
r between equations
(1),
(3) of
25,
and
1,
(5),
we have
cos/z, cos
cosy,
1,
a = 0,
or
cosj/,
cosX, cos/3
1,
7
,
cos/x,
cosX,
r
,
cosy
v)
Cfor.
cosines
c
X (cos /3 cos y + cos ft cos y) } = cos 0(1 cos2 X cos2/x cos2 y + 2 cos X cos cos The angles between the lines whose directionare proportional to a, 6, c a 6 c are given by
/JL
7
7 7
;
i/).
2( aa/ sin X) 2
2W + 6
e)(cos
Ex.
1.
2a2 sin2 X - 2S6c(cos X - cos ^ cos v) }* x { 2a/2 sin2 X - 226V(cos X - cos ^ cos i/) }* If A=/i=:v = 7r/3, find the angles between the lines whose
(i)
2,3,4; 3,4,5;
(ii) ir/2.
(ii)
2,3,4;
1,
-2,
1.
Ans.
(i)
cos- 1
-?^;
7vl6
28
COOEDINATE GEOMETRY
Ex.
2.
/,
;
[CH. It
tional to
Prove that the lines whose direction-cosines are proporm, n m n, n-l, l-m are at right angles if A=//, =
i>.
;
The edges OA, OB, OC of a tetrahedron are of lengths and the angles BOO, COA, AOB are A, /x, v find the volume. Take OA, OB, OC as axes, and draw CN at right angles to the plane AOB. Then if CN is of length JP, and V denotes tne volume,
Ex.
3.
i, 6, c,
V==
CN
o are
z
0, 0,
#,
and
i)
= ccosZ-OCN. But
therefore,
the direction-cosines of
cos^OCN,
by
cos 2//,
25,
OCN = 1
{1
cos 2 A
cos 2 y -f 2 cos
-f-
cos
JJL
cos
v,
V=-
2 cos
DIRECTION-KATIOS.
28.
Let
OL
be drawn from
in the
same direction as a
PQ and
of unit length.
Then
the co-
ordinates of L evidently depend only on the direction of PQ, and when given, determine that direction. They are
therefore called the direction-ratios of PQ.
same as
29.
the direction-cosines.
P, (x, y, z) is
If
whose direction-ratios
is r,
then
I
=x
Fia. 21.
Fio. 22.
In
fig.
21,
is
positive, in
are parallel to
OZ; KH,
NM
22 r
X
is
LKH
cut
X OX, A'OA
proportionally,
28-30]
DI RECTION-RATIOS
29
I
OM
and
OH
are x and
Similarly,
m = y/r, n = z/r.
line
y
respectively,
If P, (x, y, z) is
whose
direction-ratios are
through O
?=
I
!=! n
Cor.
2.
If (x,
?/,
z) is
whose
direction-ratios are
/
tt
l>
through
m, n,
(Of.
m
Cor.
3.
n
z\
If
P,
arc
(x^ y ly
(# 2
?/ 2
z2 \
and the
measure of PQ
is r,
the direction-ratios of
PQ
are
Ex. 1. Find the direction -ratios of the lines bisecting the angles / 2 w? 2 1*2* between the lines whose direction -ratios are l m n n \ ( 2 m^ n 2 \ then OL and OL' are the lines If L, L' are (l^ m from O with the given direction-ratios, and OL and OL' are of unit
}
{ ,
length.
The mid-point, M,
and
are
-1
OM =cos 2
where L LOL'=^
222
?,
-?-!
2
?
OM
2 cos ~ffl$
'
2 cos 0/2
'\
~
J , etc. 2 sin 0/2
.
Ex.
2.
Prove
OZ are given rectangular axes OZ bisect the angles YOZ, ZOX, XOY OX OY,, OX OY OZ bisect the angles YjOZ^ Z^X^ X^Yj, that L Y OZ = Z.Z OX =^X OY -7r/3, and that L Y2 OZ - L Z OX - L X O Y - cos" 5/6.
OX, OY,
t ,
;
Ex.
3.
(1. 2, 3), (3, 5, -3), (-2, 6, 15), Find the direction-cosines of the
BAC.
Am.
*30.
(25,
which
Cor.
it is
convenient to write,
<f>(l,
m,
7i)
30
*31.
COOEDINATE GEOMETEY
To find
the
I,
[ca n.
direction-ratios are
m,
n.
itself,
Project OL, (figs. 21 and 22), on the axes and on and we obtain, as in 25 (1), (2), (3), (4),
cos
8 = 1 cos v + m +n cos \
y=
l
==
^2, 3m
o~~>
cos
cos/x
+ wcosX + 7i =
<>
= cosa+wcos/3-f Ticosy.
the lines
(Of.
21
(3).)
*32.
whose direction-
ratios are
m, n
',
m',
T^'.
',
Let OL', the unit ray from O which has direction-ratios Then projecting OL' m', n', make an angle 6 with OL.
cos 6 = V cos
on OL, we obtain,
(7or.
which
may
cos oc'+
OL'.
Ex. 1. If A=^i= v=?r/3, find the direction-ratios of the line joining the origin to the point (1, 2, Find also the direction-cosines. 1).
Ans.
'
-L
JI*.
'
L.
2\/5'
/5' \/5'
V5
31, 32]
DIREGTION-KATIOS
Shew
by
I
31
Ex.
2.
XOY
are given
m
cos /A cos v - cos A
2
_ n _
sin
2
i/
sin
vA*
i/.
where
Ex.
3.
A=1
cos
cos
//,
cos
YOZ, ZOX,
^:^,
'
cos^,
2'
cos
etc., f
+ CQS v
(CH. IIL
CHAPTER
III
THE PLANE.
Let ABC, (fig. 23), a given plane, make intercepts OA, OB, OC on the axes, measured by a, 6, c and let ON, the normal from O to the plane, have direction- cosines cos a, cos /3, cos y, and have measure p, (p is a positive number).
33.
;
Equation to a plane,
(i)
To find
the
y, p.
equation to the
Fio. 23.
Let
P, (x,
?/,
0) be
plane.
Draw PK
parallel to OZ to meet the plane XOY in K, and to OY to meet OX in M. Then the measures of
KM
parallel
OM, MK, KP
are x, y, z respectively, and since ON is the projection of OP on ON, and therefore equal to the sum of the projections of OM, MK, KP on ON,
33-35]
(ii)
33
a, 6, c.
To find
plane in terms of
;
.*.
Hence, by
is
-p
j^
P
*
i.e.
+ ? + ?=!.
Ex.
plane
34.
if
2s
Find the intercepts made on the coordinate axes by the plane = 9. Find also the direction-cosines of the normal to the - 5, the axes are rectangular. Arts. 9, 9/2, -9/2 J,
;
If,
General equation to a plane. The general equation of the first degree in x, y, z represents a plane. For Ax + B-\-Cz+D = Q can be written
x
,
..
'
-D/A
-D/B
-D/C
D/A
%
and therefore represents a plane making intercepts D/B, D/C on the axes.
35.
If
therefore the direction-cosines of the normal to the plane If the are proportional to A, B, C. Ax By + Cz+D
But
is
a positive number
therefore
if
is positive,
-A
cos
B= ^
we must change
the sign of %/A2 +B 2
If
is
B.O.
negative,
+C2
34
COOEDINATE GEOMETRY
Cor.
If the axes are rectangular, the angle
fen. ra.
between the
planes
18
COS'
Ex.
1.
between the
PIanes
2x-y+z=6
3^4-4^-5^=9,
Ex. 2. If the axes are rectangular, find the distance of the origin Ans. 2. from the plane 6# - 3y + 2z - 14 = 0.
that the equations by+cz+d=Q, represent planes parallel to OX, OY, OZ respectively. Find the equations to the planes through the points (2, 3, 1), (4, 5, 3) parallel to the coordinate axes.
Ex.
3.
Shew
a#+&y+c?=0
Ans.
Ex.
4.
(1, 2, 3) parallel
Ex.
5.
parallel to
ax+by + cz~Q
Prove that the equation to the plane through is ax+by + cz=aaL + b/3 + cy.
(OL,
/?,
y)
Ex. 6. If the axes are rectangular find the equation to the plane through
Ans.
and P
(2, 3,
-1),
OP.
Prove that the equation 2#2 -6#2 -: represents a pair of planes, and find the angle between them.
Ex.
7.
Ex.
8.
if
fc#
-cA 2 =(
a+b+c
Through A,
Ex.
B,
9.
in A, B, C. planes are drawn parallel to the coordinate planes. the locus of their point of intersection is given by
36.
The general
equation to a plane contains three arbitrary constants, and therefore a plane can be found to satisfy three conditions
35-37]
35
e.g.
a plane can be found to pass through any three nonthe equation to the
(
eollinear points.
To find
(#2
>
plane through (x ly y l9 z^
2/2> **)>
x s>
Vs> **)
Then
axl + by l + cz1 + d = 0,
Therefore, eliminating a,
equation,
x>
6, c, d,
we
^
>
%>
c
3,
y 2 %> y3 3
,
,
i 1
Ex.
1.
(1,2,1),
(-2,2,-!).
Ex.
(3, 3,
(0,
1,
0), (2,
1,
37. 1 Distance
distance of the
from a point to a plane. To find point P, (x', y'. z') from the plane
is
the
Suppose that p
cos
to
a positive number so that cos a, cos /3, are the direction-cosines of the normal from the origin
(x',
y',
z'\
and the
where
p' = p
cos
OL
y' cos
(#',
2/',
z cos
of
z'\ the
y new
.
origin,
from the
= _ p' -p ^ cos oi
y' cos /3
z'
cos y.
If P is
cosy are
7/cos
/3
still
the direction-cosines of
the normal
fore p' or
o/cosoc
1
z'cos
i.
is
See Appendix, p.
36
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
[CH.
m.
and O are on opposite sides of the plane, cos a, cos/3, cosy are the direction-cosines of the normal from the plane to x'cosa y'cos/3 2' cosy is P, and therefore p' or p
negative.
Hence,
if
is positive,
p
is
x'cosoi
2') is
y' cos /3
2'
cos
y
side of the
any point
origin.
The distance
of
(#', y',
it
,,
is
given by
ax'
+==== by'+cz'+d
"
-
positive the positive sign is to be taken, as it gives a positive value for the perpendicular from the origin.
If
is
ax'+by' and the origin are on the same side (x ?/, z') positive of the plane ax + by + cz + d = 0, and negative if they are
is
Cor.
2.
If
is
if
',
on opposite
sides.
#', 2'),
of
r
OP
on the
/? -f z
cos y,
results of
37.
2.
the plane
x+ 2y - 2* = 9.
No.
Find the distances of the points (2, 3, -5), (3, 4, 7) from Are the points on the same side of the plane ?
Find the locus of a point whose distance from the origin from the plane 2^+3^-6^ = 2.
3, 4,
Ex.
is
3.
Am.
3.r
Ex. 4. Find the locus of a point the sum of the squares of whose distances from the planes ^+^ + ^ = 0, x - z = 0, #-2^ + ^ = 0, is 9.
of the squares of the distances of a point from the = is equal to the square of its distance 2?/ + 2 x z. Prove that the equation to the locus of the point is ?/ 2 + 2#2: = 0. By turning the axes of x and z in their plane through angles of 45, prove that the locus is a right circular cone whose semi5.
Ex.
The sum
= 0, x
vertical angle is
45.
37,38]
38.
37
Planes bisecting the angles between given planes. the planes bisecting the angles between the given = = planes ax + by + cz+d 0, a'x + b'y + c'z + d' 0, the axes being rectangular. We can always write the equations so that d and d are
To find
positive.
~~
therefore
represents the locus of points equidistant from the given planes, and since the expressions
ax + by + cz + d, ax + b'y + cz + d'
in the equation have the same sign, the points are on the origin side of both planes or on the non-origin side of both.
The
locus
is
the
plane
between
Similarly,
the
given
planes
which
a'x
bisecting contains
that
the
angle
origin.
ax + by + cz + d _
~~
+ b'y + c'z
given planes.
Ex. 1. Shew that the origin lies in the acute angle between the = = Find the planes bisecting planes #-|-2y-f2z 9, 4r-3y-i-12z-f-13 0. the angles between them, and point out which bisects the acute angle. Ans. Acute, 25# + 17y + 62s-78 = 0; obtuse, o?-h35y-10z- 156 = 0.
*Ex.
2.
Shew
[The point
*2l
Hence
l,
T^T
lies
on the Plane
if
-h cz2 -f
d) + a^
+ by
-h cz l -f
*Ex.
v
3.
harmonically. Let P, (xl yl , z^ be on the plane u 0, then u v = ax l + by l + cz\ 4-^=0. Let Q, (.r2 , y2 z2) be on the plane v = 0, then v^ax^Vy^c'z^d' ft The planes u Av=0 divide PQ in the ratios
t.e.
divide
PQ
harmonically.
38
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
[CH.
in
APBQ,
f>T
AP AQ __ PB QB
L.
'
,_r
AP.QB * AQ.PB
Prove that four given planes that pass through one line cut any transversal in a range of constant cross-ratio. If M=0, v = Q are two planes through the line, the equations to the four given planes can be written, w + A r0=0, r=l, 2, 3, 4. Let A, B,
z \\ y\\ respectively.
(^it
the
e P^nes u + \ x y%> z%) I* 6 on Then u + X. v =0 and u 2 + \ 3 v.2 =0. planes u + A 2 v = 0, w-f A 4 y=0, then by Ex. 2,
(
<2,i
v = Q,
u + A3 y
If
P,
lie
on
AP
PB
and therefore
AP.QB
(A 1
AQ.PB
This constant cross-ratio
is
(A 3 -A 2 )(A 1
-A 4 y
*Ex.
5.
CD,
DA
P, Q, R,
of a
skew
quadrilateral.
AB, BC,
AP BQ CR DS, PB'QC'RD'SA
THE STRAIGHT
39.
first
LINE.
The equations
to a line.
Every equation
of the
degree represents a plane. Two equations of the first degree are satisfied by the coordinates of any point on the
line of intersection of the planes
therefore the
which they represent, and two equations together represent that line.
a'x
Thus ax + by + cz+d = 0,
straight line.
+ b'y+c'z+d' = Q
represent a
Symmetrical form of equations. The equations to a straight line can be found in a more symmetrical form. If the line passes through a given point P, (x> y', z') and has
40.
direction-ratios
i
I,
m,
r
n,
f
1=
where Q,
x'
>
y r
ij'
~>
n=
it,
z'
>
(x, y, z) is
(
any point on
;
PQ
is r,
21, Cor. 3
29,
Cor.
3).
And
therefore the
39,40]
39
coordinates of
n
c
( x
=r
'
These equations enable us to express the coordinates of a variable point on the line in terms of one parameter r, for x = x'+lr, y = y'+mr, z = z+nr.
Conversely, any equations of the form
x
I
&__y ~~
b __z
n
(a, 6, c)
I,
and having
Ex.
1.
direction-ratios proportional to
line
??i,
n.
x ~~ * = ffrJJ =
2
-3
gg
4
(^
5
,
v
_jj,
jj).
Ex.
2.
the surface
line
2
,
1),
Ex.
3.
(3, 4, 5)
where the
line
ff
""-.*-
=^~
2
f-IL,
Find the distance of the point (1, -2, 3) from the plane #-y-f 2=5 measured parallel to the line -=^ = -5-, (rectangular axes).
Ex.
4.
1.
23-6
Ex. 5. Shew that if the axes are rectangular, the equations to the perpendicular from the point (OL, /?, y) to the plane g "" a> == .y~' P = LllY and deduce the perpendicular distance of the are f
point
(oc, ^8,
Ex.
B, (a. ' N
6.
~ ^-^, m n
Z
f
Z
^-
=~
n
are
Ex. 7. If the axes are rectangular, and if 1 19 v n x ; / a , 2 , n a are direction-cosines, shew that the equations to the planes through the lines which bisect the angles between
xll l
xll 2
=ylm 2 =zln 29
40
Ex.
8.
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
[en. in.
line through the origin makes angles a, j8, y with its on the coordinate planes, which are rectangular. The projections distances of any point (#, y, z) from the line and its projections are Prove that rf, a by c.
y
cP = (a2
41.
(#2>
#2 _ x v
are
2/2
y l% z2
zlt
~*
If P,
are (x v
PQ
~"
the coordinates of a variable point of the line in terms of one parameter, X, are
By
8,
Ex.
1.
2x+y-z = 3.
1, 3), (4,
-2, 5)
1, 5,
Ans.
2), (
(0, 4, 1).
Ex. 2. Prove that the line joining the points (4, - 5, meets the surface 2,r2 + 3y 2 - 4z'2 = 1 in coincident points.
42. Direction-ratios
3)
are given
by
ax + by + cz = 0,
o/# -f 6
r
i/
+ c'0 = 0.
bcb'c
and therefore the
=
ca'
c'a
ab'
a'b'
direction-ratios
y
of the
two
lines
are
proportional to be' be, ca! c'a ab' a'b. = in the point line meets the plane
( \ ab'-a'b'
bd'-Vd
daf-tfa ab'^'b'
41,42]
41
therefore the equations to the second line in the symmetrical form are
j^ Vd
_
ab'-db
b'c
jM^dfa
ab'-a'b
ca
z
ab'
a'6"
to the
be
ca
Ex.
plane
1.
XOY are
The equations
to a line
-.
through
(a, 6, c) parallel
since the direction-ratios are , w?, 0. Again the line lies in the plane = c, and therefore its equations can be written
m(x-a)*=l(y-b)i
= ?,
........................... (2)
(2).
and
(1) is to
2.
Find the equations to the The equations are iH_. = '^H_ = lZJL.
Ex.
1
(-3,
is
5, 3).
parallel
to the plane
XOY,
3.
as
on
it
are equal to
two points
# + 5// = 22,
Ex.
.
= 3.
(a,
ft,
3.
to
OZ
Ex.
~_
are
-ay
Shew
c) parallel
4.
4tf
planes
+ 4y-5s = 12,
Prove that the equations to the line of intersection of the 8.r-M2 y-132 = 32 can be written
i
x
2
=y
3
<
=z
4'
Ex.
it
5.
that
t
the
line
y = 0, and
-2)
Ex.
6.
lines
are parallel.
Ex.
7.
lines
(rectangular axes).
Ex.
8.
xy + 2^ =
4
(1, 2,
3)
5, 3#-fy-|-,3
42
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
a line.
c
[CH.
m.
The equations
x
I
a_y
b_2
~~
may u J be
written
05
=
,
m
me n
_m y
which are of the form
a)
n 03 =
line con-
The equations (1) represent the planes passing through the line and parallel to OZ and OX respectively, and by a choice of such planes to define any given line its equations can be put in the form (2), which is the form with the smallest possible number of arbitrary
constants.
Ex.
line
Prove that the symmetrical form of the equations to the i r 7 = y = z-d given by ^ = oy + 6, z = cy + a is C CL i
1.
, ,
xb
--
Ex.
2.
lines
zc'y + d',
are perpendicular
aa' + cc' 4-1=0.
c, a?,
(3,
2,
x ay-\- &, z cy + d may pass -4), (5, 4, -6), and hence shew that the 10) are collinear.
so that the line
1,
d=
-2.
rz+s> intersects the conic
Hence shew that the coordinates of any point on a line which and passes through the point (OL, /?, y) satisfy the 2 2 2 equation a(yx ou) -f b (yy fa) = (z y)
.
Ex.
and
Prove that a line which passes through the point (a, 5. intersects the parabola y=0, 2 2 =4a,r, lies on the surface
t
/J,
y)
Ex.
6.
lines
Ans.
(i)
(iij
5jp
See Appendix,
p.
i.
43,44]
43
y', sf)
*Ex.
(ax
7.
given by
'
//,
+ by' + cd + d)
{
cos 2 A
v)
cos v) }
line
*Ex.
is
8.
The distance
2
2
y',
z )
from the
xjaylb=ztc
given by
;2 "~
*Ex.
plane r
9.
OXY
sin v
where
If the
XOY
A = 1 - cos2 A - cos2/x - cosV + 2 cos A cos /x cos v. angles that OX, OY, OZ make with the planes YOZ, ZOX,
/J,
are a,
y,
prove that
sin a.
sin sin /3 __
y
i/
cosec
If the angles
cosec
/x
cosec
etc.,
>\ t
are A, B, C,
prove that
j,
C08
/..x
sin
A_sin B__sin C
A
sin
//,
sin
sin v
44.
,
ax+oy + cz+d = Q,
7
,
X
j
(/
OL
y~8 = =til'
zy IV
line.
plane and
straight line.
(oc+Zr,
/3
+ mr, y + nr\
where r
is
given by
But r
(a,
/3,
proportional to the distance of the point from Therefore the line is parallel to the plane if y).
is
al
+ bm+cn = Q
and
aoL
+ bfi + cy + d=\=Q.
If the axes are rectangular, the direction-cosines of the normal to the plane and of the line are proportional to
a, 6, c]
I,
m, n\ and therefore
if
the line
is
normal to
the plane,
l_m_n
a
b
c'
lie
Cor.
The
conditions
in
tho
plane are
+ bm + cn = Q
and
44
COORDINATE GEOMETEY
Ex.
1.
[CH. in.
line
^-IZ-Lil^
plane
234
1, 5),
is
parallel to the
Ex.
2.
&r- 31^-332=0
Ex.
3.
Prove that the planes 2^-3y-7<s=0, 3#-14y- 132=0, pass through one line.
to the plane
1), (2,
through
(2,
-3,
1)
normal
(axes rectangular).
Am.
Ex. 4. Find the equation to -1, 0), (3, -4, 5) parallel to the
the
line 2j;
(2,
the
points
Ans.
Prove that the join of (2, 3, 4), (3, 4, plane through (-2, -3, 6), (4, 0, -3), (0, -1,
Ex.
5.
5) is
2),
rectangular.
Ex.
6.
Find the distance of the point (-1, -5, -10) from the
?
?/ -f-
1
.
='/.
=2
4-2
= 5,
(rectangular axes).
to
Ex.
7.
(-
1, 0, 1)
the
planes
and shew that the equations to the line through the given point which intersects the two given lines can be written
xy
Ex.
8.
=2
2.
to the plane
~~
n
.
#-, %=m =~ I n
0.
Ex. 9. The plane lx + mf/ = Q is rotated about its line of interProve that the section with the plane through an angle <x. equation to the plane in its new position is
20
Z# + ray i
2\^ 2 -f m2 tan
a.
= 0.
which
is
Ex, 10. Find the equations to the line through (/, gy h) nz Q and intersects the line parallel to the plane lx-\-my-\-
ax + by -\-cz-\- rf=0,
Ans.
_
a/-f b'g -H c'h -f- d''
44]
EXAMPLES
11.
4b
Ex.
=0.
Find also the coordinates of the foot of the perpendicular. (The perpendicular is the line of intersection of the plane through the origin and the line and the plane through the origin perpendicular
to the line.)
Ans
Ex.
g 2t
__-___
12.
__
The equations
to
AB
= -^- = |. Through a point P, (1, 2, 5) PN is drawn perpendicular D to AB, and PQ is drawn parallel to the plane 3,r + 4 -f 5e = to meet AB in Q. Find the equations to PN and PQ and the coordinates of
*5
?/
N and
Q.
-3
176
89
'
-13
(^M^">
Ex.
13.
angles to
OP
the area of
Through a point P, (x', //, /) a plane is drawn at right to meet the axes (rectangular) in A, B, C. Prove tnat _- where r is the measure of OP. the triangle ABC is
,
2.r'?/Y
Ex. 14. The axes are rectangular and the plane JC/a+y/b-\-z/c=l Prove that the equations to BC are meets them in A, B, C.
-='^ o
=
^
OX
at right
= angles to BC is by cz that the three planes through OX, OY, OZ, at right angles to BC, CA, AB respectively, pass through the line axby=cz\ and that the coordinates of the orthocentre of the are triangle
ABC
a- 1
b~ l
c- 1
Ex.
15.
)
from the
is
k given hv m VPTI by
where
Ex.
____^
-
aU " OT
^
16.
a^ +6y
+^ +
rf,
and
x/l=y/m=z/n.
Ans.
46
COORDINATE GEOMETER
17.
[CH.
Ex.
to the plane
Ans.
be'
= 0.
-6'c,
ca!
c'tf,
ab'
-a'b
/3/-/?'y,
ya'-y'a,
is
a./?'-*'/?
Ex.
line
18.
x~py + q = rz + s
(a,
/?,
y) and the
,=0.
a,
1,
p(3 + q,
1,
ry + i
1
Ex.
C
19.
The
distance
of
the
point
(,
77,
f)
from the
line
is
^lfj n
given by
of the point
'
from the
line.
=j
(See
31.)
*Ex. 21. Shew that the equation to the plane through is right angles to the plane
XOY
OZ
at
.r (cos
JJL
cos v
cos A)
y(co& v cos
cos p).
*Ex.
22.
Shew that the planes through OX, OY, OZ, at right YOZ, ZOX, XOY, pass through the line v cos A) =^(cos v cos A cos p) ^(cos A cos cos cos v).
//,
*Ex.
planes
23.
YOZ, ZOX,
XOY
in lines
OZ
cut the
cos
cos
cos v
=0.
is
*Ex.
24.
Shew
*Ex.
If P is the point (#', y', af) and the perpendiculars 25. to the coordinate planes are p l9 p^ p 3 , prove that
from
sin
~~~rf~~~~~
A ~~?~- a
v__
i
'
Deduce that the planes bisecting the interior angles between the coordinate pianes pass through the line
sin
=
sin
/z
=
sin
v*
44 45]
?
47
*Ex. 26. Shew that the squares of the distances of from the coordinate axes are
2 2 y' sin v
//,
cos
v), etc.
*x.
27.
normal to
x = _y
is
-==
/u,
sin
sin
, sin v
A-u+v &
+z cos
+ A
=0.
intersection of three planes. Before proceeding to the general discussion of the intersection of three given
45.
The
planes
we
2z- y+
a
3,
3.y-f2s=
1,
we
obtain
ce
= l,
2/
= 2,
= 8, and
Let us
now attempt
(i)
(ii)
2#-4i/ + 2z = 5, = 8, 5x y
(iii)
x+
= 7.
then from
(i)
Eliminate z from
(ii)
and
(iii),
and
(ii),
and
we
get
4^-27/ = 7.
.
(ii),
then from
(ii)
whence
There
are, therefore,
no
finite
values of
x,
.
satisfy all
O.o?
The equations
(X*
y z, which x+ y = 6,
y
.
+ 0.0 = 6, are
limiting forms of
T;
+ T=6, + T.~G>
T.
1J
2/
as &
tends to infinity, and hence we may say that any point wnose coordinates satisfy the three given equations is at an
48
COOEDINATE GEOMETRY
[CH. in.
infinite distance.
section of
any two
easily find that the lines of interof the planes are parallel to the line
We
x _y _z
1~2~3'
and
it is evident that no two of the planes are parallel, so that the three planes form a triangular prism. Thus if we are given the three equations to the faces of a triangular
prism, and we attempt to solve them, we obtain a paradoxical equation of the form & = (), where k is a number
different
from
zero.
12a- y + 2z = 35,
3x+ y+ z= x + 2y + z=
(i)
7, 0.
and
(ii),
(ii)
Similarly,
equations,
if
63-3i/ = 21,
we
get
+ 2z + 7 = 0.
Thus
tions
lie
all
points whose coordinates satisfy the given equaupon both of the planes ^x y 1, 5 1/ + 2^ + 7=0,
or the
line,
common
is,
that
1.
points of the three planes lie upon a straight the three planes intersect in a straight line.
jc+
fti-
Ex.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
^iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)
+ 5y + 9s = 1 0, 2^ + 3y + 4s = 20,
a? + 3# + 5* = 5
3.r
x- y + 2 = 2; 5# + 4y + 32+ 18=0
.r+2y-f3z = 2;
3,r
;
+ 7?/-f22 = 0,
;
Ans.
3# - 5 _jj _
(iii)
.____;
;
planes intersect at
(1, 2, 3)
(iv)
(v) planes form prism; (vi) planes intersect at planes parallel, tnird intersects them.
(1,
1,1);
(vii)
twc
46]
49
Ex.
z
= 2,
Prove that the three planes form a triangular prism, and find the area
of a
normal section
Ans. \/3/18.
of the prism.
We
now
Ul
u.z
.(i)
a.2 x
b.2
y + c^z + d.2 = 0,
(2)
we
obtain
-i
dl
ap
P
c,
we may
~~ l
write,
.
X
i>
~y d^}
\ci>i,
e?
-tt
I
Z
lf
QI>
2,
d3
,
62
</
\a v b 2
(to ...\*)
c3
Let
D Di
A-|a p
62
c3
|,
L/Lv-i
^
i
/ />
//
/^f
X I
Ij
\ t/.'jCA/o
L-ovl,^
3A C l
Then
B2 C3
B3 C 2 =
x
A,
C2A 3
-^ = Uo = ~
***)
C3A 2 = 6jA,
1
f
A.,B 3
-A
3 B.,
=c A
t
etc.
Therefore,
if
A = 0,
"^>> A., --
and
^ ~=
t
l J
l-* 4?
-^
^'t = -A
.(5)
z,
'r
alues of x, y,
of
the given equations are not satisfied by any finite value of x. Since
if
|
But
A=
and
6 P c2
d.3 |^=0,
A p A 2 A 3 cannot
,
all
be zero, and therefore the three planes Again, the lines of intersection of the
/> vLf
C/
/v
&
9/
'{
^ ~
'T* ^"^
II
j &
C,
A2
A,
B,
C,'
60
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
,
[OH.
m.
and hence, by (5), are parallel. If A l9 A 2 A 3 are all different from zero, no two of the given planes are parallel, and the planes form a triangular prism. The edges are parallel to XOY if d^Cg^Ca^O, (and so av 6 2 d3 1=0), or to OX if and B l9 B 2 B 3 C v C 2 C 3 are all zero (and so % c 2 d3 and A 2 A 3 ^0, the planes d3 If A x 0). Bj Cj 0, |a!& 2 u 2 and u 3 are parallel and u meets them, and we have a
|
limiting case of a triangular prism when one of the edges is at an infinite distance. Since d% and d 3 are not both zero, we and have &! C 2 d 3 ^0. Hence for a triangular prism, A
one of the other three determinants is different from zero. It is to be noted that in this case
three planes are parallel to one line their equations can be combined so as to form a paradoxical = equation & 0, where k is a quantity different from zero
that
is,
when
Conversely,
if
three
numbers
I,
y z, and is not zero, then the three planes are parallel to one line, and if no two of them are parallel, form a triangular prism. For
is
where k
independent of
x,
a 2 m + a3?i = 0,
2
bj + b%m +
b 3n
= 0,
|=jfe=0.
m + c n = 0,
3
,
Therefore
|
ax
6 2 c3
,
= A = 0,
\
and c2 d 3
,
A^O, (^
1).
is
As
in the
last case, the three planes are parallel to one line. But since \b l9 c2) d3 the three lines in which the planes 0,
viz.,
# = 0,
are concurrent.
Their
common
point
z
is
given by # = 0,
l
and since
A^O,
it is
at a finite distance.
45]
51
three planes are parallel to one line and pass through a point in the plane YQZ, they pass through one line. the It follows now that \al9 c2 ds and |alf 6 2 d3
,
,
\
\,
in (4), are zero. For since the planes pass through one line, their lines of intersection
are concurrent.
Therefore \a v
2,
d3 = 0, and
|
similarly,
not zero, the lines of intersection of the given planes with the planes ZOX and XOY are concurrent. The points of concurrence are
is
d!
=
|
and
given by
and since c?2a3 rf3a 2 ^=0, they are not coincident. The planes have therefore two common points and thus pass through one line. It follows then that (a^ 62 c3 and
,
[
ft
[
l9
cZ
If,
therefore,
|&1
<?2>
any two
of the determinants
l
^3!'
K>
C 2> ^3l>
a i>
C sl
common minors
is
remaining two determinants are zero,* and the three planes have a line of intersection at a finite distance.
*
This
is easily
proved algebraically.
If
A =0,
\b l9 cai
c 3
= 0, and Aj ^ 0,
and
,
c 3A8
Therefore, since
26^ = 0,
Joj, 62 ,
ScjA^O, and
c?8
|=0 and
(oj,
c,,,
rf,|=
52
COOKDINATE GEOMETRY
The conditions
[CH. IIL
in the form,
a 1?
2'
61
c l9
2
'
d
}
a3
63
c3 ,
c/<
the notation signifying that any two of the four third-order determinants are zero. They may also be obtained as
Any plane through the line of = 0, ^ 2 = is given by X u + X 2 u 2 = 0. ^ 1^=0, u., = 0, ?^ = pass through one line, O = and u3 = Xi^i + X 2 u 2
follows.
intersection of
If
l'^
ol
the planes
and therefore
or
-X 3u3
Conversely,
if
then
EE
u3 s 0, A 3u 3
,
and therefore the plane u3 = passes through the = and u.2 = Q. Considering the of intersection of 1^ etticients in + + A^^O, we have
line
co-
A^ A^
2
^A! 4-
A 2 + & 3 A 3 = 0,
6X
Therefore, eliminating X x X 2 X 3
, ,
we
obtain
<x
abed
2
,
&2
c2
d^
Ex.
3.
line.
Ex. 4. Prove that the planes x=c 2 2 2 through one line if a -f6 +c +2a6c=i.
yaz+cx, z=bx+ay
pass
45,46]
53
A=
a, A,
,9:
A,
6,
direction -ratios
/
o
o
/,
n
z
__
?r
3A
'da
c)A~eS*
'db
'dc
Ex. 6. If the axes are rectangular, the equations to the planes through the line of intersection of two of the given planes a r^ + 6ny + c^ + rfr = 0, r=l, 2, 3,
perpendicular to the third, are
Shew
Ex.
line.
The plane -+f +* = ! meets the axes OX, OY, OZ, which r a b c
are rectangular, in A, B, C, Prove that the planes through the axes and the internal bisectors of the angles of the triangle pass through the line
ABC
6\/c 2
-f
a2
lines.
L
46,
The equations
l ;
to
,
any
are
line intersecting
v
two given
lies
u + \^ = 0,
line
in
i;
Ex.
1.
line
"'"'
249 "153
-52
;
Ex. 2. Find the equations to the line that intersects the lines = l, 2jf y 2 = 2 x-y z~ 3, 2^+4y 2 = 4, and passes r-hy-f-2 x-\ __,? \ _ z-\ through the point (1. 1, 1). A y \ / r ^ ns
>
Ex.
3.
so as to
Find the equations to the line drawn parallel meet the lines 2 = 5#-6 = 43/ + 3, z = 2:r-4 = 3v + 5.
to --=:- = -
= l 1^+1693,
ll* =
54
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
4.
[CH. in.
Ex.
lines
y=2 = a
5,
Find the surface generated by a line which intersects the #4-32 = a, y+z = a and is parallel to the plane x+ y = 0.
;
Ans.
Ex,
the lines
x* = 2a z.
Find the surface generated by a straight line which intersects z, #+y = 2#, and the parabola y = 0, Am. x~- y* = 2az.
x+yzQ\ xy
A
Ex.
6.
and
is
variable line intersects OX, and the curve #=y, ;/ 2 =c*, Prove that it generates the parallel to the plane YOZ.
paraboloid xy~cz.
Ex. 7. Prove that the locus of a variable line which intersects the three given linesy = w#, z~c y= -mx, z= -c y=, w#= -c is the su rface y* - 2x* ==z 2 - c2
;
;
47.
lines.
i;
If the equa11
tions
three
s
,
ua = =
(1)
u = =
1
u 2 = = w2
()
ttj-X^^O,
u 2 -X 2^2 =
(3)
Us-\v,3 =
have a
of the three given lines, and therefore intersects all three. There are two independent conditions for a line of intersection, ( 45), which may be written,
A(Ai>
If
A* X 3 ) = 0,
,
......... (4)
/8 (X lf X 2
satisfy (4)
X 3) =
.......... (5)
and (5), any two of the equations (1), (2), (3) represent a line which intersects the three given lines. Suppose that (1) and (2) are taken, then eliminating X 3 between (4) and (5), we obtain
X lf X 2 X 3 be chosen to
0(X lf X 2 ) =
........................... (6)
,
An
infinite
number
and therefore an
(1), (2), (6)
number
If
of lines can
we
eliminate
X lf X 2 between
we
obtain
(7) ^ ;
This equation
is satisfied
by the coordinates
of
on any
line
which
therefore represents a surface generated by such lines. Hence the lines which intersect three given lines lie on a
surface.
47]
55
It is to be noted that if
(3) is of the
form t^
(3),
(4),
that
(1),
(2),
(5)
equivalent to four
independent equations. The equation to the surface is obtained by eliminating \ v X 2 X 3 between these four Hence equations, and this can be done in only one way.
,
the surface
///
Al
is
/! \
also
123
*
3 )
= 0,
or
I/O
I/O /
by
Ex. =6, z
1.
-0
of lines
;
lines
a,
-b.
have a
is
line
of
so
lines.
That
0,
A-
1,
Aj,
1,
~~
LI\* + Ajfl
n =0,
2,
0,
M
t.e. if
^3
0>
(1)
A A 2 A 3 + 1=0
1
and
(2)
Therefore the coordinates of any point on a line which meets the three given lines satisfy
Therefore eliminating A n A 2) A3
viz.
:
we
obtain
y
or
z+c
ayz -f bzx + cxy + abc
result
is
= 0.
(2).)
obtained from
a
y=l,
lies
z-l
3.
2.
If the planes
;
2=1,
on the surface
yz+zx+ xy + \ =0.
all lines
lines
P
;
Ex.
Prove that
y=
-mo;,
4.
2= -c
and the x
axis, lie
Ex.
Prove that the locus of lines which intersect the three #-;/ = !, z=0 is
;
lines
5.
lines
lines
56
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
[CH.
III.
Ex. 6. Shew that the equations to any line which intersects the three given lines y=b, z -c, z = c, x~-a\ # = a, may be written y-b + \(z + c) Q, (x-a) + /x(?/-f fe) = 0, where A and //, are connected by the equation A//c - fib + a = 0. Hence shew that the two
y=-b
lines
lines
and
also
-=^
c c
are
~(
x
a
Ex.
7.
v c
__
c
Shew
drawn
to intersect the
are given by
= 1,
//-f-1
=0
48.
Coplanar
lines.
To find
two given
qg-q
/
= y-$ ^ Z ~V
.................... (1)
71
.............. (3)
a(a
and
a') + 6( 8j
+c y.y =
(
')
............ (5)
rt
+ &?n + er?/ =
/
........................ (6)
(4),
between
(5),
(6),
we
- a',
i
0-jS',
771,
m'
fc,
n
(3), (4), (6)
The elimination
of a,
between
gives the
lines, viz.,
X-OL, T/-/3,
I,
?n,
m',
48,49]
COPLANAR LINES
57
Generally, the equation (8) represents the plane through the line (1) parallel to the line (2), and (7) is the condition
(a',
fl',
y')
on
(2).
Ex. 1. Deduce the result (7) by equating the coordinates 0.4- Zr, f tc., a/4- I'r' etc., of variable points on the given lines.
y
Ex. Ex.
2.
are coplanar.
3.
234345
1
'/- 2 =='
2-3 _=--_
.r-2
y-3 ^>^ = ^
2-4
lines
t
xa+d_ya za-d
OL8
OL
<X-f8
are coplanar, and find the equation to the plane in which the}7 Ans. 2y = *v
lie.
Ex.
4.
if
coplanar
Ex.
5.
m
are coplanar
,
n
4-cv-fr
-r
if
aa-f
acL TT 7r a 6 4- /> m -f ^ ?i
'
Ex.
6.
lines
'//
= Q ^= OL.V 4- ft
4- y'z 4- 8'
are coplanar
ii
=0
' i
&',
ft,
ft
7
d,
;
d',
8,
8'
shew that Ex. 7. A, A' ; B, B' C, C' are points on the axes B'CA, BC'A' the lines of intersection of the planes A'BC, AB'C' C'AB, CA'B' are coplanar.
; ;
49.
lines.
The axes
being rectangular, _
X
lines
j
OL
I
=v
8=z
A,
r
,
(fig. 24),
be (a,
The
shortest distance between the given lines is at right angles X to both, and it is therefore equal to the projection of AA on
58
COORDINATE GEOMETEY
Suppose that
X,
/JL,
[OH. in.
line,
then
= X(a-a )+/x(ft-ft')+Ky~y')> (21, Ex. 3), ~ ^ = (a a/Kmti' m'n) + (ft ft') (^ ti'Q + ( y y)(lm'~ I'm)
x x
m',
n'
Fio. 24.
be interpreted as the condition that the shortest distance between the two given
Equation
(7),
48,
may now
Again,
if
lines
the shortest distance, the equations to the planes APP', A'PP' are
PP'
is
should vanish.
=o,
I,
as- a/,
r,
y-j
m',
*-y = 0,
m,
/x,
n
i/
X,
line PP'.
Find the shortest distance using the theorems that the is equal to (i), the perpendicular from any point (a+Jr, ft + mr, y+nr), on the first line to the plane drawn through the second parallel to the first and (ii), the distance between two planes, each passing through one line and parallel to the other.
shortest distance
;
Ex.
2.
If P,
(a+fr,
/3
+ mr, y+nr)
and
are points on the given lines, and PP'=8, prove that -~r-=0,
^w=0>
is
PP/2
are verified
when PP'
49]
Ex.
Shew
is
v6
_,
and that
its
equations are
Ex.
4.
lines
-1
~
1
-T~
"""If"
:
The following method of solution may be adopted Let the S.D. meet the lines in P and P' respectively. Then the coordinates of P and P' may be written (3 + 3r, 8-r, 3 + r), (-3-3r', -7 + 2r', 6 + 4r'), where r is proportional to the distance of P from the point (3, 8, 3) and / to the distance of P' from (-3, -7, 6). Whence the directioncosines of PP' are proportional to 6-f 3r +
3r',
Since PP'
is
15-r-2r', we have
'
Whence, solving for r and r', we get r=/=0. Therefore P and P' are the points (3, 8, 3), (-3, -7, and the equations to PP' are
6),
2~~
Ex.
5.
~~-l*
-2
'
-6
T'
<-l -l
f
fT.l.^iZ.?,
Ex.
6.
(3,5,7),
-l)l
of the S.D.
between
Ans.
~~,
7.
Ex.
drawn
is
Ans.
(2, 8,
-3),
\/7a
60
Ex.
8.
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
Find the
S.D.
[CH. in.
line
and the
line
and
parallel to
OZ
is
equal to the
S.D.)
Ex.
9.
If
S.D.
between the
lines
(OL
.')(&
- 6') -
(o//3
(x')
- <*.p)(a - a')
2
{aV
Ex.
10.
(a
- aj + (a S.D.
+ (aa - a'a/) 2
lines
*
}
between the
by -f cz -f o?
= =
d
d'
a'.*:
-f b'y
+ c'c -f
rf',
18
a,
a',
6,
c,
-r{2(BC'-B'C)
}*,
b\
/?,
c,
7,
,
.',
p, y, y
A'
where
Ex.
A = 6c'-6V,
11.
etc.,
= /^y' S.D.
/3'y,
etc.
Shew
cos
that the
between the
'
lines
g
y2
z { ) is
,.
..,
a.!
cos
jy t
meets the
M(.r,
_LJ
first
line at a point
<
-cos __L---#cosou>)
!l
sin
(/
cos y^
cos
a. 2
cos
/ 2
cos
2/
?
/) where 6
lines.
Ex. 12. Shew that the S.D. between any two opposite edges of the tetrahedron formed by the planes ^/-f-^^o, 2-f.r^O, ^-fy = 0, x +y-\- z = a is 2a/\ f i$, and that the three lines of shortest distance intersect at the point x~y z~-a.
Ex.
13.
Shew
that the
S.D.
between the
line
and the
origin
is
z-axis
Ex.
14.
Shew
= l, # = 0; and
y
that the equation to the plane containing the line is parallel to the line #/a-s/c=l, y =
if
x/a-y/b-z/c+l=Q and
2d
is
the
S.D.
prove that
50]
A CLASS OF PROBLEMS
15.
61
Ex.
Two
I
straight lines
,r
I'
m
/i,
are cut by a third whose direction-cosines are X, length intercepted on the third line is given by
v.
Shew
that the
OL-O/, /3-/3',
/,
y-y'
n
ri
-r-
w,
m',
/z,
n
n'
wi,
ra',
I',
I ',
A,
of the S.D.
*Ex. 16. The axes are oblique and the plane ABC has equation x/a+y/b + zlcI. Prove that if the tetrahedron OABC has two pairs coa ^ COS M coa v / r J 1 i /\ J .1 . = of opposite edges at right angles, (^^X an ^ ^iat ~~h
4.
c)y
*dz
3,>:
c)//
32*
Hence shew that the perpendiculars pass through the point given by
~-2 ==. 26c^*,
S.D.
^-
= 2cA,
= %abk.
7=^
of
AB
and
OC
are
-^ Oz
Qabk. a^~--br~-
Ox
s.r*
('//
50.
Problems relating to two non-intersecting lines. When two non-intersecting lines are given, the following
coordinate axes allow their equations to be written in simple forms, and are therefore of use in problems
systems of
FIG. 25.
I.
Rectangular
let
and
them.
Let AB, A B', (fig. 25), be the lines, CC', length 2c, be the shortest distance between Take the axis of z along CC', and O the mid-point
axes.
62
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
[CH. in.
Draw OP, OQ parallel to AB, A'B', and of CO' as origin. take the plane POQ as the plane = 0. As x- and 7/-axes
take the bisectors of the angles between OP and OQ. Then if the angle between the given lines is 2oc, the equations
to the planes POZ,
QOZ
are
2/
= a?tanoc,
T/=
a?
tana; and
These
may
cos
z ~~ c
x
cos
V
sin
sin
a
Q
'
a
AB
Ex.
lines
1.
P and
is a variable point so that QP, QP' are at arid A'B', and and A'B' right angles to one another and at right angles to Find the locus of Q. respectively. Take as the equations to AB, A'B', ?/ w.r, z c ; mx> z~ -c. Then the coordinates of P, P' are <x, 7*101, c /J, - 7H./3, c, where a. and
AB
y=
is
/3
are variables.
'
Let
toAB
since
be (,
?;,
)>
then since
PQ
perpendicular
is
-m<x.)==0;
........................... (1)
P'Q
perpendicular to A'B',
(-/J)-mfo + ro/3)=0
since
........................... (2)
PQ
is
perpendicular to P'Q,
we have
2
to eliminate
2
a.
and
ft
between
result
easily
found to be
7
,
"".?.
=^
/"2__ "*
a hyperboloid.
II.
(i-f-m^
I-
^ which
2
represents
Axes partly rectangular. If we take OP and OQ as axes of x and y, instead of the bisectors of the angles between them, we have a system of axes in which the angles ZOX, YOZ are right angles and the angle XOY is the angle between the lines. The equations to AB, A'B' referred
to this system are
2/
= 0,
2 = c;
# = 0,
2=
c.
Ex.
2.
P,
PP
Take
P and
y=0, 2=c; #=0, z=-c; then - c), where a and /? are variables. The
50]
WORKED EXAMPLES
= =
Therefore
63
If Q, Q' are the projections of P, P' on the plane OXY, PQ Q'p' = c, = oL, OQ' /3 and QQ' 2 ==o.2 4-/32 --2oLj3cos0, where Q is the angle
between the
lines.
4F................... (2)
To obtain the equation
OL
and
/3
and
(2).
to eliminate
is
given by
Ex. 3. Find the surface generated by a straight line which intersects two given lines and is parallel to a given plane. If the axes be chosen as in Ex. 2, ana the given plane be
&p 4- wy 4-tt,z = 0, the locus
is
z+c
,-{-?*
= 0.
is
Axes oblique. If a point on each of the given lines specified and a rectangular system is not necessary, the line
III.
joining the given points may be taken as 0-axis, its midpoint as origin, and the parallels through the origin to the
i/-axes.
The equations
# = 0,
to the lines
arethen
^0,0 = 0;
is
0=-c;
A
and A' being
is
where 2c
Ex.
4.
fixed,
P and
AP.
;
A'P'
constant.
(0, /?,
locus of PP'.
Take AA' as
say.
-c\ where
x _y-$ _z + c
and eliminating
Ex.
(iii)
a and
(3
2
,
we
obtain the
A P 2 -f A'P' 2
Find the locus of PP' when (i) AP + A'P', (ii) AP/A'P', is constant. Find also the locus of the mid-point
of PP'.
Ex. 6. Find the locus of the mid-points of lines whose extremities are on two given lines and which are parallel to a given plane.
Ex.
lines
Find the locus of a straight 7. and makes a right angle with one
8.
two given
Ex.
Find the
lines.
given straight
64
Ex.
9.
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
Shew
[CH.
I]
length which have their extremities on two given lines is an ellip whose centre bisects the S.D., and whose axes are equally inclined
the lines.
point moves so that the line joining the feet of tl perpendiculars from it to two given lines subtends a right angle the mid-point of their S.D. Shew that its locus is a hyperbol
Ex.
10.
cylinder.
Ex.
11.
)
line
z
liu<
0=
and the
-
circle
2
x?+y = a\
i
mxzf 4- c
(yz
To find
the
volume in terms of
the coordinates of th
vertices, the
2 ),
(# s
= 0,
1 1
y^
z^\ th
or
2/1-
y\>
2/2
>
3'
*'$
>
?/3'
The equation
Let
planes
to the plane
ABC can
also be written
p = a; cos
fJL
+ y cos j8 +
ABC then
;
.
cos
its
y
.
(2
A, B,
YOZ
sign
are
(0,
y lt
2/i>
2/ 2 .
z^
(0,
j/ 2
2 ),
(0,
is
y3
^\
ABC
by
cos
a A=
.
in
magnitude and
sign.
2/2.
y*>
51]
65
Hence, using the similar expressions for cos/3 cos y A, equation (1) may be written
.
and
y) =
C
2.
2/2.
*2
<-3
the absolute measure of -JpA is the volume of the tetrahedron OABC, and we can introduce positive arid negative volume by denning the volume OABC to be -JpA,
Now
which
positive or negative according as the direction of rotation determined by ABC is positive or negative for the
is
plane ABC, (p
Vol.
is
positive as in
37).
We may then
"1>
write
Vol.
OBAC =
Vol.
OABC,
etc.
<V
2/2
2/1 >
2/3'
If
is
the point
?/ 4
4 ),
D,
we have
Vol.
2/1-2/4. 2/2-2/4.
2/3-2/4.
2/1-2/4.
2/2-2/4.
2/3-2/4.
2/4.
_
2/1'
1 --
4.
2/4.
c2 ,
2/4-
2/2.
2/3'
Since the sign of a determinant is changed when two adjacent rows or columns are interchanged, it follows that
Vol.
DABC=
Vol.
Vol.
ABCD,
etc
B.O.
86
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
Again, since
2/3'
[CH.
III.
*3
*^2> 2/2
^2>
2/2'
^2
2/3'
2/4'
2/4.^4
2/2
#3,2/3,23,1
OBCD
ODAB.
+ Vol. OCDA-Vol.
ABCD
S
does not depend on the position of the origin, this must be true for all positions of O.
Cor.
If
oc,
/3y
y,
from any
y
point
ABC, BCD, CDA, DAB of a given tetrahedron aoi+b/3 + cy + dS is constant, where a, 6, c d are
to the faces
A, B, C are (3, the vol. PABC
of
certain constants.
Ex.
Ex.
j, 6,
1.
locus of
if
= 5.
2, 1),
(-2,
0,
-3),
(0, 0,
Am.
2.
The lengths
is
their S.D.
equal to
is
that the
volume
two opposite edges of a tetrahedron are and the angle between them to 6 prove abdsin 6
d,
;
IT
S.D. between two given lines, and B, B' are variable points on them such that the volume AA'BB' is constant. Prove that the locus of the mid-point of BB' is a hyperbola whose asymptotes are parallel to the lines.
Ex.
3.
AA'
is
the
Ex. 4. If O, A, B, C, D are the projections of OA, OB, OC, p l Vol. -jD 8 .Vol.
.
OD
any
.
five points,
and
p^p^ p^ p
.
are
on any given
Vol.
OBCD
OCDA + p3
ODAB
OABC = 0.
Ex. 5. Prove that the volume of a tetrahedron, two of whose sides are of constant length and lie upon given straight lines, is constant, and that the locus of its centre of gravity is a plane.
A, B, C, D of a tetrahedron to meet the opposite faces in A', Prove that Vol. A'B'C'D'- -3 .Vol. ABCD.
= Vol. A'BCD. projections on any plane, prove that Vol. AB'C'D' Lines are drawn in a given direction through the vertices Ex. 7.
B', C', D'.
Ex.
6.
If
A, B, C,
B', C',
*Ex. 8. Find the volume of the tetrahedron the equations to whose faces are arX + 6r y+c r g + rfr =0, r=l, 2, 3, 4. Let the planes corresponding to r=l, 2, 3, 4 be BCD, CDA, DAB, Then (#lf ylt ABC respectively, and let A= a l9 b l9 15 dv
.
dt
511
67
is
given by
A2
etc.
-A
*Ex.
9,
OABC
The lengths
6, c,
of the edges
OA, OB,
are a,
OC AOB
2,
the volume.
Suppose that the direction-cosines of rectangular axes through O, are 1 19 m^ n v the coordinates of A are ^a, t a, n^, etc.
Therefore
6. Vol.
referred to
m OABC
J2 ,
n2
3,
3J
n3
then
/2 ft,
>
abc
2^
vj
2
,
2^/2
y; 2 J -"^2
>
2<
COS
V, ],
V,
COS /i COS
3
*.
7 1^25
y;
^^2^5
COS
cos//,
cos A,
(Cf.
27, Ex. 3.
[CH. IV.
CHAFFER
IV.
CHANGE OF AXES.
OZ o Orj, o are two sets of rectangular axes through a common origin O, and the direction-cosines mlt 7i 2 Orj, o, referred to OX, OY, OZ, are 2 2 ms n3 P, any point, has coordinates x y, z referred to l s CX, OY, OZ and ^ referred to O Qq, O^. We have to
52-
OX, OY,
*/,
26.
rj,
and the
direction-cosines,
and
vice-versa.
In the accompanying figure, ON, NM, MP represent ^, and OK, KL, LP represent x, y, z. Projecting OP and ON,
NM,
MP
.(i)
52,53]
69
Oq,
in turn,
(2)
The equations
(1)
and
(2)
above scheme, which may be constructed as follows Affix and to the columns and rows the numbers x, y, z to the column headed x and the in the square common
;
YJ,
row headed place the cosine of the angle between OX and o i.e. 1 19 and so on. To obtain the value of x, multiply the numbers in the ^-column by the numbers at the left of their respective rows and add the products; to obtain the value of multiply the numbers in the -row by the numbers at the heads of their respective columns, and add
the products. Similarly, any other of the equations (1) and (2) may be derived.
Cor.
Since
x,
y, z
rj,
the
degree of
unaltered by transformation from any one set of rectangular axes to any other. For it is evident that the degree cannot be raised* Neither can it
an equation
be lowered, since in changing again to the original axes, it would require to be raised.
53.
mutually perpendicular
We
2
have
3
l
y +w m
(A)
lj, l
+ 7i 3 = 0,1 +m^n + w an = ol
2
9? 1
(B)
= 0, J
70
COORDINATE GEOMETEY
From
the second and third equations of
(B),
[CH. iv.
we
derive
I 7i 2 3
2>
-m n
3
2
2)
m m
1
2>
(23,
Cor.
I.)
3,
Therefore,
if
D" ^
1,
m m
= D(m27i8 -m37i
Similarly,
2 ),
2,
'3'
7^ =
(E)
Multiplying the
(E)
by
^,
2,
2,
3>
m m
and
similarly,
+ m32 = 1,
Multiplying the second column by
in the
..(c)
nv n2
7i
3,
we
obtain
same way,
m^ + m
and
similarly,
+ m37i3 = 0, n^ + n l% + 7i3 3 = 0,
2
7i
z
The equations (c) and (D) can be derived at once from the consideration that l v Z2 n l9 n%, 7i3 are 7n 3 3 l} 2
,
;
m m
the direction-cosines of OX, OY, OZ referred to O^, The method adopted shews that the four sets (A), (B),
Oiy,
O^. (D)
(c),
are not independent, and it can be shewn as above, that if either of the two dissimilar sets (A), (B) (c), (D) be given, the other two can be deduced.
;
Suppose that a plane LMN (fig. 27) cuts segments of unit length from the axes o
Then
if
53]
71
the direction of rotation given by LMN is the positive direction of rotation for the plane LMN, the system of axes
can be brought by rotation about O into coincidence with the system OX, OY, OZ. If the direction of
O//,
rotation is negative,
and o
Otj
with OX,
OY
respectively, then
Of
Fio. 27.
Now
6 Vol.
.
OLMN =
k,
*2>
positive or negative according as the direction of rotation determined by LMN Hence if LMN is positive or negative for the plane LMN.
therefore
D, is
(K).
the positive sign being taken throughout. the negative direction of rotation,
If
LMN
gives
^=
Conversely,
lines
if 1 19
(m2n3
7i ), etc.> 2
mv n^
L,
7?
3,
3,
7i
are the
then
O^,
Of can be brought by
rotation about
to
^=^=0;
72
COOKDINATE GEOMETRY
a surface by a given plane.
[CH.
IV.
54. 1 Section of
The
follow-
ing method
when the
of transformation can be applied with advantage section of a given surface by a given plane
passing through the origin is to be considered. Let the equation to the plane be lx + my + nz = Q, where
^ 2
+ m + 7i = 1,
2
and n
the
is
positive.
Take
OZ.
as
new
axis of
Then the equations to o, referred to OX, OY, OZ, are = 2//m = z/n Take as O//, the new ^/-axis, the line in #/ the plane ZO which is at right angles to o and makes an acute angle with OZ. Then choose Of, the new #-axis, at
right angles to Oq and o, and so that the system o O/;, Of can be brought to coincidence with OX, OY, OZ. The given
PiO. 28.
plane
W^
is
/ / O Orj,
and since
at right angles lies in the plane XOY, and therefore is the line The of intersection of the given plane and the plane XOY. = yjm therefore if X, p., equation to the plane fO^ is xjl
it
is
C5
' *
Hence o
;/
-71
1
n
p.
ii.
See Appendix,
54]
A USEFUL TRANSFORMATION
O//
73
But
positive,
makes an acute angle with OZ, and therefore v is and therefore the negative sign must be taken in
In
the ambiguity.
mn
=,
,/
2 = v/fw-. ?/i2 +
And
and
o, by
53
m
i.e.
I
r,
mn
w
that the projection of a conic
is
71
Ex.
species.
1.
Shew
the curve in which the plane r -f ra ?/ 4- fl^ = cuts the is the conic. and the projection of this curve on the plane 2 cylinder, Change the axes as above, arid the equations to the curve become
The eq u ation /(.r, y ) = a^:2 -f 2Ao7// 4- ft?/ 2 -f 2^.r 4- 2/7/ 4- c = represen ts a cylinder whose generators are parallel to OZ and pass through the conic 2 = 0, /(,r, .y) = 0. The equations r-f-w?/ + = 0, y*(^ ,?/)=0
ft,2
represent
m^
V/rnVV^V^V
and therefore the curve
is
\*/P
4-...-0,
m*/
by
A'==
,,
Imn(a-b)-hn(l 2 -m ' ^ i 2 l + m*
-2
} ^
5
=
A' A'
2 2
Whence
and
- a7/ =
?i
(A
- aft)
74
COOEDINATE GEOMETEY
[CH.
iv.
Ex. 2. All plane sections of a surface represented by an equation of the second degree are conies. Take coordinate axes so that a plane section is 2=0 ; the equation to the surface is, after transformation, of the form
ax* + by*+ cz*+ 2fyz + 2gzx + Ihxy + 2ux+ 2vy + 2wz+d=0.
The The
Ex.
section
by the plane
2=0,
surfaces represented
conicoids.
3.
2=0
plane sections.
z
= kf
z
The equations
0=,
are then,
= k,
',
Hence the
conies.
Ex. 4. Find the conditions that the section of the surface ax2 + by 2 + cz 2 =l by the plane lx+ my + nz=p should be (i) a parabola,
a hyperbola. examine the section by the plane lx + my + nz=0, (It which, by Ex. 3, is a similar conic. The equation to the projection of this section on the plane z=0 is obtained by eliminating z between the equations lx + my + nz 0, ax 2 + by'2 + cz 2 =I, and the projection is a conic of the same species.)
(ii)
an
ellipse, (iii)
is sufficient
to
/a +
m /b + n /c =
2
(),
etc.
Ex.
5.
lx+my+nz=p
(Since rectangular hyperbolas do not, in general, project into rectangular hyperbolas, it will, in this case, be necessary to examine the actual section of the surface by the plane lx+ my + nz=Q by the
method
Ex.
6.
of
54.)
A ns.
circle.
(a + b)n 4- am* + U* = 0.
2
section of
ax2 + by 2 +cz 2 = l by
2
;
lx+my + nz=p
Ans. 1=0,
w2 (c-a) = w2 (a-&);
Lv+my=Q
is
or
or
Ex.
7,
If
a circular section of
2
prove that
Ex.
8.
= l),
db
"
xyz
by
is
given
by
2
~TT
_1
?m
55]
75
Ex.
Shew
that
if
be transformed by change of coordinates from one set of rectangular axes to another with the same origin, the expressions a + 6 + e, remain unaltered in value.
Ex.
10.
Two
sets of rectangular axes through a common origin in P, Q, R ; P', Q', R'. Prove that
Ex. 11. The equations, referred to rectangular axes, of three mutually perpendicular planes, are pr -lrX- m ry-nrZ = fy 7* = 1, 2, 3. Prove that if (, 97, ) is at a distance d from each of them,
Ex.
12.
If the axes of #,
z are
substitutions
x=
jz ;k ^'
y==
V3~vi'
z=
;/3~v2
+
;/6
give a transformation to another set of rectangular axes in which the = 0, and hence prove that plane x+y + z = Q becomes the plane the section of the surface yz -\-zx-\-xy-\- a 2 = by the plane x+y -fz = is a circle of radius \/2 a.
.
*55o
are
OX, OY, OZ are rectangular axes, and o Otj, o oblique axes whose direction-cosines, referred to
If
12
7i 2 , 1 39
3>
Oiy,
O^, as in
52,
x=
(A)
^+
Y\
cos v
+ ^ cos = ^
JUL
f
cosX + =i
o? are X, p, v. The equations (B) can also be deduced from (A) by multiplying in turn by I ml ,n l9 etc., and adding. Again, from (A), li
2/,
2
^c
-T-
l$
L,
ra x
7i x
2,
78
COOEDINATE GEOMETRY
[CH. iv,
By means
of (A)
and
(c)
rect-
angular to oblique axes and vice versa. Since x, y, z are linear functions of Cor.
vice
and
the degree of any equation is unaltered by transformation from rectangular to oblique axes or from
versa,
The transformation from one oblique to rectangular axes. to another can be performed, by inset of oblique axes
troducing a set of rectangular axes, in the above two steps, and hence in this most general case the degree of the
equation
is
Ex. 1. The equation #2 + 4 (?/ 2 + z2) 2 is transformed bv change from rectangular axes, the new axes being oblique, and having
direction -cosines proportional to
2,1,1;
4,
N/3-1, ~\/3-l
is
4,
2
-V3- K
3,
N/3-
1.
Shew
that the
new equation
x
,
+y + z = l.
2
Ex. 2. If P, Q, R are (., rj r ), r=l, 2, ?tiique axes through an origin O, prove that
8.Vol.
referred to a set of
OPQR =
V2
7
1,
?2
'
cos
v,
cos cos
IJL
cos
v,
//,,
1,
A
1
COS
COS A,
cf.
(Use55(B);
*
51,
Ex.
9.)
Examples
I.
1. The gnomon of a sundial is in the meridian at an elevation A (equal to the latitude), and the sun is due east at an elevation a. Find the angle that the shadow makes with the N. and S. line of the dial.
2.
line
through
(1, 1, 1)
which meets
its inter-
^-
=--=
I
that
is
mr 7i r r = l, 2, 3; 3. If OA, OB, OC have direction-ratios r and OA', OB', OC' bisect the angles BOO, COA, AOB, the planes AOA', BOB', COC' pass through the line
,
,
x
4.
____
is
a given point
to the planes
planes
OMN
and PM, PN are the perpendiculars from P OP makes angles #, OL, /?, y with the and the (rectangular) coordinate planes. Prove that
ZOX, XOY.
CH. iv.]
5.
EXAMPLES
xa__
y
sin
I.
77
Shew
a "^ cos a,
CL
CLI/
is
cos
a.
cos
oc)
= 0.
6.
circle
of a straight line which meets and the so that the distance between the points of
OX
section
7.
is \/c -f
A2
into new positions, and the direction-cosines of the to the old are 15 n n l9 etc.; then if
new axes
;
v \i referred
= + (w 2n 3 - m 3
7i
2 ),
A (w 3 -f n 2 ) = M (^ i +
3)
= v (Lz + MJ)
rotated,
also
if
is
is
between lines 1, 2, 3 are parallel to then the shortest distances between the lines 4, 5, 6 are parallel to the lines 1, 2, 3.
8.
lines 4,
9.
Any
of a
2, 3,
parallelepiped, and if the lines are the lengths of the edges are
-^=?!
Cr
-5-
m'
2
==
""
UT
71
,
7^
= l,
72-73
etc.
is zero.
opposite to O.
of a parallelepiped and R is the corner are perpendiculars to the plane ABC. Compare the lengths of OP and RQ. If the figure is rectangular and is taken as origin, and the plane ABC is given by lx + mi/ + nz=p, PQ has direction -cosines proportional to l~ l 3l, m~ l 3w, n~ l 3n,
OA, OB,
and
of the cube of which OF3 OQ, OR are edges. the diagonal of the parallelepiped of which OQ, OR, OS are are formed similarly. Find the coordinates and edges, and of U, V, W, and if OT is the diagonal of the parallelepiped of which coincides with OS and that are edges, shew that OU, OV,
,
OU
is
OV
OW
OW
OT
or=5.os.
12. Find the equations to the straight line through the origin which meets at right angles the line whose equations are
and
Find the locus of a point which moves so that the distances from two given lines is constant.
13.
78
14.
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
[CH.
iv.
x2 +y 2 =a 2 z=0
15.
line is parallel to the plane y z=Q and intersects the circles 2 2 2 Q ; find the surface it generates. ; x +z , y ,
=a
which
is
Find the equation to the surface generated by a straight line = mx, z=nx, and intersects the ellipse parallel to the line y
16. plane triangle, sides a, 6, c, is placed so that the mid-points of the sides are on tne axes (rectangular). Shew that the lengths
by
- /,
n\
(/,
- m, n\
17. Lines are drawn to meet two given lines and touch the right circular cylinder whose axis is the s.n. (length 2c'), and radius c.
The
lx+my+nzp
is
line
9
moves so as
;
x=0 y2 +z*=r
is
y = 0,
2
+ x?=r2
the locus
(x+y)
1
{z
20.
Prove that
y
whose
-- --- -- = x
1
of r planes
21. Find the surface generated by a straight line which revolves about a given straight line at a constant distance from it and makes a given angle with it.
22.
Shew
that
xy^z^
L!,
L 2 L3
,
are three given straight lines and the directions of Find the locus of the line joining the any point on L3 to Lj and L2
.
The ends
joined to
the conjugates of parallel diameters of the #2 /a2 -f #2 /6 2 =l, z= -c. Find the equation to ellipse the surface generated by the joining lines.
are and B are two points on a given plane and AP, 25. Shew that for all lines in given directions at right angles to AB. is constant, and that all such lines PQ, parallel to the plane,
c,^
/a
+y /62 =l
2
are
BQ
two
AP BQ
:
lines lie
on a conicoid.
The vertex A
ABC
and
lies
AC
lie
BC
CH. iv.]
27.
EXAMPLES
I.
79
to the jcy-plane
Prove that the equation to the two planes inclined at an angle OL and containing the line y = 0, scos /J=.rsin /?, is
2
(r
28.
line
moves
meet the
lines
2
,
x
coso.
-.iJL? in
drsino.
= ?/e
# = 0.
is a curve of the third of the mid-point of degree, are parallel to the given lines. asymptotes
AB
29. Given two non-intersecting lines whose directions are at right angles and whose S.D. is AB, and a circle whose centre C is on AB and plane parallel to the lines. Shew that the locus of a variable line whicn intersects the given lines and circle is a surface whose sections by planes parallel to the lines are ellipses whose centres lie on AB, and that the section by the plane through C', another point of AB, is a circle, if C, C' are harmonic conjugates with respect to A and B.
30. If the axes are rectangular the locus of the centre of a circle of radius a which always intersects them is
#\/a 2
z l 4-
line is drawn to 31. so that the length intercepted on it is constant. tions may be written in the form
x^y^
;
a2
-.rtana, z= -c,
Shew
that
its
equa-
#coto.__?/-cos 0tana _ ~~
kcosfl
kamO
where k
32.
is
a constant and
a parameter.
to the
which
33.
Find the equation to the surface generated by a straight line is parallel to the plane 2 = and intersects the line x=y~Z) and
'
the curve
fixed line L, which lies in the #y-plane but does not the origin, is drawn a plane which intersects the planes pass through #=0 and y~Q in lines and N respectively. Through and a fixed point A, and through N and another fixed point B, planes are drawn. Find the locus of their line of intersection.
Through a
The axes are rectangular and a point P moves on the fixed plane x/a+y/b+z/c^l. The plane through P perpendicular to OP meets the axes in A, B, C. The planes through A, B, C parallel to YOZ, ZOX, XOY intersect in Q. Shew that the locus of Q is
34.
35.
through
locus of
given non-intersecting
P,
lines.
it
Any
plane
and
PQ
is
normal to
at P.
Find the
PQ. 36. Find the equation to a plane which touches each of the circles 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 How many such #=0, y +z*=a? y = 0, ^ +^ = 6 *=0, # +y = c
;
two given
80
38.
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
Four given points
of a
[CH.
iv.
variable line lie on the faces of a that any other point of the line describes quadrilateral prism. a line which is parallel to the edges of the prism.
Shew
locus of the harmonic conjugates of P with respect to the in which any secant through P cuts a pair of planes is the polar of P with respect to the planes. Prove that the equation
39. The two points
y^
z^)
with respect to ^ = 0, v = 0,
ni
<jj
is
-f
=0, where
Shew u v is the result of substituting x\,y\,z\ for x,y,z also that the polars of P with respect to the pairs of planes that form a trihedral angle cut those planes in three coplanar lines.
40.
Ul V} in u, etc.
Any
line
hedron
ABCD
B',
C',
41. If the axes are rectangular, and A, //, v are the angles between the lines of intersection of the planes a^v 4- 6ry + 0,^=0, r=l, 2, 3, prove that
*
.
//,
cos'2 i>
//,
sin v
3
(A -2A/x)2-f /x(A -/x), where A 2/ are parameters, determine a system of lines. Find the locus of /x those which intersect the -e-axis. Prove that two lines of the system pass through any given point unless the given point lies on a certain curve, when an infinite number of lines pass through it, and find the equations to the curve.
42.
The equations x = Xz + ^
and
561
CHAPTER
V.
THE SPHERE.
Equation to a sphere. If the axes are rectangular the square of the distance between the points P, (x lt y,, z a ) and Q, (aj8 y 2> 2 ) is given by (x 2 -x l )2 + (y z -y 1 f + (z2 -z,)2 and therefore the equation to the sphere whose centre is P and whose radius is of length r, is
56.
,
Any
can be written
u \*
J + (y + a)
.
'V
is
u
a
,
w\
,
a/
and radius
i-
Ju + v + w
2
2
ad
-
a
(2,
-
Ex. 1. Find the equation to the sphere whose centre is 9 ->- ' ~ *Ans. and radius 5.
Ex.
2.
3, 4) "->- -A
x*+y2 + zv-2x+4y-6z=n
Ex.
3.
Ans.
(1,
-2,3),
5.
y l9
z.
2)
as diameter,
Ex.
4.
(0,
1,
-1),
(-1,
2, 0),
(1, 2, 3).
Ana.
U.Q.
82
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
Ex,
5.
[OH
v,
Find the equation to the sphere which passes throag and the circle z = 0, /?, y)
Find the equations
to the spheres
i t/na
Ex.
6.
through the
eircla
and
(i)
Ans.
the origin, (ii) the point (1, 2, 3). - l&v - 27# - 36* (i) 5 (x* +y* + z*)
(ii)
Ex. 7. The plane ABC, whose equation is #/a + ?//6 4- /<?==!, meets find equations to determine the ch cumcircle of the axes in A, B, C. the triangle ABC, and obtain the coordinates of its centre.
Ans.
x 1 -f;/ 2 4- z 2 - ax - by - cz =
8.
whose centre
Ans.
2(.r
9.
(^1?
2
yn
-Sj),
and radius
r.
t
2 ^) + 22 (^ -yi)(z - ^) cos A = r
*Ex.
the equation
a = i= c
.
=-/_=-- =JtCOS
A.
COS /JL
COS V
is
1/-S\* -}
\
.
where
and
a cos
v,
a cos
p, A,
a,
u
v
1,
cos
r,
cos
fj,
a cos
a cos
r,
//,
a,
a cos
cosy,
cos/x,
1,
cos
A
1
a cos A,
v,
w
d
cos A,
u,
w,
57.
Q,
(o: 2 ,
Tangents and tangent planes. If P, (x l9 y v zj and are points on the sphere x 2 + y 2 +z2 = a?, then i/ 2 2)
,
and therefore
(^ - x 2 )(x, + xj + (y l - 7/ 2 )( ?/1 + 1/ 2 ) + (z l
)(^ +
2)
= 0.
Now
O
is
the direction-cosines of
zz'> an d
PQ
^ M ^
the origin, the direction-cosines of OM are proportional to x l +x2 Therefore PQ is at right angles 2
y^y^ ^+^
57,58]
83
OM. Suppose that OM meets the sphere in A and that PQ moves parallel to itself with its mid-point, M, on OA. Then when M is at A, PQ is a tangent to the sphere at A, and hence a tangent at A is at right angles to OA, and the
to
is
is
y\
is
cC)GL+(y
or
Ex.
1.
a cos <)
the sphere
Ans.
x2 +y +z =a
2
2
2
.
a.
Ex. 2. Find the equation to the tangent plane at 1 2 2 sphere x + y + z + %ux -f 2 vy + 2wz + d = 0.
Ans.
(#', ?/9
/) to the
xx
Ex. 3. Find the condition that the plane lx + myi-nz=p should touch the sphere ,r2 -l-y 2 -|-2 2 -|-2?/.r-f 2vt/ + 2wz+d=0. 2 2 A ns, + m2 + n 2 ) (u l (ul 4- vm 4- wn -f p) ( Ex.
circle
4.
to the spheres
Ans.
Ex.
5.
^2 -f y 3 + 22 -f2?^+2i?y-f 2ws
t
.v
at
any common
if
*58.
OP OQ
.
is constant.
The equations
direction-cosines are
whose
*Ll^^y^JLLl =r
I
84
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
The point on
(xyz)
this line,
[CH. v.
whose distance from O is r, has coordinates a.+lr, (3+mr, y+nr, and lies on the sphere
= a(ce2
if
hence
all
OP OQ
.
is
given by
F(oc, /9,
y)/a,
which
secants through O.
OP.OQ
is
the power of
spheres, the locus of points whose powers with respect to the spheres are equal is the plane
two
given by
S 1 = S 2 or 2(%
,
u 2 )& + 20^
v^)y
+ 2(w
<
w^z + ^
two
d^
= 0.
This plane
It
is
is
spheres.
evidently at centres.
right angles
to
The radical planes of three spheres taken two by two pass through one line. (The equations to the line are S 1 = S 2 = S 3 .) The radical planes of four spheres taken two by two pass through one point. (The point is given by S x = S 2 = S 3 = S4 .)
The equations
to
any two
spheres
can
be
put in
the
form
(Take the
as &-axis
and the
radical plane as
# = 0.)
The equation x 2 + y* + z* + 2\x + d~Q, where X is a parameter, represents a system of spheres any two of which have the same radical plane. The spheres are said to be
coaxal.
58]
EXAMPLES
II.
85
Ex. 1. Prove that the members of the coaxal system intersect one another, touch one another, or do nol intersect one another, according as
Ex. 2. Shew that the centres of the two spheres of the system which have zero-radius are at the points (\/d, 0, 0). (These are the
limiting -points of the system.)
that the equation ^-f^-f-^-f 2/xy-f 2i>-d=0, where a system of spheres passing through the limiting points of the system a?+ y 2 + 2 2 4-2Ar-f rf =0, and cutting every member of that system at right angles.
p.
Ex. and
3.
Shew
Ex.
4.
The
locus of points
to
two
Ex.
5.
Shew
Examples
II.
1. sphere of constant radius r passes through the origin, O, and Prove that the locus of the cuts the axes (rectangular) in A, B, C. to the plane is given by foot of the perpendicular from
ABC
(x*
P is a variable point on a given line 2. Shew that the sphere projections on the axes. a fixed circle.
3.
OABC
and A, B,
are
its
passes through
in A, B, C.
plane passes through a fixed point (a, 6, c) and cuts the axes Shew that the locus of the centre of the sphere OABC is
+ + ?= 2 x z
y
4. If the three diagonals of an octahedron intersect at right angles, the feet of the perpendiculars from the point of intersection If a, a. to the faces of the octahedron lie on a sphere. i, /? c, y are the measures of the segments of the diagonals, the centre (, r/, / of the sphere is given by
~~
27?
+ a.-
6- 1
+ /J-
___+
~~
1
2f
~
1
c- 1
y'
(aa)-
__
;
the diagonals being taken as coordinate axes. Prove that the points where the perpendiculars meet the opposite faces also lie on the sphere.
5, Prove that the locus of the centres of spheres which pass through a given point and touch a given plane is a conicoid. 6, Find the locus of the centres of spheres that pass through a given point and intercept a fixed length on a given straight line. 7, Find the locus of the centres of spheres of constant radius which pass through a given point and touch a given line.
86
8.
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
;
[OH. v.
=c
Prove that the centres of spheres which touch the lines y=mx, 2 mx, z -c, lie upon the conicoid mxy + cz( I + m ) 0.
y-
9. If the opposite edges of a tetrahedron are at right angles the centre of gravity is the mid-point of the line joining the point of concurrence of the perpendiculars and the centre of the circumscribing sphere.
10. If the opposite edges of a tetrahedron are at right angles the mid-points of the edges and the feet of the perpendiculars from the vertices to the edges lie upon a sphere whose centre is the centre of gravity of the tetrahedron.
The sum of the squares of the intercepts made by a given sphere on any three mutually perpendicular lines through a fixed
11.
point
is
constant.
12. With any point P of a given plane as centre a sphere is described whose radius is equal co the tangent irom P to a given Prove that all such spheres pass through two fixed points. sphere.
13.
If
A=//,=
i>
= 7r/3,
If T
is
prove that
2
(r
15.
points are
Prove that the equations to the spheres that pass through the and touch the plane 2^+ 2^ -2 = 11, (4, 1, 0), (2,-3, 4), (1, 0, 0),
2
16.
OXYZ
Prove that the equation to a sphere, which lies and touches the coordinate planes, is of the form
Prove that
and find for point to touch the coordinate planes, the spheres are (i) real (ii) coincident. the point
;
in general
17.
is
(
constant
= a). On AB
OZ.
Prove
a point on
parallel to
is so that the angle and B on is as diameter a circle is described whose plane varies the circle generates the cone that as
OX
OY
OAB
AB
2 2 sin 2oc
= 0.
a variable diameter of the ellipse 2=0, #2/a 2 +?/ 2 /&2 = l| and a circle is described in the plane PP'ZZ' on PP' as diameter, Prove that as PP' varies, the circle generates the surface
18.
POP'
is
OH. v.l
EXAMPLES
II.
87
19. Prove that the equation to the sphere tetrahedron whose sides are
circumscribing the
*+f-o, be
'
-V=o, a c
*+f=o, a b
'
?+?+ f -i. a b c
'
'
r.
y
b
a
20.
00116
__Z__Q c~~
^\^
^\
21. Find the locus of the centre of a variable sphere which passes through the origin O and meets the axes in A, B, C, so that the volume of the tetrahedron OABC is constant. 22.
A sphere
of constant radius k passes through the origin and Prove that the centroid of the triangle
23. The tangents drawn from a point P to a sphere are all equal to the distance of P from a fixed tangent plane to the sphere. Prove that the locus of P is a paraboloid of revolution.
24.
circles
- 5=0, 5y + 62 4-1=0;
Jie
its
equation.
circles
25.
ehould
26.
origin, If
lie
OA, OB,
OC
OA = a, OB = 6, OC = OABC is
m lt n
1%,
ra 2 ,
n2
1%,
?i
cl3 )
-y (am l + bm 2 + cm 3)
vi.
CHAPTER VI
THE CONE.
Equation to a cone. A cone is a surface generated by a straight line which passes through a fixed point and
59.
If the given point O, say, be chosen as origin, the equation to the cone is homogeneous. For if P, (x\ y', z) is any point on the cone, x', y', z satisfy
any point on OP is on the cone, and has coordinates (kx' ky', kz\ the equation is also satisfied by kx', ky', kz' for all values of k, and therefore must be homogeneous.
the equation.
since
9
And
a generator of the cone re= presented by the homogeneous equation /(#, y, 2) 0, then = 0. Conversely, if the direction-ratios of a f(l, m, 7i)
Cor.
If x/l
is
= y/m = z/n
straight line which always passes through a fixed point satisfy a homogeneous equation, the line is a generator of a cone whose vertex is at the point.
where 2
-f
is
Ex.
2.
ratios satisfy al 2 +
Lines drawn through the point (OL, /?, y) whose directionbmt + cifi O generate the cone
Ex.
vertex
3.
is
Shew that the equation to the right circular cone whose 2 2 2 2 O, axis OZ, and semi-vertical angle OL, is # -f y = ^ tan o..
Ex. 4. The general equation to the cone of the second degree which passes through the axes iafyz+gzx + hxy = Q.
is
ax* + by
i.e.
by
59]
EQUATION TO A CONE
5.
89
Ex.
any
five
cone of the second degree can be found to pass through concurrent lines.
Ex.
6.
any two sets of rectangular axes through the same origin. Take one set as coordinate axes, and let the direction -cosines of the w* 3 n 3 others be ^, m^ n The equation to a cone 1%, m^ n 2 3 the coordinate axes i&fyz+gzx+hxy=zQ. If this cone also containing contains trie first two axes of the second set,
;
Therefore, since
n l + m 2n^ + ra 3n 3 =0,
etc.,
Ex. 7. The equation to the cone whose vertex is the origin and which passes through the curve of intersection of the plane 2 2 2 lx+my-\-nz=*p and the surface a.r -ffy/ -f-<^ ==l is
Ex. 8. Find the equations to the cones with vertex at the origin which pass through the curves given by
(i)
(ii)
x2 4- y 2 + z 2 -f 2o# -f b = 0,
Ix 4-
w?//
+ nz = p\
(iii)
Am.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
Ex.
9.
in
Prove that the equation to the cone generated by drawn from O to meet the circle ABC is
A, B, C.
lines
Ex. 10. Find the equation to the cone whose vertex is the origin and base the circle, xa, ?/ 2 -M 2 = 6 2 and shew that the section of the cone by a plane parallel to the plane XOY is a hyperbola.
,
Ex.
origin
11.
Shew
is
the
y)=0 is/f
^ )=0.
90
60.
OOOEDINATE GEOMETRY
Angle between
it
[CH. VI.
lines in
convenient to introduce here the following notation, to which we shall adhere throughout the book.
find
a,
h.
We
h,
b,
p
f
3D
3D
= ab
7
1BD
The student can
easily verify that
13D
GH - AF =/D,
In what follows
HF - BG = </D,
use P2 to denote
a,
h,
9,
,
FG - CH = hD
we
g,
/,
c>
u
v
6,
j,
V,
Uy
W,
or
The axes being rectangular to find the angle between the lines in which the plane ux + vy + wz = cuts the cone
f(x, y, z]
ul+vm+wn=0;
if it lies
................... ..(1)
on the cone,
/(Z,m,7i) =
(1)
......................... (2)
Eliminate
2
J
n between
and
(2),
and we obtain
(cu
+ aw2
+m (cv
2
Now
and
(2),
satisfy
60]
AND PLANE
19
91
equation
Therefore
if
they are
mv 7^;
l , ?
m^, nrf
2fvw
2 (/m;2
+ cuv fuw
gr
we;)
From
is
seen to be equal to
2uP
But
if
2vP
lines,
is
sin
2
1^2+
m m + n^
l
cos 6
sin
Ex.
1.
Find the
-s =
equations
to
the
lines
in
which the
plane
Ex. 2. Find the angles between the lines of section of the follow* ing planes and cones
:
(i) 60?
- lOy - 7z = 0,
108^2 - 20/ - 7* 2 =
(ii)
(iii)
3x+y + 5^=^=0,
2^-3y4-0=0,
,
Ans.
(i)
cos^l?,
(ii)
cos-'!, ,
(iii)
-.
ax+by + cz=*Q
cuts
Ex.
3.
Prove
that
the
=Q
plane
the
cone
in perpendicular lines
if
82
61.
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
Condition of tangency of plane and cone.
If
|CH. vi.
p=o,
or
...... (1)
then sin
= 0,
\l
**
,
X
line
-=- =
i.e.
to the plane,
is
........
(2)
the
corre-
sponding equations at the head of paragraph 60, it follows that a normal through the origin to a tangent plane to the cone (2) is a generator of the cone
The two cones are therefore such of the given cone. that each is the locus of the normals drawn the
i.e.
through
origin to the tangent planes to the other, arid they are that account said to be reciprocal.
o
on
Ex.
1.
are reciprocal.
Ex. 2. Prove that tangent planes to the cone lyz + mzxnxy = Q are at right angles to generators of the cone
PJI?
%nlzx - 2lmjcy = 0.
origin to tangent
Ex. 4. Shew that the general equation to a cone which touches the coordinate planes is a *
Condition that the cone has three mutually perpendicular generators. The condition that the plane should cut the cone in perpendicular generators is
62.
(a
If also the
+ 6 + c)(u + ^ 2 +^)=/(u,
2
v,
w) ............. (1)
lies
9
and therefore
S(u,v w) = a + b + c = 0.
61-63]
93
In this case the cone has three mutually perpendicular generators, viz., the normal to the plane and the two perpendicular lines in which the plane cuts the cone. If a + 6 + c = 0, the cone has an infinite number of sets of
mutually perpendicular generators. For if ux + vy + wz = be any plane whose normal lies on the cone, then
/(u, v,w) =
Q,
v,
w),
a + & + = 0.
the plane cuts the cone in perpendicular Thus any plane through the origin which is
(1),
Hence, by
generators. normal to a generator of the cone cuts the cone in perpendicular lines, or there are two generators of the cone at
any
given generator.
Ex.
1.
tan -1 \/2.
Ex. 2. Shew that the cone whose vertex is at the origin and which passes through the curve of intersection of the sphere #2 -f3/ 2 -f * 2 = 3a 2 and any plane at a distance a from the origin, has three mutually perpendicular generators.
,
Ex. 3. Prove that the cone has three mutually perpendicular tangent planes
if
Ex.
4.
If
~=^r=| o 1
2*
Ans.
#=?/=
5.
-2,
4r=
5y = 20&
lx +
Ex.
- c)#
perpendicular lines
Equation to cone with given conic for base. To find the equation to the cone whose vertex is the point
63. 1
(<x, /3,
y)
and
See Appendix, p.
ii.
94
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
The equations
to
[CH. vi.
(a,
{3,
y) are
y6 = '
y r
and the
line
=
(3
in the point
(a
This point
!.. if
is
ly
my,
0).
if
/(a
ly
/?
my)=0,
......... (1)
/(a,
fl-y+m
.
+ yVa m)-0,
If we eliminate Z and where </>(#, y)^ax* + 2hxy + by 2 between tho equations to the line and (1), we obtain the equation to the locus of lines which pass through (a, /3, y) and intersect the conic, i.e. the equation to the cone. The
result is
-,
2/
- &) =0.
as follows
and the
coeflBcient of
zy
is
If f(x, y) be
of an auxiliary
which
zy becomes
$63]
95
It is to
coefficient
(3,
of zy,
obtain the equation to the polar of (a, respect to the given conic.
we
0) with
(The above method is given by de Longchamps, Problemes de Geometric Analytique, vol. iii.)
Ex.
Ans.
1.
and base
(i) a.r
to the cone
;
whose vertex
is
(ii)
y=
2
(a,
/J,
y)
(i)
(ii)
Ex. 2. Find the locus of points from which three mutually perpendicular lines can be drawn to intersect the conic 2 = 0, ax*-\-by* \.
y) is on the locus, the cone, Ex. perpendicular generators.) Ans. a
(If
(OL, /2,
1 (i),
Ex.
3.
Shew
perpendicular
lines
that the locus of points from which three mutually can be drawn to intersect a given circle is a
surface of revolution.
Ex. 4. A cone has as base the circle 2 = 0, #2 -f y2 + 2a#-f 26y=0, and passes through the fixed point (0, 0, c) on the 2-axis. If the
section of the cone
by the plane
lies
ZOX
is
a rectangular hyperbola,
on a fixed
circle.
Ex. 5. Prove that the locus of points from which three mutually 2 2= l9 perpendicular planes can be drawn to touch the ellipse x /a?+y*Jb z = 0, is the sphere # 2 |-# 2 -f s 2 = a 2 +b 2
.
"Examples
III.
1. Shew that the bisectors of the angles between the lines in which the plane ux +vy + wz=Q cuts the cone ax? + by*+ C2 2 =0 lie on the cone
u(b
c)
v(c-a)
_p
L ^.
w(a~fr)_ A ^
z
[Five concurrent lines are necessary to determine a cone of the second degree, and the form of the given result shews that the required cone is to pass through the coordinate axes and the two bisectors. Assume, therefore, that the required equation is
.............................. (2)
may be
96
COOBDINATE GEOMETEY
;
|CH. vj.
of the plane
must cut the cone (1) in perpendicular lines (ii) the lines of section and the cones (1) and (2) must be harmonically conjugate.
From
(i),
............................... (3)
Again, four lines are harmonically conjugate if their projections on any plane are harmonically conjugate, and the equations to the proare obtained by eliminating z between the equations jections on to the plane and cones, and hence they are
z0
x\aitP + CM
+ Vcuvxy +y 2(bw2 + cv 2 ) = 0,
wh) +fvy =0,
2
z z
= = 0.
fv(aw
-f
..... (4)
From
(3)
and
(4),
we obtain
=
u(
2.
ff
-c)
v(c-a)
A I w(a-b)J
on the cone
Shew
1 also lie
curves ?/ = 0, z2 = 2 they have a common vertex the plane 2 = meets them in two conies that intersect in four concyclic Shew that the points. vertex lies on the surface
2
cones
pass
through the
4.
Planes through
OX
Shew
that
Any
on the cone
(b
hyperbola
by
b
c
7.
Shew
by
x+y + z
is 7T/2 if
Q,
ayz + bzx+cxy
I/a + l/i-f- 1/0
a + b + c=0, but
?r/3 if
= 0.
8.
Shew
in
two
lines inclined at
an angle
bc + ca
tan
+ ab
and by considering the value of this expression when a-f 6-f 0=0, shew that the cone is of revolution, and that its axis is x=*y=*z and
vertical angle tan" l 2\/2.
CH. vi.l
9.
EXAMPLES
III.
97
contains an infinite number of sets of three generators mutually inclined at an angle ?r/3.
a line is drawn to meet three fixed 10. Through a fixed point If PQ PR is constant, prove that the intersecting planes in P, Q, R. locus of the line is a cone whose vertex is O.
:
11. The vertex of a cone is (#, 6, c) and the yz-plane cuts it in the curve F(y, z) Q, #=0. Shew that the 2.r-plane cuts it in the curva _/ = (), F( bx > cx-az\1=0. ?/ J a x a)
._
\x
if
12. OP and OQ are two straight lines that remain at right angles and move so that the plane OPQ always passes through the z-axis.
If
OP
,?/j;)
= 0,
prove that
OQ
describes the
ril,
l#
13.
cone
14.
if
represents a
+
represents a cone, the coordinates of the vertex satisfy the equations
F^O, Fy = 0, F
is
geneous and
15.
F(.z',
y, z)
homo-
should be coincident.
2 2 cm*_ cl + an __ am* + bP \ him '/ fmn gnl
fa+my
lines
of section
of the
plane
17. Find the equations to the planes through the s-axis and lines of section of the plane ux vy wz=Q and cone f(x, y, z)=Q,
the
and
if
P = 0.
(The axes
may be
18. Prove that the equation to the cone through the coordinate axes and the lines of section of the cone ll^2 -5?/ 2 -f 2 2 =0 and the = and that the other is 14y^-30-2:jp-f3^?/==0, plane 7,r-5?/-f common generators of the two cones lie in the plane Il#-f7y-f 7s =0* O BO.
98
19.
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
Prove that the common generators of the cones
[CH. vr.
bc-a2
ax
lie in
ca-b 2 .ab-c 2 __ ~~
by
cz
the planes
(be
a 2 )x+(ca
b 2)y +(a&
<?)z=Q.
20. Prove that the equation to the cone through the coordinate axes and the lines in which the plane lx+my+nz=Q cuts the cone
=Q
is
z ^ represents a cone 21. Prove that the equation *JJx+fgy + that touches the coordinate planes, and that the equation to the reciprocal cone is fyz+gzx+hxyO.
W - Zhlm)xy =
0.
Prove that the equation to the planes through the origin perpendicular to the lines of section of the plane lx+my + nzQ and the cone ax2 + b* + cz 2 = Q is
22.
x*(bn
23.
of the cone
such that the two planes through OP, each of which cuts the cone in a pair of perpendicular lines, are at right angles, prove that the locus of OP is the cone
is
64]
CHAPTER
VII.
The locus
of the equation
4-^
/\ (O)
-^2-T2 + ^
^2 x
/,,2
nZ *
=i 1
9 that the equation (1) represents the surface generated by the variable ellipse
'
We
have shewn in
c2
100
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
[CH. VII,
whose centre moves along Z'OZ, and passes in turn through The surface c) and (0, 0, +c). every point between (0, 0, The section is the ellipsoid, and is represented in fig. 29. by any plane parallel to a coordinate plane is an ellipse. Similarly, we might shew that the surface represented
by equation
(2) is generated
by a variable
ellipse
whose centre moves on Z'OZ, passing in turn through every point on it. The surface is the hyperboloid of one The section by any sheet, and is represented in fig. 30.
plane parallel to one of the coordinate planes
is
YOZ
or
ZOX
a hyperbola.
surface given by equation (3) is also generated by a variable ellipse whose centre moves on Z'OZ. The ellipse
is
The
given by O v
tAs
*# II
]A
/V
64,65]
101
and
<
lies
z=
The surface
is
the hyperboloid
of
two
is
sheets,
and
is
represented in fig. 31. The section to one of the coordinate planes YOZ,
If
by any plane
parallel
ZOX
a hyperbola.
these surfaces,
(x\ y' 9 z}
is
of
on it; hence the origin bisects all z) x\ ( y\ chords of the surface which pass through it. The origin is the only point which possesses this property, and is called
is
the centre.
65.
The surfaces
An
represents a central conicoid. The equations to any line = A, 2 = /x, and it meets the surface in parallel to OX are 2/
the points
-__ --
OX.
chord of the conicoid which passes through the centre is a diameter, and the plane which bisects a system of Thus YOZ is the parallel chords is a diametral plane.
Any
diametral plane which bisects chords parallel to OX, or Similarly, the shortly, is the diametral plane of OX. diametral planes ZOX,
XOY
OY
and OZ
The three diametral planes YOZ, are such that each bisects chords parallel to the line of intersection of the other two. They are called
respectively.
ZOX, XOY
The diameters X'OX, Y'OY, Z'OZ are such that the plane through any two bisects chords They are called conjugate diameters. parallel to the third.
conjugate diametral planes.
If the axes are rectangular, the diametral planes ZOX, XOY are at right angles to the chords which
bisect.
YOZ,
The
lines of
intersection of principal planes are principal axes. if the axes are rectangular the equation a
Hence
102
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
[CH.VU
a given point A, (a, ft y) meets a central conicoid ax +by 2 +cz* = l in P and Q; to find the
66.
line through
2
lengths of
If
I,
AP and AQ.
are the direction-ratios of a line through A, the coordinates of the point on it whose distance from A is r
m, n
are
is
on the conicoid,
+ aa
OD
+6/3
This equation gives two values of r which are the measures of AP and AQ.
Ex.
1.
If
is
is
constant.
any diameter of the conicoid and OR and OR' AD 2 AD' 2 is constant. are the diameters parallel to AD and AD', ~ .4Ex.
2.
If
DOD'
OR
OR
Ex.
is
3.
If
conicoid again in
E and
E',
constant.
AE
2 2 2 Tangents and tangent planes. If aa + b/3 + cy = 1, the point A, (a, ft y) is on the conicoid one of the values 66 is zero, and A coinof r given by the equation (1) of cides with one of the points P or Q, say P.
87.
If, also,
the two values of r given by the equation are zero, i.e. P and Q coincide at the point (oc, ft y) on the surface, and the line
A, (a,
|8,
APQ
y)
is
is
a tangent to the conicoid at A. Hence, if a point on the surface, the condition that the
line
x-GL
I
m
is
should be a tangent at A,
If
we
eliminate
I,
m,
between
all
(2)
and
(3),
we
obtain
or
65-68]
103
y)
lie
in the plane
aoLX + bfly
is
+ cyz = 1,
/?,
y).
To find
y),
is
represented
Therefore
and, since (a,
/?,
oc=
/8
ap
y)
is
Z
2
= r-
>
bp
2
7=
cp
ri2
on the
conicoid,
o
parallel
to
+ my + nz
,
II
2
,
*/
*
2
,
2
7?/
Cv
h-pH O
Ex.
1.
perpendicular tangent planes to a central conicoid. If the axes are rectangular and
+ *T +y7> r=1
>
2 3>
represent three mutually perpendicular tangent planes, squaring and adding, we obtain
of the planes lies on a sphere concentric (It is called the director sphere.)
Ex. 2. Prove that the equation to the two tangent planes to the conicoid do?2 4-fty2 -fc^2 = l which pass through the line
s
u+ Aw'0 should
be a tangent plane.)
104
Ex.
3.
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
Find the equations to the tangent planes to
Zx - 3j/ -f 6z - 5.
[OH. vn.
Ex. 4. If the line of intersection of two perpendicular tangent planes to the ellipsoid whose equation, referred to rectangular axes, is
(0, 0,
Jfc),
shew that
it lies
on the cone
Ex. 5. Tangent planes are drawn to the conicoid a. through the point (a, /?, y). Prove that the perpendiculars to them from the origin generate the cone
(a
is
a
the cone
-ro
and hence shew that the tangent planes envelope the cone
2
l)(a<xH
proceed to define the a point with respect to a conicoid, and to find its polar of
69.
The polar
plane.
We now
equation.
If any secant, APQ, through a given point A Definition. meets a conicoid in P and Q, then the locus of R, the har-
is
the polar
FIG. 32
Let A, R (fig. 32) be the points (a, 0, y), ( 17, ), and let APQ have direction-ratios I, m, n. Then the equations to
are
69,70]
106
and, as in
roots of
r t r2 the measures of
,
,
AP and AQ,
are the
+ b/3m + cyn)
Then, since AP, AR,
AQ
are
And from
therefore
-fx = /p,
q-^
Hence the locus of (, ??, ) is the plane given by aoix + b(3y + cyz = 1
,
which
(7or.
is
y).
is
on the
is
the
failed to notice the similarity between the There is a to corresponding loci in the plane and in space. equations close analogy between the equations to the line and the plane, the
and the sphere, the ellipse and the ellipsoid, the tangent or polar and the tangent plane or polar plane. Examples of this analogy will constantly recur, and it is well to note these and make use of the analogy as an aid to remember useful results.
circle
70. (-,
f (
Polar
lines.
It
is
evident that
(
*j,
&
y) passes through
1>
),
Passes through
(oc,
(3,
plane of any point on a line AB then the polar plane of any point on PQ passes through that point on AB, and therefore passes through AB. The lines AB and PQ are then said to be polar lines with respect
to the conicoid.
Hence
of
point on
ra
is
106
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
all
[CH. vn.
values of
1
r,
+ b(3y + cyz
This
is
PQ
Ex. 1. If P, (#!, yu z\ Q, (o?2 ;/ 2 z2 ) are any points, the polar of with respect to ax* + oi 2 + cz*=l is given by oi/
,
are on the conicoid the polar of (Hence if P and intersection of the tangent planes at P and Q.)
PQ
is
the line of
Ex.
of the
Prove that the polar of a given line 2. two tangent planes through the line.
3.
is
Ex.
of the line
with respect to the conicoid 2#2 -25?/ 2 -f22 2 =l. Prove that it meets the conicoid in two real points P and Q, and verify that the tangent planes at P and Q pass through the given line.
Ex.
point
4.
lines
drawn through a
fixed
(a,
Ans
Ex.
M-(JL\b
5.
Prove that
lines
$!.
through
y'l
(a,
/?,
ri;
+ |r "^Wk~^
yx) + (z
22
- P)(CLZ -
y ) (ay
fix)
= 0.
What
Ex.
6.
is
when a
lines
__
bl
m
Ans.
_ ~~
n
I'
_ ~~
f
n'
Ex.
7.
line
C
a
:
= yz
aa
z^
n
should
= "v = Z m -^L n
A ns.
Ex.
(aa.1' -f
8.
sects the
l+ b/3'm + cy'n) = (all' + bmrri + cnri)(a<u*! + bfift + cyy' - 1). Prove that if AB intersects the polar of PQ, then PQ interpolar of AB. (AB and PQ are then said to be conjugate with
b/3m'
-f
cyri)(aoL
70,71]
SECTION WITH
A GIVEN CENTEE
ft,
107
Section with a given centre. If (a, mid-point of the chord whose equations are
71.
y)
is
the
^^^
in
66
is
of the
Hence
the plane *
all
,
/3,
y)
lie in
/3,
y)
the centre.
Fia. 33.
/?).
Ex.
Ans.
1.
in a conic
Find the equation to the plane which cuts whose centre is at the point (2, 3, 4).
Ex.
2.
is
The
locus of the
conicoid
a diameter.
Ex. 3. The line joining a point P to the centre of a conicoid passes through the centre of the section of the conicoid by the polar plane
of P.
The centres of sections of a central to a given line lie on a fixed plane. parallel
Ex.
4,
conicoid that
are
Ex. 5. The centres of sections that pass through a given line on a conic, Ex. 6. The centres of sections that pass through a given point on a conicoid.
lie
lie
108
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
of sections of
.
[CH.
va
Locus of mid-points of a system of parallel chords. It follows from equations (1) and (2) of 71 that the midpoints of chords which are parallel to a fixed line
72.
x
I
lie
y^ z
wi
n
Q.
in the plane
alx + bmy+cnz
This
is
which
bisects the
parallel chords
Flu. 34.
Compare the equation to the locus of the mid-points of parallel chords of the ellipse a
Ex.
1.
2
-f cz
Find the locus of the mid-points of chords of the conicoid 2 =l which pass through the point (/, </, h).
Ex. 2. Prove that the mid-points of chords of a,3? + by 2 + cz 2 l which are parallel to #=0 and touch x2 +y 2 + z 2 = r2 lie on the surface
by\bx* + bf + cz
73.
2
the secant APQ, (fig. 32), becomes a tangent, P, Q, R coincide at the point of contact, and hence the points of contact of all the tangents from A lie on the polar plane
point.
surface.
When
of A, and therefore on the conic in which that plane cuts the The locus of the tangents from A is therefore the
A and
intersect
72,73)
109
the conic in which the polar plane of A cuts the conicoid This cone is the enveloping cone whose vertex is A. We
may
line
If
is
(a,
/3,
y),
and the
_ ~~
I
_ ~~
meets the surface in coincident points, the equation (1) of 36 has equal roots, and therefore
(1)
The
[a(x
locus of
2
APQ
2
)
is
whose equation
2
is
- oc) + b(y -
+ c(z - y
[oa
If
Ssa
may
be written
)S 1 = (P~S 1 )
^
2
,
and
this equation
i.e.
SSi
= P2
or
to the ellipse
(a, 13)
a# + 6y =l.
Ex. 1. Find the locus of points from which three mutually per2 2 2 pendicular tangent lines can be drawn to the surface cut + by + cz = I Ans.
Ex. 2. Lines drawn from the centre of a central conicoid parallel to the generators of the enveloping cone whose vertex is A generate a cone which intersects the conicoid in two conies whose planes are parallel to the polar plane of A.
Through a fixed point (, 0, 0) pairs of perpendicular drawn to the surface ajp+byt+cz2 **!. Shew that the plane through any pair touches the cone
Ex.
3.
(x-k)*
z2
Ex.
Ex.
4
<a
4.
=a 2 in
5.
2
The plane
z a meets any enveloping cone of the sphere a conic which has a focus at the point (0, 0, a).
/a
+y
.
/6
Find the locus of a luminous point if the ellipsoid + a/c 2 =l casts a circular shadow on the plane *=0.
Ans
^o,
5^+5=1
y-o,
5^+^-1.
110
COOEDINATE GEOMETRY
6.
[CH.VIL
Ex.
planes,
S=0, ?=0, v=0 are the equations to a conicoid and two prove that S + X.uv0 represents a conicoid which passes
If
in which the given planes cut the given and interpret the equation S-f Aw'2 =0. Ex. 7. Prove that if a straight line has three points on a it lies wholly on the conicoid.
conicoid,
conicoid,
(The equation
(1),
66, is
an identity.)
conicoid passes through a given point A and touches a Ex. 8. conicoid S at all points of the conic in which it is met by the given polar plane of A. Prove that all the tangents from A to S lie on it. Hence find the equation to the enveloping cone of S whose vertex is A.
Ex, 9. The section of the enveloping cone of the ellipsoid x2/a?+y2/b 2 + 22 /c2 =l whose vertex is P by the plane 2 = is (i) a parabola, (ii) a rectangular hyperbola. Find the locus of P.
Am.
locus of the tangents which are parallel to a given line. Suppose that PQ is any chord and that M is its mid-point. Then if the line PQ moves parallel to itself
74.
till
The
meets the surface in coincident points, it becomes a tangent and M coincides with the point of contact. Thereit
a tangent which
is parallel
FIG. 35.
to a given line lies on the diametral plane which bisects all chords parallel to the line. This plane cuts the surface in
conic,
generated by the parallels to the given line which pass through the conic.
74,75]
111
Let (a, /3, y) (fig. 35) be any point on a tangent to a given line x/l^yfm z/n.
paratle)
Then
since,
by
73
cc
(1),
the line
2/ji^ ~~
~ oc
I
if
(aP+bm*+vn,*)(aa*+bp+^
the locus of (a,
2
2
/3,
y)
is
2
given by
2
(al
+ bm + cn
)(ax
+ by
+cz2
l)
This equation therefore represents the enveloping which is the locus of the tangents.
The enveloping cylinder may be considered to be a limiting case of the enveloping cone whose vertex is the point P, (Ir ?nr, nr) on the line x/l=y/m=z/n, as r tends to infinity. By 73, the equation to the cone is
9
Prove that the enveloping cylinders of the ellipsoid 2 /c =*l, whose generators are parallel to the lines
#
meet the plane
_z
z=0
in circles.
is the line of interEx. 2. Prove that the polar of a line section of the planes of contact of the enveloping cone whose vertex is A and the enveloping cylinder whose generators are parallel to AB.
AB
75.
we
In discussing the properties of the normals shall confine our attention to the normals to the ellipsoid,
Normals.
Consider the ellipsoid whose equation, referred to rect2 2 = angular axes, is x /a?+y /b*+z*/c* I. If the plane
is
is
(x\ y\ tf\
we
have, as in
112
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
is,
fcitm
that
TW
at (x' y\
y
z')
are
^-5-*
^-> ^
T)Z
w?y
where p
is
the perpendicular
from the centre to the tangent plane at the point. equations to the normal at (x', y\ z) are therefore x x' y y' z-z' ,
px'
a*
fix. 1.
The
py'
62
c*
If the
Q l9 G 2 G 3
,
shew that
Putting
for
pQi p G2 p G3 = fl2
.
jg
A
we
obtain
r==
pQ i
-p
of
a2
etc.
Ex.
dns.
2.
If
V2
4
2 PG? + PG 2 + PG 32 -F,
The curve
of
4
intersection
.2
-
the
dlhpsoid r
*+L + c i a
4
1,2
~2 *
a4
Ex.
that
3.
if it is
Find the length of the normal chord through P, and prove equal to 4PG 3 P lies on the cone
,
Ans.
Ex. 4. The normal at a variable point P meets the plane XOY in Prove that the A, and AQ is drawn parallel to OZ and equal to AP. locus of Q is given by
if
OR
is
A P.
If the
Ex.
PQ
at
is
normals at P and Q, points on the ellipsoid, intersect. at right angles to its polar with respect to the ellipsoid.
5.
76.
point.
If the
/3,
normal
then
y),
_ a
2
'L
&2
is
~ 2
X,
and
if
equal to
$75.76]
Therefore, since
THE NORMALS
(x', y', z') is
113
on the
ellipsoid,
This equation gives six values of X, to each of which corresponds a point (x', y', z\ and therefore there are six points on the ellipsoid the normals at which pass
through (a,
Ex.
1.
/3,
y).
A.
is
Prove that equation (3) gives at least two real values of 2 2 2 2 (If F(A) = (A + a ) (A + & ) (A + F(A) 2 -b\ c2 and is positive when A= oo.) negative when A=
6^
Prove that four normals to the ellipsoid pass through 2. of the curve of intersection of the ellipsoid and the conicoid point
Ex.
c2
any
+ a2 ) + 2 2 (a 2
(1) that the feet of the
lie
It follows
from equations
y) = c y( y
2
normals
from
(oc, /3.
y) to the ellipsoid
b z(ft
z\
x(y
= a?z(n
x),
= 1.
These cylinders have a common curve of intersection, and equations (2) express the coordinates of any point on The points where the curve it in terms of a parameter X.
meets a given plane
u x + vy + wz + d =
,
are given
by
meets
and as
the curve in three points, and the curve is therefore a cubic curve. The feet of the normals irom 'a, /3, y) to the six points of intersection of ellipsoid are therefore the
the ellipsoid and a certain cubic curve. If the normal at (#', y\ z'} passes through
(rx, ft,
y) and
has direction-cosines
I,
m,
n,
H4
and therefore
COOEDINATE GEOMETEY
fcfl.vn
m
is
X
Hence the
second degree.
"T~
7x
"l
CL
z
/3,
y
y)
lie
six normals
from (a,
on a cone of the
Ex. 3. If P is the point (a, /?, yX prove that the line the xes, parallels through P to the axes, and tne perpendicular from lie~on the cone. polar plane,
Ex.
4.
P PO, the
to its
Shew
lies
on the cone.
lie
Ex. 5. Prove that the feet of the six normals from (a, 8, y) the curve of intersection of the ellipsoid and the cone
on
== A 0.
Ex. 6. The generator's of the cone which contains the normals from a given point to an ellipsoid are at right angles to their polars
with respect to the
ellipsoid.
such that its a fixed point and P a variable Ex. 7. point Shew that tne locus of P is the to AP. is at polar plane right angles cubic curve throuh the feet of the normals from A.
is
Ex. 8. If P, Q, R ; P', Q', R' are the feet of the six normals from is given by lx+my + a point to the ellipsoid, and the plane nz~p,
PQR
is
given by
by
l'x
+ m'y+riz=p',
equation (3) of
76
is
the
same as
Ex.
9.
PQR,
P'Q'R',
Conjugate diameters and conjugate diametral planes Of the ellipsoid. If the equation to the ellipsoid
77.
76,77]
is
cc
CONJUGATE DIAMETERS
115
and
2 2 2 02/c2==: l the axes are conjugate diameters /a +2/ /^ the coordinate planes are conjugate diametral planes,
any point on the ellipsoid, the diametral plane of OP has for its equation, (72),
(65).
If P, (x l9
2/1
>
z i) is
xx a2
Let Q, (#2 2/2 ellipsoid, then
,
>
zz.
2)
is
on the
on the diametral planes of OP and OQ, and therefore P and Q are on the
R
is
diametral plane of OR that is, the diametral plane of OR is the plane OPQ. Thus the planes QOR, ROP, POQ are the
;
diametral planes of OP, OQ, OR respectively, and they are therefore conjugate
FIG. 36.
OR
z 3 ),
we have
,
W+ 6
i
1
i_i + c^""
,
'
a2+ 6 2
+ c2_ 2
i
to equations (A)
and
(B) of
53,
a* b' c
a' b'
116
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
|cn.va
53,
Therefore, as in
we
deduce,
a
i
>
etc., etc.;
3>
2/3
>
^
ellipsoid
is
If
the
axes to
which the
(c') give,
referred
are
rectangular, equations
on adding,
From the last equation we is constant. the volume of the parallelepiped which has deduce that OP, OQ, OR for coterminous edges is constant and equal
semi-diameters
to abc.
and
lr ,
Again,
r,
,
normals to
plane x = 0,
A p A 2 A3 are the areas QOR, ROP, POQ nr (r=l, 2, 3), are the direction-cosines of the the planes QOR, ROP, POQ, projecting A x on the
if
,
we
obtain
.,
similarly,
-, m^ = cay,
,
7i
A1 =
abz*
we
have,
by
77]
CONJUGATE DIAMETERS-EXAMPLES
1.
117
Ex.
to the plane
PQR.
l
l
If the equation
lx+my + nz=p, then lx +my l +nz Ix2 + my 2 + nz 2 = /?, lx$ + my^ + nz3 = p.
,
Multiply by
# u #2 x3
respectively,
l
and add
etc.
then by
(c')
and
(D')
Ia?=p(x +x2 + x3 ),
is
therefore
Ex.
2.
Shew
^.2
ellipsoid
.-+2L + a b c
^2
~2
Ex.
3.
PQR
lies
on the ellipsoid
Ex. 4, The locus of the foot of the perpendicular from the centre to the plane through the extremities of three conjugate semi-diameters
is
a
Ex.
5.
OQ, OR,
Ex.
6.
Prove that the sum of the squares of the projections of OP, on a given plane, is constant. (i) on a given line, (ii)
Shew
that any two sets of conjugate diameters 59, Ex. 6.) (Of.
lie
on a
Ex. 7. Shew that any two sets of conjugate diametral planes touch a cone of the second degree. (Apply 61, Ex. 4.) Ex. 8. If the axes are rectangular, find the locus of the equal 2 2 2 2 2 njugate diameters of the ellipsoid 3?/a +y /b +z /c =l. If r is the length of one of tne equal conjugate diameters,
-\
r*
a*
b*
is
OF
a
Ex.
9.
Shew
x2
2 /o
2-.A2_
2\
== ^ >
Ex.
10.
If A,
/it,
diameters,
OR are equal conjugate diameters, and S is Ex. 11. If OP, the pole of the plane PQR, the tetrahedron SPQR has any pair of opposite edges at right angles.
OQ
118
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
12.
[CH.VU
-
!TI, 7T 2 , 7T 3
is
are conjugate diameters and p l9 p^, p 3 If OP, OQ, are their projections on any two given lines, jPi7ri-F/Vr 2+/> 3 7r3 constant.
Ex.
OR
Ex.
13.
If,
The
-v2
niu
planes to -2 + ;^ + -3
x*
which are
parallel
z
2
to conjugate diametral
b2
c2
planes of
theorem
v*
+ -^ = 1,
wh ^ does this
Ex. 15. Shew that conjugate diameters satisfy the condition of Ex. 8, 70, for conjugate lines.
Since the plane POQ, (tig. 36), bisects all chords of the conicoid which are parallel to OR, the line OQ bisects all
parallel to OR.
Similarly
;
OR
and therefore OR and OQ But Q is any point on the ellipse therefore ellipse ROQ. OP and any pair of conjugate diameters of the ellipse in which the diametral plane of OP cuts the ellipsoid are
;
which are
']i&
y~
Ex.
16.
is
ellipsoid -g
+ T^H
,
=1
an(^
^ an ^ ^
are the principal axes of the section of the ellipsoid by the diametral 2 2 2 2 2 2 = abc, plane of OP. Prove that OP = a -f b -f c -a. /3 and that a./3p whore p is the perpendicular from to the tangent plane at P.
Ex.
17.
ellipsoid
If 2a and 2/J are the principal axes by the plane lx + my + nz=Q, prove that
77,78]
119
o/2
2 5
coordinate axes
is ^-0 2 a.
+ 7,0
/r
= 1. Hence
it
y-
/3, 0), and that y-axes meet the surface in real points (0., 0, 0), (0, the 2-axis does not intersect the surface. The 2-axis, however, interxP 22 y* sects the hyperboloid of two sheets whose equation is + ~~2 == l 2~/32 and these points are taken as the extremities at the points (0, 0, y), of the third of the three conjugate diameters. Hence, if P, (x^ y l9 zj, Q, (x2 y2 z2 ), R, (#3 y3 z3 ) are the extremities of a set of conjugate semi-diameters of the hyperboloid of one sheet,
--
a*
it follows,
b*
and
therefore, that
if
and
Similarly,
if
A 2 + A 22 - A 3 2 =
t
,2
Doloid of
two
22
sheets, -^ -'TO a2 o 2
c2
-5
= 1,
two do
not,
P, Q,
of intersection are taken as their extremities. Hence are the extremities, and the axes are rectangular, we have
and
Aj
THE CONE.
78.
A homogeneous equation
y
of the form
represents a cone.
(
#',
y',
z') lies
also
may consider
the centre.
the cone as a central surface, the vertex being The coordinate planes are conjugate diametral
planes and the coordinate axes are conjugate diameters. We easily find, as in the case of the other central
conicoids, the following results
:
120
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
at (x' y\
9
JCH, vii
z) has
axx
+ byy + czz = 0.
touches the cone
if
of P,
aoix
(oc,
#, y)
is
given by
+ b(3y + cyz = 0.
is
whose centre
at (a,
ft,
(ax
is also
FIG. 37.
Let OP, OQ, OR, (fig. 37), any three in P, Q, R. conjugate diameters of the cone, meet any plane The plane meets the cone in a conic, and QR is the locus
CoAJugate diameters.
harmonic conjugates of P with respect to the points in which any secant through P cuts the conic i.e. QR is the RP and PQ polar of P with respect to the conic. Similarly, are the polars of Q and R, and therefore the triangle PQR
of the
;
is
self-polar
conic.
Conversely, if
PQR
781
is
121
any triangle self-polar with respect to the conic in which the plane PQR cuts the cone, OP, OQ, OR are conjugate diameters of the cone. For the polar plane of P passes through the line QR and through the vertex, and therefore
OQR
is
P,
Ex. 1. The locus of the asymptotic lines drawn from l is the asymptotic cone conicoid aj? + by 2 + cz
to the
Ex.
2.
The hyperboloids
z 2 /c2
=1
- rfja* -
2
?/
/6
+ z2 /c2 =
Draw
The section of a hyperboloid by a plane which a tangent plane of the asymptotic cone is a parabola.
4.
is
parallel
Ex.
If
it
by + c/3
ca.
+ ay
ax2
^2
__ ___
|
a/3
+ bau
2
__
are rectangular.
2
Ex.
5.
which
cut
2
4-
by
-f cz
in
perpendicular
.2
b-\-c
+a
a+b
The lines of intersection of pairs of tangent planes to x. 6. ax2 -\-by'2 't-cz 2 = () which touch along perpendicular generators lie on
the cone
2 2 Perpendicular tangent planes to ax +by*+cz =C intersect
Ex.
7.
Ex. 8. If the cone A^2 4-By2 -f-C22 -h2F^4;2G^+2H^y==0 passes through a set of conjugate diameters of the ellipsoid 2 then Aa 2 4-B6 2 4-Cc 2 =0. /c =l,
Ex. 9. If three conjugate diameters of an ellipsoid meet director sphere in P, Q, R, the plane PQR touches the ellipsoid.
the
Ex. 10. Find the equation to the normal plane (i.e. at right angles to the tangent plane) of the cone cw^-f by2 + O22 =0 which passes through the generator xjl =y/m = z/n. A v (b c)x
A 7W.
2j
\Ji
122
COOEDINATE GEOMETRY
11.
[CH. VII
Ex.
Lines drawn through the origin at right angles to normal axz +by2 +cz*0 generate the cone
Ex.
12.
If the
each sets of
which pass through their four common generators are at right angles.
two cones o^+6?/2 +cj2 =0, auc*+/3y*+y=*Q have three mutually perpendicular generators, any two planes
THE PARABOLOIDS.
79.
The
^i~fe a*
V
c
The equation
by the
variable ellipse z
x
k,
(JL
z
ty
\J
-2+^ =
2A;
This ellipse
is
imaginary
unless k
and
FIG. 38.
ellipse lies
on
OZ
if
c>0
and on OZ
if*
o<0.
The
sections
of the surface
by
are parabolas. Fig. 38 shews the form and The position of the surface for a positive value of c. surface is the elliptic paraboloid.
YOZ-
ZOX
79,80]
123
The equation
by the
is
x
variable hyperbola
r^
= 2&
>
z = k.
its
The hyperbola
and
X
j^
= 0, z = 0. The sections
0=
k project on the
by the planes z = k,
plane
XOY
z = 0, ^9 or
n>=0.
The
sections
by planes parallel r
YOZ,
are parabolas. The surface is the hyperbolic paraboloid, and fig. 39 shews the form and position of the surface for a negative value of c.
ZOX
80.
An
equation of the
form
represents a paraboloid. Any line in the plane XOY which passes through the origin meets the surface in two coincident points, and hence the plane XOY is the tangent plane at the origin. The planes YOZ, ZOX bisect chords Each is therefore parallel to OX and OY respectively.
Such pairs of parallel to the chords bisected by the other. planes are called conjugate diametral planes of the paraboloid
124
81.
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
Diameters.
If
[CH. VIL
/3,
y),
and the
m
the distances from
to the points of intersection of the line and the paraboloid are given by
^ -2y =
2
0. ...(1)
and therefore a line parallel to the 0-axis meets the paraboloid in one point at an infinite distance, and in a point P whose distance from A is given by
one value of r
is infinite,
= m = 0,
Such a
and P
is
the extremity of
the diameter.
Hence ax2 + by 2 = 2z represents a paraboloid, referred to a tangent plane, and two conjugate diametral planes
through the point of contact, as coordinate planes. One of the coordinate axes is the diameter through the point
of contact.
If the axes are rectangular, so that the tangent at O is at right angles to the diameter through O, plane O is the vertex of the paraboloid, and the diameter through O The coordinate planes YOZ, ZOX are then is the axis.
principal planes.
Ex.
What
surface
is
82. Tangent planes. find, as in 67, the equation to the tangent plane at the point (a, /3, y) on the paraboloid,
We
If lx
+ my + nz=p
is
/?,
y)
is
the
point of contact,
= -I
and therefore
I*
an
Q -m p on ^ = -=
?n 2
-y *
i= -p n
81-83]
12ft
is
the equation to
is parallel
to the
72
(A/
+ JL + '=Q
2
9
(r=l,
2, 3),
by
addition,
locus of the point of intersection of three mutually perpendicular tangent planes is a plane at right angles to the axis of the paraboloid.
Ex. 1. Shew that the plane &r -6y ~z=- 5 touches the paraboloid x2 ?/ 2 * ~ Z9 an(l find the coordinates of the point of contact. o o 2i o
Am.
Ex.
/y*Z -'-
(8, 9, 5).
2.
Two
perpendicular
tangent
planes
to
the
paraboloio
= 22 -p^-
nt&
#=0.
Shew
x = 0,
Ex.
3.
2 y = (a + 6) (23 -f a).
Shew
(a., /?,
y)
Ex. 4. Find the locus of points from which three mutually perpendicular tangents can be drawn to the paraboloid. Ans.
has equations = y/m = z/n, the diametral plane of OP, i.e. the locus x/l of the mid-points of chords parallel to OP, is given by Hence all diametral planes are parallel alx + bmy n = ().
83.
Diametral planes.
If
line
OP
to the axis of the paraboloid, and conversely any plane If OQ, whose parallel to the axis is a diametral plane. equations are x/l' y/m' z/n\ is parallel to the diametral
plane of OP,
aU'+bmm'=0........................ (1)
126
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
[CH.VII
Hence OP
is parallel to the diametral plane of OQ, and the diametral planes of OP and OQ are conjugate. Equation (1) is the condition that the lines alx bmy^Q,
al'x
+ bm'y
Q,
in
the plane
meets a pair of conjugate diametral planes of a paraboloid in lines which are parallel to conjugate diameters of the
conic in
surface.
of parallel
plane
The plane
3,r-f
4y=l
is
^-9-=
X2
If -2 CL to
x-3
(3, 4, 5)
which
y-4
10
z-5
15-
Ex. 3. Any diametral plane cuts the paraboloid in a parabola, and parallel diametral planes cut it in equal parabolas.
81 The normals.
paraboloid,
(#',
+ 72 = 20 u
1/
represents an elliptic
referred
>
z')
__
y
#.'
y' __z
z*
~?
a2
If this
"""!
b2
a
..
x' ...
t^lBMWWBteiB lBMWW
'
y'
x'
_
1
'
/8,
y),
z'
-
^fl
y'
a2
. a2a m Therefore x =
, ,
P
,
==
'
and
(
This equation gives five values of X, and hence there are five points on the paraboloid the normals at which pass
feet of the
paraboloid
on a cubic curve.
83,84]
EXAMPLES
IV.
(OL, /?,
127
y) to the paraboloid
lie
___
X-VL y-/3
Ex.
Ex.
plane
3.
=
z-y
lies
on this cone.
(a,
/?,
4. lies 5.
y) to
its
polar
Ex.
to the paraboloid of revolution # 2 + */ 2 = 2az, but if the point lies on the surface 27a(.r 2 -f# 2 ) + 8(a-z) 3 = 0, two of the three normals coincide.
Ex.
6.
Shew
to the paraboloid
that the feet of the normals from the point (a, #2 +y 2 = 2az lie on the sphere
(3,
y)
Ex. 7. Shew that the centre of the circle through the feet of the three normals from the point (<x, /J, y) to the paraboloid #2 -f y 2 2az is
,
4'
4'
r\
2
*
1.
Examples IV.
Two
asymptotic lines can be drawn from a point P to a conicoid l and they are at right angles if P lies on the cone
y
2.
The
lines
in
ouv2
+ /3y* + yz2 =
which the plane lx + my-\-m = Q cuts the cone are conjugate diameters of the ellipse in which it
1J
2j
JT^
JC
l.
line
7=m=n I
1J
lies
on
)^ + ^( y ^
;
P and
tangent plane at
P
at
in S.
P and
4.
The normal at P meets the are points on an ellipsoid. meets the tangent plane at the normal at in R If the perpendiculars from the centre to the tangent planes 2 :p lu Q are p l p2 prove that PR
Q
,
QS=p
on
tangent planes at P and Q, points passes through a fixed point A, (<x, /?, y), and is Shew that the locus of the mid-point parallel to the plane XOY. of PQ is the conic in which the polar plane of A cuts the surface
The
oo?2 -hiy 2
+ C22 ==l,
5.
Shew
the axis of
that the greatest value of the shortest distance between x and a normal to the ellipsoid #2/a 2 +y2/b 2 +z2/c 2 =l is
6-c.
6. Plane sections of an ellipsoid which have their centres on a fixed straight line and touch given straight line are parallel to a a parabolic cylinder.
128
7.
COOKDINATE GEOMETRY
OP, OQ,
|CH. vn.
OR
At
and R tangent
lines are
OP
drawn parallel to OP, and p l9 p 2 are The perpendicular from O to the tangent
is/>.
Prove that
8.
Conjugate diameters of
a^2 -f b^ 2 4- c\z2 = 1
in P, Q, R.
Shew
PQR
where
-3 =
>
ol
--a
i
c{
9. The ellipsoid which has as conjugate diameters the three straight lines that bisect pairs of opposite edges of a tetrahedron touches the
edges.
10. Shew that the projections of the normals to an ellipsoid at P, Q, R, the extremities of conjugate diameters on the plane PQR, are concurrent.
11.
to
If through any given point (a, /3, y) perpendiculars are drawn 2 2 2 2 2 2 any three conjugate diameters of the ellipsoid X la + y /b + z /c =l,
the plane through the feet of the perpendiculars passes through the fixed point / r /
\
2
2 2 2 >2 a a /a -H?/ /6 -f z /c
If perpendiculars be drawn from any point P on the ellipsoid 2 = to any three conjugate diametral planes, the l plane through the feet of the perpendiculars meets the normal at P at a fixed point whose distance from P is
12.
where
at P.
is
13. Find the locus of centres of sections of a conicoid that are at a constant distance from the centre.
14.
through the axes (which are rectangular) are yz zx xy = 0. Deduce that the lines through a given point P, which are per2 2 2 2 2 \) lie pendicular to their polars with respect to x /a*+y /b -\-z /c a right circular cone if P lies on one of the lines upon 2 - 2 2 2= 2 c ) * a 2 )2y 2 = (a 2 - b 2 ) 2z 2 (ft (c
.
Shew
15. Chords of a conicoid which are parallel to a given diameter and are such that the normals at their extremities intersect, lie in a fixed plane through the given diameter.
OH. VIL]
EXAMPLES
IV.
129
16. The perpendiculars from the origin to the faces of the tetrahedron whose vertices are the feet of the four normals from a point to 2 the cone a#2 -l-&y 2 -f C3 = 0, lie on the cone
17. P, Q, R ; P'i Q'> R' are the feet of the six normals from a point 2 Prove that the poles of the to the ellipsoid xP/a?+y*/b + z*/c*=l.
planes
18.
PQR,
P'Q'R'
lie
on the surface
,-
S-j
2
(.r
The normals
at
P and
P',
meet the plane XOY in A and A' and make angles Prove that PA cos (9+ P' A' cos 0' =0.
0,
&
with PP'.
19. The normals to x*/a*+y*lb*+s?/cP = l at all points of its intersection with lyz + mzx + nxy = () intersect the line
The normals to .r2/a 2 -f ?/2 /6 2 4- *2 /c2 = 1 at points of 21. with x/a+y/b+z/c = l lie on the surface
cazx
its intersection
d
22.
Prove that two normals to a.r2 + by 2 -f C2 2 = 1 nz=p, and that they are at right angles if
lie
in the plane
a (b + c)P}
=2
2
{
(6
- cpniW}
23. The locus of a point, the sum of the squares of whose normal distances from the ellipsoid x 2/a'2 +y 2 /b 2 + z 2/c 2 = I is constant, (= 2 ), is
24,
from
(OL, /?,
y) are
C*r,yr
V),
2
r=l,
2, ...6),
prove that
25.
nftf
a o.2
^i j
+6
/J2
^1 )
'il
+ c2 y2
(-)
= 0.
P
to the ellipsoid
*f
""a+M+l^l ^ e n ^ie a 2 6 2 c2
A
njA
pl ane r
"+i a b
+ -= If ^e c
'
lie in
the plane - + rH a o c
^y
H=
0,
and P
lies
on the line
130
26. If A,
COOEDINATE GEOMETRY
B
are (04,
[CH.VII.
at the points
where
AB
fl lf
),
(o. 2 , /3 2 , 7*)>
given by
S 8 P -2P P 8 P U +S P *=0,
1
1
and the
AB, by
where
S^acL^+bfi^ + cy^-l,
etc.;
--l, etc.;
27.
If P, (x v
y l9
2j),
Q, (^2 y 2
,
2 2 ),
R,
(.r3 ,
y3
^3 )
-i-
T2 +
~
2
:=
OP=r OPQR
lf
OQ = r
2,
OR = r3
can be wntten
and prove that the locus of the centres of spheres through the origin and the extremities of three equal conjugate semi-diameters is
1
2(a
2 2 o:
85,86]
CHAPTER
VIIL
We
have proved,
every plane
and that
parallel plane
conies.
We now
proceed to find equations to determine the magnitudes and directions of the axes of a given plane section of a given conicoid.
General method for determining the axes. If the lengths of the axes of a conic are 2oc and 2/3, and <x> r /?, the conic
>
has two diameters of length 2r, and they are equally If r = oc or /?, the two diameters of inclined to the axes. length 2r coincide with an axis. Hence to find the axes
which a given plane cuts a conicoid, we first form the equation to a cone whose vertex is the centre, C, of the conic and which has as generators the lines of length r which can be drawn in the plane from C The lines of section of this cone and the to the conicoid.
of the conic in
given plane are the semi-diameters of length r of the conic. If 2r is the length of an axis, these are coincident, or the plane touches the cone, the generator of contact being the axis. The condition of tangency gives an equation which determines r the comparison of the equations of the given
;
direction-
Let the equations, referred to rectangular axes, of the conicoid and plane be
132
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
of the conicoid
jm,
[CH. vin.
The centre
section.
is
of
the
If X,
are
the point
.......... (1)
cone and plane are the semithe conic of length r. Hence, if r is the length of either semi-axis of the conic in which the plane lx + my + nz = Q cuts the conicoid, the plane touches the
lines of section of the
The
diameters of
cone,
and therefore
or
roots of this quadratic in r2 give the squares of the semi-axes of the section.
The
If 2r is the length of
an axis and
X,
/x,
cosines, the given plane touches the cone (1) along the line x/\ y/jji z/v, and therefore is represented by the
equation
Therefore
I
n
............ ^
'
Since the extremities of the semi-diameters of length r of the 2 lie upon the sphere o;2 +y2 -h2 =r2 the equation of the cone them may be obtained by making the equation to the conicoid through homogeneous by means of the equation to the sphere. Thus the cone is
>
2 L 2 ax* + by s + cz 2 =
t
i
which
is
(1).
86]
133
Ex.
Prove that the axes of the section of the conicoid lie on the cone l by the plane i?+my + n =
(From equations
(3)
we deduce
that
Ex. 2. Prove that the cone of Ex. 1 passes through the normal to the plane of section and the diameter to which the plane of section is diametral plane. Prove also that the cone passes through two sets of Ex. 6, 77.) conjugate diameters of the conicoid. (Cf.
Ex.
3.
by
Ans.
(i) -64,
'45
(ii) 3*08,
'76.
Ex.
4.
referred to
principal axes,
approximately
Ex.
5.
ellipsoid of revolution
a,
a2
2
+~2 c
2
= ^ ^y
2
^e
2
ac (I2 +
m + n )* {a (l + m + c
2
n2
m
Ex.
6.
-I
0'
nl
mn
ellipsoid
by the plane lx + my + nz =
is
where p
is
is
900
a rectangular hyperbola.
Ex. 8. The section of a hyperboloid of one sheet by a tangent plane to the asymptotic cone is two parallel straight lines. What is the corresponding section of the hyperboloid of two sheets which has the same asymptotic cone ? Ex. 9. Central sections of an ellipsoid whoso area envelope a cone of the second degree.
is
constant
1S4
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
[en.
vnt
Ex. 10. If AJ, A 2 , Ao are the areas of three mutually perpendicular ~ 2 central sections of an ellipsoid, + A 2 2 + A 3 ~ 2 is constant.
Ar
2
Ex.
11.
One of
a*
-, $- + tf = 1
by a tangent plane
y +z*=x
lies
on the cone
What
Ex.
is
the plane
12.
XOY
the nature of the section of this cone by a plane parallel to Sketch the form of the cone. ?
line
c
=n
7
lie
on the cone
7
c,
(mz
ny) H
(ly
. - mx) = 0.
.
87.
conicoid.
Let the
and
plane be
+ by* + cz* = I,
(3*
lx
+ my + vz=p.
Then
plane
C,
is also
y)
is
Therefore
I
,** = n
,
>
................ (1)
p
*, ^
rP
,
J ^r^^ say.
^
rP
The equation
through
is
2
ax
or
+ by* + cz*+ 2 (aouc + b/3y + cyz) + aa + &^ + cy - 1 = 0, ax* + by* + cz + 2(aoLx + bpy
2
2
A:
where
=l
Po
^V 2
r
rP
The equation
If X,
to the plane is
now
drawn
r2 (aX2
+ 6//2 +
ci/
+ 2r (aaX +
bfifJi
+ cyi/) - k2 = 0.
given plane
and therefore, by
1 ),
87]
135
Hence
and therefore the semi-diameters of the section of length r lie on the cone
the length of either semi-axis of the section, the plane touches the cone. Therefore
If
is
(2)
And, as in
86,
7i
Comparing these equations with equations (2) and (3) of 86, we see that if oc and /3 are the lengths of the semiaxes of
the section
or
semi-axes of
koi
by the plane lx + my+nz = Q the the section by the plane lx + my + nz~p are
t
and
&/3,
rf p* a V/ 1 ~l-2' pV 1 -^' Po
I
and that the corresponding axes are parallel. We thus have another proof for central surfaces of the proposition that parallel plane sections are similar and similarly
situated conies.
equations (4) it follows that if A, A are the areas of the sections of a conicoid by a given plane and the
From
A=A
(1
\
P \ -^j, where p /
to the given p, p are the perpendiculars from the centre Thus the area of the plane and the parallel tangent plane. 2 2 z x* y e P^ anb section of the ellipsoid -2+ /g+^^l
c
^^
18
2 2
(a'
+6 m +
2 2
136
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
[CH. VIIL
The student should note that the equation to the cone through all to the conicoid would be obtained the lines of length r drawn from by making the equation
It would be of the equation jp+y 2 + z 2 = r 2 of the fourth degree, while for our purpose we require a cone of the second degree. The cone chosen passes through the lines of length r which lie in the given plane, and these lines alone need be considered.
homogeneous by means
is a given semi-diameter of a conicoid and OA( = o.), are the principal semi-axes of the section of the diametral Prove that in C. meets plane parallel to plane of OP. the principal axes of the section of the conicoid by this plane are
OB( = /8),
Ex.
1.
OP
A
,
AOB
OP
2
,
(4),
87.
as coordinate axes.)
Ex. 2. Find the coordinates of the centre and the lengths of the semi-axes of the section of the ellipsoid 3x 2 -f 3y 2 -h 6z 2 = 10 by the plane
2
1\
J44
v/44
Ex. 3. If OP OQ, OR are conjugate semi-diameters of an ellipsoid prove that the area of the section of the ellipsoid by the plane PQR is two-thirds the area of the parallel central section.
Ex. 4. Find the area of the section of the by the plane x\a +ylb+z/c = l.
.
xi
ellipsoid
2
?/
Z2
-f
H
c
=1
3\/3
Ex.
>
5.
o y&
o
fjo
~+T7 + -7 = l 2 1
cr c
A Ans.
y+*t
whose area
is
constant,
= mfc
Ex.
cut
X -n- +T a
?/
999
6.
Prove that tangent planes to ^r-f-fo- -^7 4-1 =0 which a fot ct Z "" ^ == ^ *n e ses of constant area Trk2 have their points o "ip
surface
.r
or?/
of contact
on th
+'- + --
22
Ex. 7. Prove that the axes of the section whose centre is P are the straight lines in which the plane of section cuts the cone containing the normals from P.
Ex.
.4n*.
8.
surface 4yz
(i)
Find the lengths of the semi-axes of the sections of the - 6xy = 8 by the 4- 5zx planes (i) x + y z - 0, (ii) 2x + y - z = 0.
2, V3".
(ii)
2, 2.
Ex.
9.
=o
88]
137
by the plane
by
m, n)
lines in
Ex.
10.
arf + byt + cz 2
by
the plane lx + my +
i 2
nzp
,
are given
* 2
2
by
"2
...
_
'
*Po*i*
2
where
88.
, 2
n = P + m H---r2
, ,
+ r W** +P
cpfr* + p*
Axes of a given
If the
ft,
y), is
given by
aa
I 9
~m~
fc/3
~
p
Whence
aoc2
,io9 + 2- o = 2y
to (a,
i>,
we
find that X,
/x,
diameter of length r of the section, satisfy the equation 7iV2 (a\ 2 + 6/x 2 ) -^ 2 (X 2 + /x2 + 2 ) = 0.
1/
lines in
which the
2 )
- ^2
^2
jt)
= 0.
or
a&n
V - wV p
2
{(
and the
direction cosines
138
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
[OH.
vm.
Ex. 1. Find the lengths of the semi-axes of the section of the paraboloid 2x 2 + y 2 = z by the plane x + 2y + z=4. Ana. 6-28, 1 -68.
Ex. 2. A plane section through the vertex of the paraboloid of revolution x 2 -{-y 2 =2az makes an angle with the axis of the surface. Prove that its principal semi-axes are a cot 6 cosec 6, a cot 0.
Ex.
3.
xy=az by
Ex.
4.
Prove that the semi-axes of the section of the paraboloid the plane lx + my + nz=Q are given by
a2
~ +^
b2
Find the locus of the centres of sections of the paraboloid =2z which are of constant area irk 2
.
Ans. a 2
Ex. 5. Given that the radius of curvature at a point P of a conic whose centre is C is equal to CD 3 /o./2, where a. and /5 are the semi-axes and CD is the semi-diameter conjugate to CP, find the radius of curvature at the origin of the conic ax 2 -fit/ 2 = 2z, lx + my + nz=Q.
A ns.
(I
(I*
+ m* -f w 2 )"*
3*
Ex. 6. Planes are drawn through a fixed point (ex., /?, y) so that 2 their sections of the paraboloid or + fry = 2s are rectangular hyperbolas.
<*-r)
CIRCULAR SECTIONS.
the equation to a conicoid, can be thrown is the equation to a into the form S + Auv 0, where S =
89.
If F
= 0,
= represent planes, the common points = sphere and u 0, v of the conicoid and planes lie on the sphere, and therefore the sections of the conicoid by the planes are circles.
circular sections of an ellipsoid. The equa tion, referred to rectangular axes, of the ellipsoid,
90.
The
89-92]
CIRCULAR SECTIONS
139
cut the ellipsoid in circles of radii a, 6, c respectively. If 6 a f, only the second of these equations gives real planes, and therefore the only real central circular sections
> >
mean
axis,
by the equations
a
Since parallel plane sections are similar and similarly situated conies, the equations
c
all
=^
values of X and p.
j4?&y
<tt;o
circular sections of
an
ellipsoid
which are
not parallel
lie
on a
sphere.
The equation 1
^("-o
+ ry+T, C \a* b~
2
/X 2
V*
Z2
L
\
)
+
c
/
represents a conicoid which passes through the sections, and if k = 6 2 the equation becomes
a
which represents a sphere.
92.
Circular
of
90,
sections
method
we
of the
140
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
by
[CH.
via
are given
(i)
of the central circular sections of the hyperThe planes given by boloid of one sheet is a.
The radius
do not meet the hyperboloid of two sheets in any real They are the planes through the centre parallel points. to systems of planes which cut the surface in real circles.
Ex.
1.
OL
~ - ^-^=1
O
C
.
by
=A
is real if
A2
>a
+c2
Ex.
2.
Find the
8.
real
central
Ans.
x2 -4z2 =Q.
Ex.
3.
2^+3^-5 = 0,
in circles
the hyperboloid
which
circle in
a
cuts the ellipsoid
-Vo 2
22
-VP":: c2 =A +c
^8
? /2
~+r2+-"2
== l
Ex.
5.
of constant radius
k which
in a pair of circles.
(Use
91.)
Chords of the ellipse o?2/a 2 -i-y 2/6 2 =l, e=0, are drawn so as to make equal angles with its axes, and on them as diameters circles are described whose planes are parallel to OZ. Prove that these 2 = 2a2 62 circles generate the ellipsoid 26V+2ay + (a
Ex.
6.
+&V
93.
Circular
sections
of any
central
conicoid.
An
=a
92,93]
141
may
be written
v\ z)
\ A
Hence
if
f(x, y, z)
represents a pair of planes, these planes cut the conicoid in For a pair of planes circles.
a-A,
h,
h,
= 0.
6-X,
f>
9>
c-X
It can be shown This equation gives three values of X. that these are always real, and that only the mean value
1 gives real planes.
Ex.
1,
Find the
3#2 -f-V
The
A = 4 and have
equations
x -z+y=0,
Find the equations
2
*-*-y=0.
Ex.
2.
of the conicoids,
(i) 5?/
(ii)
(iii)
Ans.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(.r-2y-
(x+
2(^7 -f- zf
10?/(o;
+ ^) 4- 9y2 = 0.
to the circular sections of the conicoid
Ex.
3.
T
Ans.
1
II
7,
h*f4--=A, CLOC
144, 145.
142
COORDINATE GEOMETKY
4.
[CH.
vnt
Ex.
should determine a circle. The equation /(.r, y> z) - X(^ +y 2 -f z2) = is to represent two planes, one of which is the given plane. Therefore e
,y,*)-A(o;2+^
+ *2
)^
V.
&
7/1
71 J
Whence, comparing
2 irc 2 4- cm x __
coefficients of y*,
ZJT, ,ry,
we obtain
2
- 2///w
-f
2klm
(We assume here that ^, wi, n are all different from zero. If Z = 0, the conditions become (A = a), gr = A=0, (c-a)m 2 ~2/??m-f(6-a)?i2 =0.)
94.
The equation
aa;
= bz*
by
x\Ja
b
x\Jab + z\/b = X,
If,
^\/6
/>t.
however, a or 6
is
2
those given
by ax
+ by
= Q.
The equation
is
tends to zero, and therefore the sphere containing the circular sections is in this case of infinite radius, and the
as
fc
They
1.
i.e.
79).
Find the
Ex. 2. Find the radius of the circle in which the plane cuts the paraboloid 53^2 + 4y 2 Qz. An*, r*
894,95l
95.
UMBILICS
The
143
centres of a series of parallel plane sections of a conicoid lie upon a diameter of the conicoid
Umbilics.
sections. If, therefore, P and P' (fig. 40) parallel to the plane are the extremities of the diameter which passes through
the centres of a system of circular sections of an ellipsoid, the tangent planes at P and P' are the limiting positions of the cutting planes, and P and P' may be regarded as circular section of zero circular sections of zero radius.
FIG. 40.
radius
is
called
an
umbilic.
It is evident
of the hyperboloid of one sheet that the smallest closed section is the principal elliptic section and that the surface
To find
If P,
is
(
x2
+ T^ + -o = l. C b*
L
v2
z2
j/,
is
Hence
x/a
-6 2
M2
and therefore
144
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
of the hyperboloid of
|CH. vin.
The umbilics
two sheets
^~P~^ =1
are real and given
by
JJx. 1.
Ex. 2. Prove that the perpendicular distance from the centre to the tangent plane at an umbilic of the ellipsoid is ac/b.
Ex.
are
3.
2
(a-6)#
+ ay 2 + (a-f 6)^ = 1 are at right angles and that J * + & y =0, z= VzrT^TM' given by *= *2a(a + o) *2a(a-6)
?;
Ex.
4.
v2
~H a
-a
2
.j
=1
y=0, a + 6 + a-6 = 1.
17
-^ -^
.r2
22
Ex.
5.
^2
^2
-r,-f T^
= 2*
are
Ex. 6. Deduce the coordinates of the umbilics of the from the result of Ex. 4, 92.
ellipsoid
*
1.
Examples V.
;
Prove that
if
A lf
fa, Vi
A2
~+^+~ = i
- a 2)
2.
2 J c^a - 6 )
If At,
A2 A 3
,
ellipsoids -^ d
+ O Ca 0+
A,
2
.
""~
f
~"2+/52"*"~2 Ow *j
=1
2 /^a.
V V
A/ A 8 _
,
^~^V^
: ,
aW
jffl
"^
cV'
3.
If A,,
A2 A 3
,
951
EXAMPLES
,
V.
145
2 aO
b*
!_>
'
c*
>
4.
(ex.,
/3,
y) planes are /*
drawn
nji
frit
parallel to
three conjugate diametral planes of the ellipsoid --f To4--o=l. Shew * r jo O C Q, that the sum of the ratios of the areas of the sections by these planes
to the areas of the parallel diametral planes
5.
is
a 2 B2
<j-~T~2
least area
of
the ellipsoid
^~j^^" G v~^ O
y
line
7ra c
of the section
by
the plane
6.
^+^+- = a b
c
0.
are given
also give circulai by x^a sections of the cone (a-f-^^-f-^-f /x)y 2 -h(c-f /x)22 =0.
7. Any tangent plane to a cone cuts the cyclic planes in lines equally inclined to the generator of contact.
of tangent planes to the cone ax*+ by*+cz'2 =0 cuts the cyclic planes x\Ja-b z\fb-c=Q in lines which lie upon a right circular cone whose axis is at right angles to the plane of contact.
8.
Any pair
9.
principal planes are the coordinate planes in rectangular hyperbolas. Shew that the pole of the plane with respect to the conicoids lies on a cone whose section by the given plane is a circle.
OP, OQ, OR are conjugate diameters of an ellipsoid, axes and S is the foot of the perpendicular from O to the plane PQR. Shew that the cone whose vertex is S and base is the section of the ellipsoid by the diametral plane parallel to the plane PQR has constant volume 7ra6c/3\/3.
10.
a, 6,
Cj
11. If two cones with the same vertex have the same systems of circular sections, their common tangent planes touch them along per-
pendicular generators.
12.
The normals
ac
,
to the ellipsoid
?_
a2
+^ +
6*
=l
c2
at
all
points of a
makes an angle
= with the
section.
B a,
146
13.
fy,
COOEDINATE GEOMETRY
|CH.
via
Tf r n r are the axes of a central section of an ellipsoid, and ? the angles between the section and the circular sections, #2 sin
.sm02 =
and
least axes of the ellipsoid.
where a and
14.
fixed point which is the pole of a circular section of x* ?/ 2 z 2 the hyperboloid -a + fjj ~2 = 1 are drawn planes cutting the surface o a c
Through a
in rectangular hyperbolas.
lie
Shew
on a hxed
circle
whose plane
parallel to
sections.
15.
The
such that the sura of the squares of their axes the conicoid
c
constant,
(=
2
),
is
a]' 1
\a
x*
16.
The area
z* is
2+1^+-$^
constant.
Shew
lie
on the cone
" a*-p*f< 4
a
V
V-
where p is the distance from the centre of a tangent plane any of the planes of section.
parallel to
17. Prove that the tangents at the vertices to the parabolic sections 2 2 l are parallel to generators of the cone of the conicoid oo;2 4-<?
+6/
18.
ellipsoid
y*
2
ft
#"
c
2
'
e, lie
on the cone
e.
ellipsoid is
yfi
/2
an axis
2
of
If the ellipsoid
is
-2
is
and P
the point
(a/,
where
at P.
is
CH. vin.J
20.
2
EXAMPLES
V.
147
The normal section of an enveloping cylinder of the ellipsoid 2 2 2 2 Prove that the plane of a?/a +y /b +z*/c =] has a given area irk contact of the cylinder and ellipsoid touches the cone
.
999
_.+
y
z
i
=Q
21.
paraboloid
a(x
umbilic, it meets the conicoid in a circle whose plane to itself as the radius of the sphere varies.
7
77
parallel
099
l
23.
If
Per "
pendicular is drawn to any central section and lengths equal to the axes of the section are marked off along the perpendicular, the locus of their extremities is given by
where
24.
r2
= x2 +y2 + z2
(The locus
is
line
#=A,
y=0
lie
*;=0,
If the section of the cone whose vertex is P, (a, /5, y) and base ax 2 +by 2 =l, by the #^0 is a circle, then P lies on the plane conic ,y=0, cr#2 foe 2 = l, ana the section of the cone by the plane
25.
(a
Is
also a circle.
IX.
CHAPTER
GENERATING
96. 1
IX.
LINES.
Ruled surfaces. In cones and cylinders we have examples of surfaces which are generated by a moving Such surfaces are called ruled surfaces. We straight line. shall now prove that the hyperboloid of one sheet and the
hyperbolic paraboloid are ruled surfaces.
2
The equation
-g CL
+ rj
y2
02
C 2~^>
may
be written,
Whence
it
is
straight lines
a
a
where X and
ft
a
b)
(1) ^ '
+c=
/A
l-; bj
It is obviously are variable parameters. impossible to assign values to X and p. so that the equations Hence the (1) become identical with the equations (2).
lines,
no member of
one coinciding with any member of the other. As X assumes in turn all real values the line given by the equations (1) moves so as to completely generate the hyperboloid. Similarly, the line given by the equations (2) moves, as jm varies, so as to generate the hyperboloid. The hyperboloid of one sheet is therefore a ruled surface and
1
See Appendix, p.
iv.
96]
GENERATING LINES
149
(See
fig.
41.)
a2
which represents a hyperbolic paraboloid, may be written
FIG. 41.
Whence
is
the locus ot
a x a
T"
y_z ^^
b
X
"~
a
os
.y-
2/_ 9x ft
o
'
y_z Y
o
">
yu
y_ 9^ TT ^M
b
is
150
COOEDINATE GEOMETRY
in
[CH.
ix
(See
fig.
parallel to
-^ =
(j
FIG. 42
Ex.
1.
CP,
CQ are any
C'P', C'Q' are the conjugate diameters of the ellipse 6= -c, drawn in the same directions as and CQ.
x2
CP
2^
Cv
/^
2?/
-f
hyperboloid
-^ O
-z =1 ^
C
is
Ex, 2. A point, " m," on the parabola y = 0, ex2 = 2a 22, is (2am, 0, 2cm2 ), u 2 2 2 and a ?i," on the parabola ,r=6, cy = -2b z, is (0, 26/i, -2cn ). point, Find the locus of the lines joining the points for which, (i) W=TZ, (ii) m= -n.
Ans.
a2
-W
Section of a ruled surface by the tangent plane at a point. Since a hyperboloid of one sheet or a hyperbolic paraboloid is generated completely by each of two systems
97.
of straight lines, there pass through any point P, (fig. 43), of the surface, two generating lines, one from each system. Each of these meets the surface at P in, at least, two
lie
in the tangent
96,97]
161
plane at
The tangent plane at P is therefore the plane the generators which pass through P. But any through plane section of the surface is a conic, and therefore the
section of the surface
by the tangent plane at P is the conic composed of the two generating lines through P. It follows that if a straight line AB lies wholly on the conicoid it must belong to one of the systems of generating For AB meets any generating line PQ in some point lines. But P, and AB and PQ both lie in the tangent plane at P.
Fio. 43.
at
P con-
and therefore AB
must be one
Again any plane through a generating line is the tangent plane at some point of the generating line. For the locus of points common to the surface and plane is a conic, and the generating line is obviously part of the locus. The locus must therefore consist of two straight lines, or the plane must pass through the given generating line and a second generating line which meets it. It is therefore the
tangent plane at the point of intersection. The intersection of a cone or cylinder with a tangent
plane consists of two coincident generators. The ruled conicoids can therefore be divided into two classes according
152
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
[CH. ix,
If the generators are distinct the tangent planes at different points of a given generator If the generators are coincident, are different, (see fig. 43).
all
points of a given
three points of a straight line lie the straight line lies wholly on the conicoid.
98.
//
on a conicoid
any point on the line through (a, ft, y), whose direction-ratios are I, m, n, are oc-f Ir, /3+mr, y+nr. The condition that this point should lie on the conicoid
of
The coordinates
F(x
y, 0)
may
is
of the
If
three
is
equation
values of
conicoid.
points of the line lie on the conicoid, this satisfied by three values of r, and therefore
A = B = C = 0.
r,
therefore satisfied
of
by
all
the
line
lies
on the
99. To find the conditions that a given straight line should be a generator of a given conicoid. Let the equations to the conicoid and line be
x
I
oc_y
line,
/__
n
j3+mr, y+nr),
lies
(oi+lr,
on
^ + 6m +
2
cri*)
If this equation is
an
+cy* =1,
al*
..................... (1)
0; ..................... (2)
+bm*
+cri*
=0 ...................... (3)
97-99]
163
Equation (1) is the condition that (a, /3, y) should lie on the surface equation (2) shews that a generating line must lie in the tangent plane at any point (oc, /3, y) on and from (3) it follows that the parallels through the it
;
;
(1), (2), (3) shew that through any a central conicoid two straight lines can point (oc, /3, y) of be drawn to lie wholly on the conicoid, the direction-ratios
by equations
(2)
and
(3).
By
;
Lagrange's identity,
2
we have
2 (acd + &/5m) = ab(oLm
(al
/3Z)
whence, by
The values
have opposite
of
signs,
n are therefore real only if ab and c which can only be the case if two of are positive and one is negative. The
:
therefore the hyperboloid of one sheet. From equations (2) and (4) we deduce the direction-ratios of the generators through (oc, /3, y),
is
I
m
c
oi_y ~~
I
__z ~~
aa2 +&
= 2y,
..................... (1)
only if Equation (3) is satisfied by real values of I a and b have opposite signs. The only ruled paraboloid
:
164
is
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
[CH. ix.
therefore the hyperbolic paraboloid. The direction-ratios of the generating lines through (ex, /3, y) are given by
I
m
I
II
-I
in
96, (ii)
Ex.
/**2
1.
*2
|<2
~+%---J==l which
A
(2, 3,
-4),
(2,
-1,
).
#-
""
-2
'
~~^-T
Ex.
2.
Find the equations to the generating lines of the hyperboloid = Q which pass through the point ( - 1, 0, 3).
Ex. 3. Find the equations to the generators of the hyperboloid y 2 z2 2"Hb~" ^2 I which pass through the point (a cos ex., 6 sin a, 0).
An
a sin OL
b cos
a.
Ex. 4. Find the equations to the generating lines of the paraboloid = (x+y+z)(2jc-\-y-z) 6z which pass through the point (1, 1, 1).
LINES.
We
a a
a
a
c
(1) v 7
/UL
99-102]
155
101.
No
and
b/'
a
a
c~~~
X
'
'
c~~
'
'
meets the hyperboloid in the sides intersect at R, then the plane of a triangle. This is impossible, since no plane section of a conicoid is of higher degree than the second.
PQR
102.
Any
any
gene-
(2),
a
X
~a
fJL
c
~~
b
~~
X/UL
b
1
#_
a
The equations a
X + /z
1
y
b
\fji
5 ==
c
^
1
/^
+ X//'
I+X/UL'
both reduce to
(5)
But equation (5) represents the tangent k=*l/k'=\ffi. at the point of intersection of the generators. Hence plane the plane through two intersecting generators is the tangent
if
plane at their common point. (Cf. 97.) If, in equation (3X k is given, the equation represents
156
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
[CH. ix.
= X/&. /z
a tangent plane.
Ex. Discuss the intersection of the A-generator through P with the /^-generator through P' when P and P' are the extremities of a diameter of the principal elliptic section.
To find the locus of intersection of perpendicular generators. the points of The direction-cosines of the X- and /x-generators are
103.
Perpendicular generators.
__m/b__ nfc ^
I/
a __m/6 _ ~
nfc
at right
a2 (X+/z) 2 +6 2 (l-X/z) 2
4^
1
+ X/X
'
+ X//
'
1+X/X
lies
The
is
hyperboloid and the director sphere. Or if PQ, PR are perpendicular generators and PN is normal at P 102 the planes PQR, PNQ, PNR are mutually perpendicular by
;
lies
The projections of the generators of a hyperboloid on a principal plane are tangents to the section of the hyperboloid by the principal plane. The projections of the X- and /x-generators on the plane
104.
XOY
are given
by
102-104]
167
Whence
is
the ellipse
3=0,
^=i-K 6 a
2
2
ZOX
touch
if
the corresponding principal sections. The above equations to the projections are identical
Hence equal values of the parameters give two generators which project into the same tangent to the = 0, x2/a? + y 2/b 2 =l. The point of intersection, P, ellipse 2 of the generators given by X = /x = is, by 102,
/x.
A=
i.e. is
(a cos
oc,
6 sin a, 0),
where
= tan ( T ""
*s
there-
fore
the
point on
is
eccentric angle
principal elliptic section whose and the generators project into the a,
the
tangent
z = 0,
x y -cosoc+fsinoc=l, C/ Cv
(fig. 44).
From
2X
or, since
X = tan K-
/7T
a\
<r
),
a sin a,
l
o cos a,
c.
_
a
sin oc
6sinoc _ z
b cos oc
c
a sin a
~"
6 cos
~~c"
,
Ex. Prove that the generators given by A = i*>= Ijt are parallel, and that they meet the principal elliptic section in the extremities of
a diameter.
1
See Appendix,
p. iv.
158
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
Let P and Q,
(fig. 44),
TCH. ix.
105.
elliptic section
the
whose eccentric angles are a and /3. Then X-generator through P intersects the /x-generator
through
at the point, R,
/
X + /x
/7T
,1
X/x
/x\
where
GL\
X-tan^-^y
sm
and
M = tan (4
/7T
"" /3\
2 /'
Whence the
coordinates of R are
2
>
c tan
^ /3-a
.,
Fio. 44.
Now
a cos
therefore
if
sec 0,
b sin 6 sec 0,
"
0, 0,"
tan
<f> ;
is
the point
.
0=^^
or
0+<f>
/3+oc
and
^ = ^2^,
^
/3-ot
= /3>
0-^ = a.
Similarly, it may be shewn that the /x-generator through P intersects the X-generator through Q at the point "#, <f>" Suppose now that P remains fixed while Q varies, so that
ix is
constant and
j8
variable.
1051
159
generator of the X-system, and in any position $ Hence for points on a generator of the A~system
constant.
= (x.
$
is
Similarly,
by supposing Q
to remain fixed
and
P to vary, we can prove that for points on a given generator is constant. of the /z-sy stem 6 +
Ex.
1.
If
is
"
0,
<,"
(fig. 44),
to
PQ
are
0-<=a, 6+ = /3.
</>"
Ex.
2.
The equations
:
are
~~
_z
- c tan
<f>
6 sin
.
on the
+ _ X (l+*\ f-=l(i-*Y a c \ bJ a c A\ 6/
ft
(h 1 ^=-
A
^-,
constant.
Ex.
4.
determine a hyperboloid of one sheet, that # a given generator of one system, and that on a given generator of the other system.
/
is
<
is
y*
4-?/2
(The equation
to the surface is
--^-
= 1.
\
)
Ex. 5. Find the locus of R if P and Q are the extremities of conjugate diameters of the principal elliptic section.
We
Ex. Ex.
of the planes z
6. 7.
= a.^,
whence
<=
.
-,
and R
lies in
one
RP 2 + RQ 2 =a 2 +6 2 +2c 2
and A' are the extremities of the major axis of the and any generator meets two generators of the same system through A and A' respectively in P and P', prove
principal elliptic section,
thatAP.A'P'^+c2
Ex. 8. Prove also that the planes APP', A'PP' cut either of the real central circular sections in perpendicular lines. Ex.
lateral
9.
If four
of the hyperboloid
,
<f>r"
r= 1,
2, 3, 4,
160
COOEDINATE GEOMETRY
10.
[CH.
IX
Ex.
a point on the hyperboloid. [The equation represents the pair of planes through the origin and the generators that intersect at (#', y' 9 z').]
where
P, (x
y,
z') is
Ex. 11. Prove that the generators through any point P on a hyperboloid are parallel to the asymptotes of the section of the hyperboloid by any plane which is parallel to the tangent plane at P.
Ex.
is
12.
given by
- p(,*-a*the perpendicular from the centre to the tangent plane P from the centre.
at
where p P and
is
r is the distance of
Ex. 13. All parallelepipeds which have six of their edges along generators of a given hyperboloid have the same volume. If PQRS is one face of the parallelepiped and P, P' Q, Q' R, R' S, S' are opposite corners, we may have the edges PS, RP', S'R' along generators of one system and the edges SR, P'S', R'P along generators of the other system. The tangent planes at S and S' are therefore PSR, P'S'R', and are parallel, and therefore SS' is a diameter. Let P, S, R be (xl9 y 19 z^ Similarly, PP' and RR' are diameters. Then the volume of the parallelepiped is s 2 ), (^a* #3> ^3)(^2* #2 twelve times the volume of the tetrahedron OPSR, (O is the centre).
;
;
Denoting
it
by V, we have
i
V-2
-2<y
f
/j/
%
*3
^if.2
a2
2%, a
2
2^|^ a2
a
But
;
^\^l 2
'5'
^*^2_
"a*""
i 1
'
S on the
tangent
Therefore
^T( - 4* = 4a6c.
106]
161
and Q' which are not on Ex. 14. Find the locus of the corners the given hyperboloid. is the point Since QS and PR bisect one another,
and hence
lies
on the hyperboloid
106.
paraboloid.
We
shall
now
2
i/
state
the
results
for
the
hyperbolic paraboloid -g
ih = 22 corresponding to those
which we have proved for the hyperboloid. is left as an exercise for the student. The point of intersection of the generators
Their proof
a
is
+ b -2 / 'a - b = r
if
given by
The
by
and hence the locus of the points of intersection of perpendicular generators and the plane
is
The plane
a
passes through the generator (I) and is tangent plane at the point of intersection of that generator and the generator of the /^-system given by /z = X/&.
projections of the generators on the planes YOZ, envelope the principal sections whose equations are
The
ZOX
BO.
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
Ten.
ix
2 point on the second parabola is (2am, 0, 2m ), and if X = ^c = m, the generators of the X- and /z-systems corresponding to these values project into the tangent to the
Any
parabola at
k<
m."
is
Any
given by
to the generators
through
"
r,
"
are
a
Ex,
1,
i8
or sin 9
6
-A
0-
r2
-5-
cos 20
Shew
(#1 y> z )
given by
Ex.
2.
determine a hyperbolic paraboloid, and that the angle between the " generators through "# </> is given by
, /
{(b
^2 ) 2
3.
6,
= ce* sinh
is
is
determine a hyperbolic paraboloid, and that 6 + <f> points of a given generator of one system, and #-</> given generator ot the other.
Ex. 4. Planes are drawn through the origin, O, and the generators 2 through any point P of the paraboloid given by z*-y =az. Prove 1 that the angle between them is tan"" where r is the length of OP.
,
ct
Ex.
5.
of the perpendiculars
the paraboloid -g
Ex. 6. The points of intersection of generators of xy~az which are inclined at a constant angle a lie on the curve of intersection of the
paraboloid and the hyperboloid
106-109]
CONICOID
163
The general
contains nine constants, viz., the ratios of any nine of the ten coefficients a,b, c, ... to the tenth. Hence, since these are determined by nine equations involving them, a conicoid can be found to pass through nine given points. But we have proved that if three points of a straight line lie
line is a generator of the conicoid. Therefore a conicoid can be found to pass through any
two
given lines
= 0?\
tt'
= =
t;'f
p.
109.
To find
the
equation
to the
given
non-intersecting Lines.
If the three lines are not parallel to the same plane, planes drawn through each line parallel to the other two
form a parallelepiped,
(fig.
45).
If
164
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
[CH. ix,
parallelepiped is taken as origin, and the axes are parallel to the edges, the equations to the given lines are of the
form,
(1)
7/
= 6, 3 = -c;
(2) s
= c, z = ~&;
(3)
x = a, y = -6,
a
The general equation to 2a, 26, 2c are the edges. conicoid through the lines (1) and (2) is
where
Where # = a, y =
and
if
we have
must be
x = a,
T/
Therefore
,
b
,
= c(
is
rt
ci
2a6
->
Flo.
46.
is
and
is
line
If the three lines are parallel to the same plane, let any which meets them be taken as z-axis. If the lines are
,
,
A1 B1 A 2 B 2
A3 B3
(fig.
46),
in
109-111]
,
,
LINES
165
Cp C 2 C 3 take A^ as cc-axis and the parallel to A 2 B 2 through C t as y-axis. Then the equations may be written
(1)
2/
= 0,
= 0;
(2)
# = 0, s = a;
(3)
lx+my = 0,
z = (3.
(3) is
The equation
and
If
y = 0,
is
must
is
fimy }
+ oi(3my = 0.
Since the terms of second degree are the product of linear factors, the equation represents a hyperooiic paraboloid.
110.
If A, B,
The straight
lines
lines
number
are three given non-intersecting lines, an infinite of straight lines can be drawn to meet A, B, and C.
For a conicoid can be drawn through A, B, C, and A, B, C are generators of one system, say the X-system, and hence all the generators of the //-system will intersect A, B, and C.
which does not meet A, B, and C, meets the conicoid in general in two points P and Q, and the generators of the //-system through P and Q are the only lines which intersect the four given lines A, B, C, D. If,
fourth
line, D,
however, D
and
C, it
a generator of the conicoid through A, B, belongs to the X-system, and therefore all the
is
all
the four
be
lines.
drawn
to
A, B, C, D,
then A,
If the three lines are P, Q, R, each meets the conicoid through A, B, C in three points, and is therefore a generator.
Q, R;
and therefore D
is
166
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
;
[CH. ix.
C, C' are points on X'OX, Y'OY, Z'OZ. Ex. 1. A, A' ; B, B' Prove that BC', CA', AB' are generators of one system, and that
of a hyperboloid. B'C, C'A, A'B are generators of the other system, Ex. 2. A, A' ; B, B' C, C' are pairs of opposite vertices of a skew drawn on a hyperboloid. Prove tnat A A', BB', CC' are
;
hexagon
concurrent.
Ex. 3. The altitudes of a tetrahedron are generators of a hyperboloid of one sheet. Let A, B, C, D be the vertices. Then the planes through DA, perpendicular to the plane DBC, through DB, perpendicular to the plane DCA, and through DC, perpendicular to the plane DAB, pass through one line, ( 45, Ex. 6, or 44, Ex. 22). That line is therefore coplanar with the altitudes from A, B, C, and it meets the altitude from D in D, and therefore it meets all the four altitudes. The corresponding lines through A, B, C also meet all the four altitudes, which are therefore generators of a hyperboloid.
Ex. 4. Prove that the perpendiculars to the faces of the tetrahedron through their orthocentres are generators of the opposite system. Ex. 5. Prove that the lines joining A, B, C, D to the centres of the circles inscribed in the triangles BCD, CDA, DAB, ABC are generators of a hyperboloid.
The equation to a hyperboloid when two seating generators are coordinate axes. If two
112.
inter*
inter-
secting generators are taken as #-axis equation to the surface must be satisfied
and
7/-axis,
the
when y = z = 0,
Suppose that
by
all
values of x
and by
it is
all
values of y
when z = x = 0.
of the generators to the centre is taken as 2-axis. Then, since the generators through opposite ends of a diameter
are
parallel,
the
lines
2/
= 0,
= 2y;
0, y).
f
# = 0, z = 2y
are
Whence
/=# = 0, y=-w/c
and the equation reduces to
cz2
+ 2hxy + 2wz
0.
112,113]
PROPERTIES OF
A GENERATOR
167
Ex. 1. Prove that (y + mz)(z + njc)-{-kz = Q represents a paraboloid which passes through OX and OY. Ex. 2. The generators through a variable point P of a hyperboloid meet the generators through fixed point O in Q and R. If OQ: OR
,
constant, find the locus of P. and OR as x- and y-axes, and the line joining Take centre as z-axis. The equation to the hyperboloid is
is
OQ
to the
It
may be
written
by
= 2A/xy,
[JL(CZ -f
%w) -f # = 0.
= belongs to the X-system and corresponds to A 0; OY belongs to the /z-system and corresponds to /z=0. If P is (. ??, C), the generators through P correspond to
OX
Where a
therefore
OX,
OR = -
OQ = - 2w/x, = - w/hr).
= - wf/h^
P whose equation
(ii)
(see
134)
is
of
2
if (i)
OQ OR = F,
P
lies
on a cone whose vertex Ex. 4. constant, OQ~ 4-OR~ is O and whose section by a plane parallel to OXY is an ellipse whose equal conjugate diameters are parallel to OX and OY.
is
that the projections of the generators of one system on the tangent plane at any point envelope a conic. Take the generators in the given tangent plane as OX and OY, and the normal at O as OZ. The plane z = \y is a tangent plane, (97), and the projection on OXY of the second generator in which it meets the surface has equations
Ex.
5.
Shew
of a hyperboloid
Whence
is
the conic
= 0,
(gx +fy + w)
= %chxy,
Properties of a given generating line. If we have a system of rectangular axes in which the cc-axis is a generator and the 0-axis is the normal at the origin,
*113.
the equation to the hyperboloid
is
of the form,
by
or
168
COOKDINATE GEOMETEY
of generating lines are given
[CH. ix.
The systems
by
= 0. The
(a, 0, 0) is
given by
~~
at (a, 0, 0)
is
Its equation is
Jioiy
+ z (go. + w) = 0.
0,
Let
P, (oc,
0,
0),
P', (a',
0)
at P
and
*
Therefore
constant for
lf
-r
if
is
the point
(->T~^>
>
CP-CP'
)'
is
all
through OX. C OX. If the origin is taken at the central point, the equation (1) must take the form oca' = constant, and therefore = 0, and oux'= w*/h*. The equation to the conicoid <7 when OX is a generator and O is the central point, OZ is
the normal at O, and the axes are rectangular,
is
pairs of perpendicular tangent planes is called the central point of the generator
therefore
by
Ex.
1.
to a conicoid at points of a
0, 0)
given generator. Taking axes as above, the equations to the normal at (a,
are
X ~~ CL
=Z
3L
Ao.
and
L.
The
is
It has
OX and OZ as generators,
Ex. 2. The anharmonic ratio of four tangent planes through the same generator is the anharmonic ratio of their points of contact. The tangent plane at (oir, 0, 0) is kcLry + wz^Q, whence, by 38, Ex. 4, the anharmonic ratio of the planes is
(OL3
113,114]
169
Ex. 3. Four fixed generators of the same system meet any generator of the opposite system in a range of constant anharmonic ratio.
Ex. 4. Find the locus of the perpendiculars from a point on a hyperboloid to the generators of one system. Take O, the point, as origin, and a generator through O as Take the normal at O as OZ, then XOY is the tangent plane at O. The equation to the hyperboloid is 2 2 = by -f cz + 2fyz -f Zgzx + ^hxy -f 2wz 0.
OX
The systems
by
The locus of the perpendiculars to the generators of the X-system the cubic cone
is
*114.
The equations
to the
OX
belongs are
of
this generator
2/A-l,
c\.
Hence the limiting position of the shortest distance, as X tends to zero, is parallel to OY. Again, any plane through the generator is given by
This plane meets
S.D. if
OX where x = w/hk.
1-4/X 7 k=? ^,
(c
It contains the
^.e.li
ve
6)X
170
COOEDINATE GEOMETRY
s.D.
[CH. ix.
Therefore the
meets
OX where
b)\
_ w(c
Since x tends to zero with
X, the limiting position of the the central point of a given generator is Hence S.D. is OY. the point of intersection of the generator and the shortest
distance between
it
of
the
Therefore the
rejecting X
2
,
etc. is
Again,
C S
if
whence,
if
limit of the ratio S/0, as X tends to zero, is called the parameter of distribution of the generator OX. Denoting
it
The
by p, we have
2 w\
the central point and the tangent planes at and A' are at right angles, OA OA' = p*.
Cor.
If
is
.
Ex,
1.
If the generator
"
<
"
of the hyperboloid
is
given by
is
-c
"$!," prove that
<ft
'
and 6
.
"<" and
2
<ft t )
a2 62 sin 2 ( eft - <k) + <*2 c2(sin 2 2 2 2 (a sin <H-6 cos 22 22 d6 i ^ j that -rr = and deduce ^u
8in gfl
- sin
<H^
4.
114]
Ex.
tt
"
<f>
and
"
8=
-8,
POINT, ETC.
171
2abcsm
d> 1
<f>
-TT
rf<
Ex.
"
3.
Ex.
4.
If
is
#2
2
'
y2
7\2
Z2
2
==
is its
parameter of distribution,
D 2p = abc.
"
<
tho generator
parallel to
^"
2
is
x
a
u
'?
cos
O 2
T*I 1
= 0.
/\
Whence
the direction-cosines of the S.D. between the generator "<* of the same system are proportional to
.
-! C os<4
be
i
<ft
The
If
S.D.
a (cos
<
k sin <),
c.
O is the central point the normal at O is perpendicular to the between the generator and a consecutive generator of the same
Hence we
find
,__
c2 (fr 2
system.
- a 2 )sin
COR
<fr
by
<
<?(b
- a2)sin
<j>
cos
in 2 ^
+ c2a 2 cos2^
Ex.
6.
the hyperboloid.
The equation
by eliminating
<
to a surface containing the central points is obtained between the equations for the coordinates. It is
172
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
7.
[CH. ix.
Ex.
x*
of the paraboloid
y2
given by
is
y
2X,
11
~+f
,
z := T>
-^-ja^z
lie
on
Ex. 8. If G is a given generator of a hyperboloid, prove that the tangent plane at the central point of G is perpendicular to the tangent plane to the asymptotic cone whose generator of contact is parallel
toG.
Ex. 9. pair of planes through a given generator of a hyperboloid touch the surface at points A and B, and contain the normals at points A' and B' of the generator. If Q is the angle between them, AB A'B' , .a 2 ~" 7 prove that tan =
.
A
.
AB ~A'B"
Ex.
10.
is
point O,
makes an angle
where p
P of a generator, central with the tangent plane at O, p tan 0=OPf the parameter of distribution
If the tangent plane at a point
Examples VI.
line lx of the hyperboloid generator 2 "*=p' , and a
1.
+ my + nz + p
x*/a+y /b+z
2
0,
2
/c
=l
l'x+m'y+n'z-{~p'=Q
if
is
a
,
aP+bm2 +cn2 =p 2
2.
Shew
represent for different values of A generators of one system of the hyperboloid yz +zx+xy-\- 1=0, and nnd the equations to generators of the other system. x2 v2 z2 3. Tangent planes to -a+T5--2=l, which are parallel to tangent planes to
c2a 22
The
drawn
shortest distances between generators of the same system at the ends of diameters of the principal elliptic section of the o
frti
hyperboloid -2-Hr2~~2 = l
^ e on
cxy
abz
OH. ix.J
EXAMPLES
VI.
175
5. Shew that the shortest distance of any two perpendicular members of that system of generators of the paraboloid y(&r + 6 ?/)=,
which
6.
is
lies in
lines
lies
on the surface
yz+zx+xy+y+z^Q,
system of lines which
lies
and
on
The four
conicoids, each of
lines,
given non-intersecting
8.
u = Q=v,
u'=0=v',
Aw -f pv + A
V + /zV =
'
= lu + mv + l'u
lu + mv
-j-
m'v'
\u + fiv _ A V -f v I'u'
JJL
m'v'
9.
Show
that, in general,
can be drawn to cut a given generator at right angles, and that meet the plane 2=0 in P and 5 PQ touches the ellipse
they
10. If from a fixed point on a hyperboloid lines are drawn to intersect the diagonals or the quadrilaterals formed by two fixed and two variable generators, these lines are coplanar.
Through a variable generator #-?/ = A, x+y = 2z/\, of the 2 2 paraboloid ^ -;/ ==22 a plane is drawn making a constant angle <x with the plane #=y. Find the locus of the point at which it touches
11.
the paraboloid.
12. Prove that the locus of the line of intersection of two perpendicular planes which pass through two fixed non-intersecting lines is a hyperboloid whose central circular sections are perpendicular to the lines and have their diameters equal to their shortest distance.
-v
13.
Prove that
if
the generators of
it is
met by a tangent
they form a skew quadrilateral with two opposite angles right and the other diagonal of which is a generator of the cylinder
angles,
14.
The normals
y
to -3
+^--2=1
at points of a generator
meet
the plane z-0 at points lying on a straight line, and for different generators of the same system this line toucnes a fixed conic.
174
15.
COOBDINATE GEOMETRY
Prove that the generators of cue2 + 6y 2 + cz2 = 1 through
planes
[CH.
(4?! ,
y^
16.
/2
?&
of
-2-f-p--2
= lj
double the
by
17, The planes ot triangles which have a fixed centre of gravity and have their vertices on three given straight lines which are parallel to the same plane, touch a cone of the second degree, and their sides
meets the conicoid a^2 +6 y2 -f cz2 =l in six points, and the normals at these points are generators of the hyperboloid
f
19. Prove that the locus of a point whose distances from two given lines are in a constant ratio is a hyperboloid of one sheet, and that the projections of the lines on the tangent plane at the point where
meets the shortest distance form a harmonic pencil with the generators through the point.
it
The generators through P on the hyperboloid fL+2^ ^--i meet the plane jz=0 in A and B. If PA PB is constant, find the
20.
:
locus of P.
If the median of the triangle auv /3y yz=0, parallel to the fixed plane
21.
PAB
in the last
shew that P
8urface
22. If A and B are the extremities of conjugate diameters of the principal elliptic section, prove that the median through P of the triangle PAB lies on the cone
23.
A and B
9/2
-^+ TJ$
>2
through A and G 2 through B. Two hyperboloids are drawn, one through T, G,, OZ, the other through T, G 2 OZ. Shew that the other common generators of these hyperboloids lie on the surface
,
G,,
G2
are generators of
c\a
CH. ix.]
24.
EXAMPLES
VI.
17*
-=-cosa-sinoL, a c
and the other generators
points lying in the plane
of the
f-^ b 6
a
25.
If the generators
whose centre
is
O, meet the plane z=Q in A and B, and the volume of OAPB is constant and equal to abc/G, P lies on one
c.
CHAPTER
X.
CONFOCAL CONICOIDS.
Confocal conicoids are conicoids whose principal Thus the equation sections have the same foci.
115.
represents, for
any value of
X,
a^fc
*~
2
G>
'
XOY
Again,
assigned to
in the equation
and
being constants,
we
system of confocal conicoids. If this form of equation be chosen to represent a confocal a is called the primary semiaxis.
The
and
point.
Through
any point
ellipsoid,
pass three conicoids confocal with a given an ellipsoid, a hyperboloid of one sheet, and a
sheets.
hyperboloid of two
115,116]
177
The equation
+ + A -2 A OfSr C
ij
z2
-
r = l represents any A
conicoid confocal with the ellipsoid -g confocal passes through (oc, /3, y),
or
-X)-a2
2
(Z>
-X)(c ~X)
This cubic equation in X gives the parameters of three confocals which pass through (a, /3, y). Suppose that
>6>
c.
When
X=
oo,
a2
fc
2
,
c2
-oo,
c2
a hyperboloid of two sheets, a hyperboloid of one sheet, or an ellipsoid, according as X = X!, X 2 or X 3 As X tends to c 2 the confocal ellipsoid tends to coincide
Therefore the confocal
is
,
XCY
= 0,
x
ft
2 5
t
-5
+ r^r
ri
2
-
s*^
~>
=1
one sheet tends to coincide with that part of the plane which lies without the ellipse. As X tends to b 2 the confocal hyperboloid of one sheet tends to coincide with that
part of the plane
of the hyperbola
ZOX which
y = 0,
lies
x2
s
12 +
=1
hyperboloid of two sheets tends to coincide with the two portions of the plane which are enclosed by the two branches
of the hyperbola.
If
X = a 2 the confocal
,
is
imaginary.
The
above
ellipse
Ex. 1. Three paraboloids confocal with a given paraboloid pass through a given point, two elliptic and one hyperbolic.
BO.
178
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
2.
[CH. x.
Prove that the eqration to the confocal through the point of the focal ellipse whose eccentric angle is OL is
Ex.
(a
2
- b'2 ) cos V.
___ _
(a
2
- 62 ) sin 2a.
c2
Ex. 3. Prove that the equation to the confocal is of circular sections parallel to the plane
x=y
y*
2
(c
-a
)(a
-6
(6
2 -
c )(a
-6
117.
Elliptic coordinates.
Therefore
a2
-\
___
_
~
__
2
/
(a -X)(Z> -X)(c
-X)
o2
'
These express the coordinates a, /3, y of a point P, in terms of the parameters of the confocals of a given conicoid that pass through P and if the parameters are given, and
;
the octant in
known, the position of P is uniquely determined. Hence X 1( X2 X 3 are called the elliptic coordinates of P with reference to the fundamental conicoid x z/a2 +y z /b*+z*/cz =l.
lies is
,
which P
Ex.
I
1.
i
If
2
<Zj,
i
2,
t?la?+y' /b +z*lcf
=l which
are the primary semi-axes of the confocals to pass through a point (a, /3, y),
117-119]
PROPERTIES OF CONFOCALS
loci
179
Ex.
2.
What
coordinates,
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
Ex.
3.
/%
If Aj,
A/2
A 2 A3
,
focal to
Of
/?,
y),
prove that
b-a
'
p
b
- A 3)
a-b
_ A! 4- A 2 -f A 3 - a
118.
to
two confocals at any common point are at right angles. Let (x v y v z x ) be a point common to the confocals to
ty
cc
-5+f5-f-s = l 2
h*
c
22
l,
\ and A.
^
Then
Therefore, subtracting,
v
v
I
"/
\ /
"""""
vf
and
(x v
this
is
the
condition
that
the
tangent planes at
yv
%i) to
Cor.
focals
touching given plane. One conicoid contouches a given plane. focal with a given conicoid For the condition that the plane lx+my+nz=p should touch the conicoid
119. Confocal
vz.,
^ =
aX.
180
COOKDINATE GEOMETRY
[CH. x.
Ex. 1. given plane and the parallel tangent plane to a conicoid are at distances p andp from the centre. Prove that the parameter of the confocal conicoia which touches the plane ia pQ2 p 2
.
Ex. 2. Prove that the perpendiculars from the origin to the tangent planes to the ellipsoid which touch it along its curve of intersection with the confocal whose parameter is A lie on the cone
Two conicoids touching given line. confocal with a given conicoid touch a given line and the tangent planes at the points of contact are at right angles.
120.
Confocals
line
j
=Z2
V should
y*
V1Z viz -
Va
V _+ F +_ -X + -X + c ~XA^-X 6^
*
2
<*
fe
m
gives
two values
of X.
and
let
first
at
P,
(x ly
y l9 zj and the
the tangent
second at Q, (# 2
2 ).
PQ
lies in
Therefore, subtracting,
^2
which
is
2/1^2
right angles.
120-122]
PROPERTIES OF CONFOCALS
181
Parameters of confocals through a point on a conicoid. If P is a point on a central conicoid, the parameters of the two confocals of the conicoid which pass through P are equal to the squares of the semi-axes of the central section of the conicoid which is parallel to the tangent plane at P, and the normals to the confocals
121.
Let
P,
(x v y l9
zj
lie
on the conicoid
x2 v 2 22 = 1-5 -^ + j + c o a
/
Then
equation
x\ 2
or
X a2 (a 2 -\V
y*
i
6 2 (6 2 -X)^o 2 (c 2
-0
-A)
XX by the plane a
of the
given by
and therefore the axis is parallel to the normal at (x l9 y lt zj to the confocal whose parameter is equal to r2
.
Locus of poles of plane with respect to confocals. The locus of the poles of a given plane with respect to the conicoids confocal with a given conicoid is the normal to the plane at the point of contact with that confocal which touches it
122.
y
2
*
,
h2
,
'
Ix
+ my + nz = l.
182
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
if
[CH. X.
Then,
(,
y,
f) is
the confocal,
Whence
771
a straight line at right angles to the given plane. Again, the pole of the plane with respect to that confocal which touches it is the point
*;,
f)
is
of contact.
which
is
of contact
is
on the
locus,
contact.
Normals to the three confocals through a Three conicoids confocal with a given conicoid
123.
point.
Fio. 47.
pass through a given point P, and PQ, PR, PS, the normals at P to the confocals, meet the polar plane of P with respect
to the
where
p l9 p2 p3
,
122-125]
183
If the coordinates of P,
toPQare
Pi
~
PQ = r,
the coordinates of
Hence,
if
are
But Q
is
P,
and therefore
+ (^-\)(-2 (a2^Xi) 6
Therefore r = Xi/p^
124.
jT/te
a2
-\
^2
2
(6
-Xi)
+^
^2
Similarly,
tetrahedron
PQRS
with respect
to
Q become
Q with
a2
-^
A!
o2
Xx
>
-o c2
^-Xj
Whence
is
given by
-u
and therefore is the tangent plane at P to the confocal whose parameter is X t or is the plane PRS. Similarly, the polar planes of R and S are the planes PQS, PQR, and, by
,
is
Axes of enveloping
cone.
The normals
to
the
P are
184
COORDINATE GEOMETEY
common
section of the conicoid
[CH.
and enveloping cone by the plane QRS. Therefore, (78), PQ, PR, PS are conjugate diameters of the cone, and being mutually perto the
tion to
its
Equation to enveloping cone. To find the equathe enveloping cone whose vertex is P referred to
will
be of the form Ax2 + By*+Cz* = Q. Since the tangent planes at P to the confocals are the coordinate planes, C, the centre of the given conicoid, is
principal axes.
The equation
pv
p2
2> 8 ),
But the centre of the section of the cone or conicoid by the plane QRS lies on PC, and therefore its coordinates are of the form kp v kp2 kpp and the equation to the plane QRS is, ( 71),
,
By
QRS makes
its
intercepts
is
\/p v
also
equation
Therefore
ABC
l
\ A2
A3
r/x,
i/x 2
is
127.
Equation to conicoid.
The equation
will be of the
3
,
it.
through
to
OX
are
125-127]
185
and hence the equation obtained by substituting -p -PS for x y> z in (*) viz
>
rpv
>
Pf
,
X2
2
P/^JPi^-pJ T?
X3
I
Xj
X2
r>**__i\\
X3
+ M = 0.
A:
Therefore
Xx
X2
X
is
are the parameters of the confocal hyperboloids Ex. 1. If A and through a point P on the ellipsoid
//,
prove that the perpendicular from the centre to the tangent plane a c at P to the ellipsoid is Prove also that the perpendiculars to vA/z the tangent planes to the hyperboloids are
.
/(q2-x)(fc2-A)(^A)
V
-*
, ,
'
p
of the three confocals to
Ex.
2.
If
that pass through P, prove that the perpendiculars from the centre t the tangent plane at P are
V
Ex. 3. If #1, confocals to
>j,
/(q'
(A2 -A 1 )(A3 -A 1 )
'
Cj
a2
62 , c2
2
#3,
2
2
2 /?*
<x
*p
which pass through a point (#, y, ^), and p i9 p%, p3 are the perpendiculars from the centre to the tangent planes to the confocals at the point, prove that
Ex. 4. If aj, &i, Cj ; a 2 , 62 , c2 ; a3 , fc3 , c3 are the axes of the confocals to a given conicoid through P, show that the equations, referred to the normals at P to the confocals, of the cones with P as vertex and the focal conies as bases, are
186
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
5.
[CH.
Prove that the direction-cosines of of the cones satisfy the equations generators
Ex.
ri*
the
four
common
2 3
(The intercepts on these generators by the ellipsoid are called the bifocal chords of the ellipsoid through the point P.)
Ex.
8.
through a point P on the surface lie on a right circular cone whose axis is the normal at P and who sesemi- vertical angle is cos" 1 -^- r, v where A n A 2 are the parameters of the confocals through P. Ex. 7. If the plane through the centre parallel to the tangent plane at P meets one of the bifocal chords through P in F, then
A^
PF = a.
Ex. 8. P is any point on the curve of intersection of an ellipsoid and a given confocal and r is the length of the central radius of the If p is to the tangent to the curve at P. ellipsoid which is parallel the perpendicular from the centre to the tangent plane to the ellipsoid
at P, prove that pr
is
constant.
CORRESPONDING POINTS.
128.
Two
points,
P, (x,
y,
z)
and
Q,
i/,
),
situated
-2 -f r2+~2==l,
are said to correspond
~2
+ ^2H
2- 1
when
IT 3 fjS' c^T
If P and
are
any points on an
ellipsoid
and P and
ellipsoid,
on a confocal
on the
PQ^P'Q.
Let P and Q,
(x, y, z), (
q, ^) lie
ellipsoid
and
let P'
and
(,
rf,
')
be the corresponding
128,129]
CORRESPONDING POINTS
a
-=
18?
Then
Therefore
etc
and hence
OP ~OP' = A,
2
where
is
the centre.
Ex.
P',
2.
Q',
OQ', OR' are mutually perpendicular. Ex. 3. If P", Q", R" are the corresponding points on a coaxal ellipsoid, OP", OQ", OR" are conjugate diameters. Ex. 4. An umbilic on an ellipsoid corresponds to an umbilic on
P, Q, R.
are conjugate diameters of an ellipsoid, and OP, OQ, R' are the points of a concentric sphere corresponding to
OR
Prove that
OP
any confocal
Ex.
5.
ellipsoid.
and
Q are any points on a generator of a hyperboloid and Q' are the corresponding points on a second hyperboloid. Prove that P' and Q' lie on a generator, and that PQ = P'Q'.
P'
P and
(I)
planes
is
conicoid.
to the locus
is
The equation
of the
form
7c
(Ix
which represents a conicoid. 1 (II) The locus of a point whose distance from a fixed point is in a constant ratio to its distance, measured
parallel to
J
a given
plane,
from a given
line, is
conicoid.
first
That a conicoid could be generated by the method (I) was pointed out by Salmon. The method (II) is clue to MacCullagh.
188
COORDINATE GEOMETEY
[OH.X.
Choose rectangular axes so that the given plane is the xy -plane and the point of intersection of the given line and given plane is the origin. Let the fixed point be
(<*> 09 y) v~> r> //
line
)
have equations T = T.
I
Of*
I/
&
The
plane through (,
meets the
given line
distance of
in
(
the point
i/,
^,
V72>
Wf
), /
from the
line
measured parallel to
is
given by
{(HD'4-3)'}'
Hence the equation to the
locus is
which represents a
In
(I) the
conicoid.
equation to the locus is of the form and in (II) of the form X0 (u2 +^ 2 ) = 0, where
A0
and w = (),
is
= represent planes. In either case, if S reto the locus, the equation the equation presents a pair of planes In (I) the planes are real in
?;
S-A^O
they are imaginary, but the line of intersection, u = 0, ^ = 0, is real in both cases. These suggest the following definition of the foci and directrices of a conicoid
(II)
:
a conicoid and X, a, /3, y can be found so that the equation S A0 = represents two planes, real or imaginary, (a, /3, y) is a focus, and the
is the equitation to
If S =
the
first
species,
if
we
second species.
Lemma.
the
y,
s)=0
equations
^=0,
^~-=0,
=
^s~
represent
129,130]
If F(#, y, z)==uv y
FOCI
AND DIREOTEICES
189
then
^=at>+aX ^=&v +
is
^=+<?X
To find
the
evident.
130.
The equation
n
n
-x^-^^o
is
...(i)
the equations
represent three planes through the line of intersection. The three planes pass through one line if
= ~2,
The
line
<*
= 0;
or
X=
=
p,
or
is,
But the
given
by equation
of
any point
on the line satisfy equation (1). Therefore, substituting from the equations to the line in equation (1), we obtain
/j2
2
o a
(i)
TO
^1
an ^ * n ^is case
>
a=
190
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
[CH. x.
Hence, (i) there is an infinite number of imaginary in the i/2-plane lying on the imaginary ellipse
z2
foci
y = 0,
and the corresponding
(iii)
z2
There
is
an
infinite
number
-^_ -fL =
2
l,
(the focal
ellipse),
The
and
a2
therefore, since -* 2
v2
6
r2
19 2
c2
= 1,
the directrices corresponding to points on the focal hyperbola lie on the hyperbolic cylinder
X2(a 2 -b 2 )
s2(6 2 ~o 2 )
Similarly, the directrices corresponding to foci on the focal ellipse lie on the elliptic cylinder
which
lie
55
1301
FOCI OF ELLIPSOID
a point on the
focal hyperbola,
191
If (a, 0, y) is
8 -** a
+ a2 6 2
a2 *-*
IA>
v2 /
2
'
where the equations to the directrix corresponding to = 3= But the equations to the planes (a, 0, y) are x
through the
sections, are
line
#=
3=
Therefore any point on the focal hyperbola is a focus of the first species, and the ellipsoid is the locus of a point the
square on whose distance from a focus of the first species is proportional to the rectangle under its distances from
the two planes through the corresponding directrix parallel to the real circular sections.
If (a,
ft,
0)
is
ellipse,
a2
where the equations to the directrix corresponding to Now the equation to a plane (a, /3, 0) are x = g, y~*j.
through
P, (#', y'y z') parallel to
is
19?,
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
|CH.
and hence this plane meets the directrix x = point P', whose coordinates are
**
y = q in the
21
ir'
^VC""^/'
the distance of P from the directrix, measured parallel to the plane. It is given by
~'\
The
distance PP'
is
Hence any point on the focal ellipse is a focus of the second species, and the ellipsoid is the locus of a point whose distance from a focus of the second species is proportional to its distance, measured parallel to a real circular section, from the corresponding directrix. By the same methods, we find that the points on the
parabolas
9
(i)x = 0,
J^=-2*+a;
x2
(ii)
= 0, J*L = -2z+6 i/
These parabolas are
directrices
v2
\-j-~2z.
The corresponding
If
(0,
/3,
y)
is
yz-plane,
= a-6/ y f-lvH
,
6/3 \
ab \
a-b/
^i)
1,
a^
(z
y+ct). ' Y
focal parabola in the
V2
If (a, 0, y)
za;-plane.
is
130]
FOCI OF PARABOLOIDS
193
ab
Whence the
signs and
Cor.
species of the foci can be determined if the relative magnitudes of a and 6 are given. All confocal conicoids have the same focal conies.
Ex.
conies
1. is
focal
Ex.
2.
2 = 0.
Am. #=
hyperboloid
Ex. 4. If P is a point on a focal conic the section of the conicoid by the plane through P at right angles to the tangent at P to the
conic has a focus at P.
Ex. 5. If P is any point on the directrix of a conicoid which and corresponds to a focus S, the polar plane of P passes through S is at right angles to SP.
Ex. 6. The polar plane of any point A cuts the directrix corresponding to a focus S at the point P. Prove that AS is at right angles to SP. Ex. 7. If the normal and tangent plane at any point P of a is conicoid meet a principal plane in the N and the line QR, point the polar of N with respect to the focal conic that lies in the principal
QR
plane.
lines
Ex. 8. Prove that the real foci of a cone lie upon two straight through the vertex (the focal lines). Ex. 9. Prove that the focal lines of a cone are normal to the cyclic
Ex. 10. The enveloping cones with vertex P of a system of confocal conicoids have the same focal lines, and the focal lines are the
generators of
the confocal
hyperboloid of
through
P.
* Examples VII.
1. If the enveloping cone of an ellipsoid has three mutually perpendicular generators the plane of contact envelopes a confocal.
2. The locus of the polars of a given line with respect to a system of confocals is a hyperbolic paraboloid. 3. Through a straight line in one of the principal planes, tangent planes are drawn to a system of confocals. Prove that the points of contact lie in a plane and that the normals at these points pass through a fixed point in the principal plane.
B.Q.
194
4.
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
Shew
by a given plane
[CH. x.
confocals
5.
it is
that the locus of the centres of the sections of a system of is a straight line.
If PQ is perpendicular to its polar with respect to an ellipsoid, perpendicular to its polars with respect to all confocal ellipsoids.
Any tangent plane to a cone makes equal angles with the planes through the generator of contact and the focal lines.
6.
7. Through any tangent to a conicoid two planes are drawn to touch a confocal. Prove that they are equally inclined to the tangent plane to the conicoid that contains the tangent.
8. The locus of the intersection of three mutually perpendicular planes each of which touches a confocal is a sphere. 9.
The sum
is
any generator
of a cone
makes with
and of a cone focal lines touch a right circular cone whose axis is the line of intersection of the tangent planes which touch the cone and the and OQ.
along
OP
OQ
OP
11. The planes which bisect the angles between two tangent planes to a cone also bisect the angles between the planes containing their line of intersection and the focal lines.
conicoid of revolution is formed by the revolution of an foci are S and S'. Prove that the focal lines of the enveloping cone whose vertex is P are PS and PS'.
12.
ellipse
whose
13. The feet of the normals to a system of confocals which are parallel to a fixed line lie on a rectangular hyperbola one of whose asymptotes is parallel to the line. 14. tangent plane to the ellipsoid tf/a 2 +y 2/b* + z*/c 2 = l intersects the two confocals whose parameters are A and /x. Prove that the enveloping cones to the confocals along the curves of section have a common section which lies on the conicoid
15. The three principal planes intercept on any normal to a confocal of the ellipsoid a^/a 2 +# 8 /& 2 + * 8 /c 2 =l, two segments whose ratio is constant. Also the normals to the confocals which lie in a given plane lx-\- my-\-nz=0 are parallel to the line
i
Ix
TT^2
__
- my __ =
J3~-2
nz
^1
52-
16. The cone that contains the normals from P to a conicoid contains the normals from P to all the confocals, and its equation referred to the normals to the confocals through P as coordinate
...
CH. x.j
EXAMPLES
VII.
195
17. Normals are drawn from a point in one of the principal planes Prove that they lie in the principal plane or to a system of confocals. in a plane at right angles to it, that the tangent planes at the feet of those in the touch a parabolic cylinder, and that the principal plane tangent planes at the feet of the others pass through a straight line lying in the principal plane.
18. If tangent planes are drawn through a fixed line to a system of confocals the normals at the points of contact generate a hyperbolic paraboloid. Shew that the paraboloid degenerates into a plane when the given line is a normal to one of the surfaces of the system.
fixed points on the same normal to an ellipsoid are drawn to their respective polar planes with regard perpendiculars to any confocal ellipsoid. Prove that the perpendiculars intersect and that the locus of their intersection as the confocal varies is a cubic
19.
plane
is
a rectangular
is
confocals
a?
r-
+ 75
~r +
?/
z*
i2
.
a *)ylm + (a 2 -
= 0.
21. If A, /z, v are the direction-cosines of the normal to a system of parallel tangent planes to a system of confocal conicoids, express the coordinates of any point of the locus of their points of contact in
the form
where
22.
#,
6,
system.
a rectangular hyperbola.
ellipsoid,
its
If A,
a, 6,
is
c,
axes
v are the parameters of the confocals of an /x, through a point P, the perpendicular from P to
polar
plane
of length
(a
23. Through a given line tangent planes are drawn to two confocals and touch them in A, A' B, B' respectively. Shew that the lines AB, AB' are equally inclined to the normal at A and are coplanar
with
it.
are points on two confocals such that the tangent 24. If P and are at right angles, the plane through the centre planes at P and and the line of intersection of the tangent planes bisects PQ. Hence shew that if a conicoid touches each of three given confocals at two points it has a fixed director sphere.
Q Q
[CH. XI.
CHAPTER XL
THE GENERAL EQUATION OF THE SECOND DEGREE,
certain
the equations to loci, (tangent planes, polar planes, etc.) connected with the conicoid, when the conicoid is represented by
131.
In Chapter VII.
we have found
We shall in this chapter first find the coordinate planes. equations to these loci when the conicoid is represented
of the second degree, and then discuss the determination of the centre and principal planes, and the transformation of the equation when the principal planes are taken as coordinate planes.
Constants in equation of second degree. general equation of the second degree may be written
132.
The
Ffe
2/>
z)
or
f(x, y, z)
and therefore a conicoid can be found to satisfy nine conditions which each involve one relation between the constants e.g. a conicoid can be found to pass through nine given points no four of which are coplanar, or to pass through six given points and touch the plane XOY at the origin, or to pass through
It contains nine disposable constants,
;
How many
number the
131-133]
CONSTANTS IN EQUATION
to a conicoid
197
<
Ex.
2.
The equation
= 0,
is
where
a, 6,
c,
d are
disposable constants.
at
Ex. 3. The equation to a conicoid that touches the plane 2 = an umbilic at the origin and touches the plane lx+my+nz=p is
where
A,
//,
Ex. 4. Find the equation to the conicoid which passes through 2= the circle ^+3/ 2ao?, z=0, and the points (6, 0, c), (0, 6, c\ and has the z-axis as a generator.
133.
y),
The whose
n '
this line
is
r has
/3+mr, y+nr.
on the conicoid
if
that
is, if
F(a, 0,
y) +r
+OT
+n+ry0, m,
)-
Hence the straight line meets the conicoid in two points P and Q, and the measures of AP and AQ are the roots of
the equation
If
(i)
(2).
F(oc,
ft,
y)
= 0,
f(l 9
(ii)
z+ m
+n
= 0,
(iii)
m, n) = Q,
equation (2) is satisfied by all values of r, or every point on the line lies on the conicoid. The conditions (ii) and (iii)
n, and therefore through give two sets of values for I any point on a conicoid two straight lines can be drawn to lie wholly on the conicoid. They are parallel to the lines
: :
in
198
COOEDINATE GEOMETEY
.
[CH.
XL
cuts the cone f(x, y, z) = 0, (cf 60). They may be real, or coincident, as in the cases of the hyperboloid imaginary,
of one sheet, the ellipsoid,
134.
plane. If F(GC, /3, y) = 0, conicoid, and one root of equation (2) is zero.
The tangent
A A
is
on the
coincides
with P or with Q.
If also
both roots of equation (2) are zero, and P and Q coincide The line is therefore a at A, which lies on the conicoid.
tangent line to the surface at
A.
If
we
eliminate
Z,
m, n
line
and equation
(3),
we
drawn
The equation
is
is
may
A.
The
3F
3F
3F
now, F(#, y, z) be made homogeneous by the introduction of an auxiliary variable t which is equated to unity
If,
y
is
equivalent to
= 2F(a, = 0.
Ex.
1.
(i)
/3,
y,
*),
(Euler's Theorem),
(#',
y\
z')
on
Ans.
(i)
x\x'+yly'-zlz'^\,
(ii)
Ex. 2. The bisectors of the angles between the lines in which any tangent plane to z^ kxy meets the planes #=0, y = 0, lie in the planes
133,134]
199
on the
to the
2y+z
two generators through the point. (ii) the equation (i) and 4r-3y-f-2=0,
Ex. 4. Find the condition that the plane touch the conicoid F(#. y, z)
If the point of contact is (a,
/?,
Ix+my + nz+p = Q
should
y),
then
.zZL
represent the same plane.
+ tZj- =0, t
Therefore
and
3F 3F 3F 3F 3. 3/3 3y ._ =-1.=:^^= 3^ =
I
-2A,
say. '
Hence
UOL+V/3 + ivy + d+
jt?A
= 0.
And
since the point of contact must lie in the given plane. Therefore eliminating a., /?, y, A, we obtain the required condition, viz.
:
a,
A,
b,
g,
/,
c,
u,
v,
=0.
h>
m
n
g,
u,
I,
/,
v,
w,
rf,
w,
n,
p
touches xy = cz
if
m,
p,
Ex.
5.
Prove that
Prove that
AZ
2
Ix -f my + nz
=p
dm + np=Q.
l if
Ex.
6.
lx+my+nzp
2 2
,
i
touches /(JT, y,
z)
-f
Bw + Cft + 2Fwrc-h2G?iZ4-2H^tt=?
a, A,
,
where
or
/.
and
etc.
oc>
A,
o,
Ex. 7. If the axes are rectangular, prove that the locus of the feet of the perpendiculars from the origin to tangent planes to
Ex. 8. Prove that the locus of the point of intersection of three = mutually perpendicular tangent planes to/(#, ?/, z) l is the sphere
.
(Cf.
200 Ex.
9.
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
Prove that the plane 2y-2z = l
2
2
[CH. xi.
is
surface
=0.
Prove also that the lines of intersection of the given plane and the planes 2r-f 3=0, 2^-2^-f 1 =0 lie on the surface.
Ex.
at
10.
two points
common
If the generator is
*
2
taken as
.r-axis,
c'z
+ 2fyz + 2gzjc + 2hxy + 2vy + 2wz =0, + 2fyz + Zg'zx + Zh'xy -f 2 v'y + 2w'z = 0.
at (a,
0,
0) are
if
OL.
Ex. 11. If two conicoids touch at three points of a common generator, they touch at all points of the generator, and the generator has the same central point and parameter of distribution for both
surfaces.
Ex.
12.
Tangent planes
are
drawn
xc. Shew
to conicoids that pass through the lines #=0, # that the points of contact lie on the paraboloid
2=0,
Ex.
15.
If
u r ==arX+bry + CrZ+dr
r=l,
2, 3,
to the conicoids
A1
(ii)
are given
by
(i)
AjW
(ii)
A^j
ur
'
where
Ex.
16.
= a^ -f 6r/ + erf + dr
2
t
Prove that
u^ + A v
t
-f
2 \2 v i v z + Aa^2 2 = ^
^ = 0, w =0 at their points
2
^=0
135]
201
If any secant through A meets and if R is the harmonic conjugate Q of A with respect to P and Q, the locus of R is the 135.
the conicoid in
P and
polar of A.
If
is (a, /3,
x
I
a*_y ~~
P_z y ~~
n
'
then rv r2 the measures of AP and AQ, are the roots of the equation
,
m,
n)+rl+m+n
is (
i;,
+ F(oL
ft,
y)
= 0.
Hence
if
is p,
ay
and
Therefore
oc
i/),
/?
i;,
^),
3F
= 0.
Ex.
1.
to the r polar
(Cf.
of
70.)
^r
Ex.
2.
lines
q._iy ~~
__- y ~~
n
x
'
<*
__y ~~
___ ~~
I'
mf
COOKDINATE GEOMETEY
are polar with respect to the conicoid
,'dF
F(.r, y,
[CH.
if
XL
z)=0
3F A BF
.,3F
BF
=0 and
'
Ex. 3. Any set of rectangular axes through a fixed point O meets a given conicoid in six points. Prove that trie sum of the squares of the ratios of the distances of the points from the polar plane of O to their distances from O is constant. (Take O as origin, and use 54, Ex. 9.)
Ex.
4.
Prove that
2
A!
/!
+ A2
tt
2
2
+ A3
?/
2
3
+A
V=
t^=0, u 2
Q>
w 3 = 0, u 4 = Q
Ex. 5. Find the equation to the conicoid with respect to which the tetrahedron formed by the coordinate planes and the plane
is
0,
0),
(0,
Ex.
section
6.
All conicoids which touch a given cone at its points of a given plane have a common self -con jugate tetrahedron. by
136.
The enveloping
I
cone.
The equations
x-cL^y-fi^z-y
roots.
m, n) =
/
\
T <^l
U-f
Therefore the equation to the locus of the tangents drawn from a given point (a, /3, y) is
4F(a, 0, y)/(#-a,
y-0, z-y)
But
F(a+fl-a,
+ y-0, y-fz-y)
136-138]
203
4F(a, ft y)F(s, y, z)
2
,
A y)}
"I
3F
,3F
Ex. 1. If a cone envelope a sphere, the section of the cone by any tangent plane to the sphere is a conic which has a focus at the point
of contact.
Ex. 2. The tangent plane to a conicoid at an umbilic meets any enveloping cone in a conic of which the umbilic is a focus.
Ex.
3.
of a
the sphere
casts a parabolic
#2 + y2 + z z _ % az ~ Q
zQ.
Ans.
137.
equal roots used in the last any point on a tangent drawn parallel to the fixed line
From the condition for paragraph we see that (a, /3, y),
a^j/^z
I
iC
f
.
lies
m, n ) = (jg+ m <*+ w g)
Ex. cylinder whose generators make an angle a. with the s-axis 2 2= Prove that the eccentricity of 2az. envelopes the sphere x +y' + z its section by the plane 2 = is sin a.
<2
138.
The
a given point.
is
the mid-
the equation
F(oc,
#
,
3F_
204
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
all
[CH.
XL
in
Hence
/8,
y)
lie
The
which
Ex.
by
this plane is
a conic of
y)
is
the centre.
which touch
An*.
139.
The diametral
plane.
all
x__y
I
_z
n
is
lie
+m.
Ex. 1. Find the central circular sections and urabilics of the following surfaces
:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
y -yz-2zx-xy-4=Q.
/2
An*,
(i)
x+y-z=Q, o?~y+^=0;
x_y
(ii)
T-^ = 2
==:t
x =y
l
==
\3'
15'
(iii)
le^S^-S^
^^
15'
#+2=0, #+y+2=0;
Ex.
circles
lie
2.
is
bisects is
a principal
138-140]
205
plane.
whose equation
6^--
3F 3F + dx m^ dy
,
3F
dz
\-n
=A 0,
or
is
..
it
-i
-I
n*
(1)
Therefore X
is
a-X,
h,
h,
g =0,
6-X,
f>
9,
c-X
or
a,
h,
(7.
where D =
h,
b,
/
Or
if
As
etc.,
the equation
may
f
\j
T-
be written
This equation
is called
It gives
three values of X, to each of which corresponds a set of values for l:m:n, and by substituting these sets in the
equation
3
reduces to
)
(1),
\(lx+my+nz)+ul+vm+wn
we
the conicoid.
............ (2)
206
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
Find the principal planes of the conieoids
2
:
[CH.
XL
Ex.
(i)
(ii)
Ans.
(i)
X = 6, A = 2,
12,
3,
18;
(ii)
6;
141.
D = 0, then
.ind therefore A, B,
C have
Therefore
if
D = and A + B + C = 0, A = B = C = 0, and therefore we have Hence if the discriminating cubic has also F = G = H = 0.
two
zero-roots, all the six quantities A, B, C,
is
F,
G, H, are
a perfect square.
If the discriminating cubic has one zero-root, the corresponding principal plane either is
at an infinite distance or
may
''
to a fixed line.
For
if
A = 0,
G~
or
m_n
F
~C'
-_ =
N/A
m
N/B
n
=-=,,
v/C
(141). *
A, B,
/omx
are not
140,
The corresponding
by
the equation
and
is
at
an
infinite distance if
\/Au+N/Bt>+Vcw^O,
or
may be any
/y
~= = ===-->
In the
first
iy
if
;s
a paraboloid whose axis in the fixed direction, in the second, an elliptic or hypercase the conicoid
is
bolic cylinder or pair of intersecting planes line of intersection is in the fixed direction.
whose axis or
141-143J
207
Ex.
1.
(i)
(ii)
A=14,
^
27,
right angles to
0; =v^
jg
If the discriminating Case of two zero-roots. cubic has two zero -roots the equations (1), 140, when = 0, all reduce to X Jal + \/6m + Jen = 0,
of the
must be at right angles to the plane \/ and they may be at an infinite distance, (if ul or at any distance from the origin, (if
a parabolic cylinder and the axes oi normal sections are parallel to the plane
In the
first
is
Jax+Jby+\/cz =
in the second the surface
is
\/ax
Ex.
1.
(i)
(ii)
+ Jby + Jcz = 0.
X = 3,
0, 0.
The determinate
principal plane
is
x-y + z = Q.
If
= 2x/6r; - 3,
- 2\/3 -3 = 0.
is
Ex.
2.
If one of the principal planes of the cone whose vertex is parallel to the fixed plane
is
_?? m Cm
+-- +
I
m \l
----
208
COORDINATE GEOMETEY
[CH. XI.
THE DISCRIMINATING
144.
CUBIC.
real.
All the roots of the discriminating cubic are The equation may be written,
Consider
-oo,
c,
b,
+ 00,
2
,
+ 00,
-/*,
-/
+00.
FlO. 48.
(fig.
48), it
Consider
now y = <f>(\).
When X=oo,i/=oo;
144, 145]
20U
when
\=oc,
2/=-{(a-i
are real;
where
\/a-
&>
\/a
when
where
\/6
/3,
\/c
/3
are real.
Hence from the graph we see that the equation has three real roots, X p X 2 X 3 such that X 3 </3<X 2 <oc<X r
,
The above proof fails if a and ft, the roots of the = equation ^(X) 0, are equal. In that case, however, we have 6 = 0, and/=0; and therefore the cubic becomes
the roots of which are easily seen to be
145.
all real.
The
factors of
/(,
y,
z z z)-\(x*+y +z ).
If
is
+ ezz + 2fyz + 2gzx + Zkxy - X 2 + y 2 + zz) is the product of two factors of the form ax + fty + yz. Only
ax*+by
z
(a;
/8,
y.
For
and therefore
is
of the form
where
u and
x, y, z,
with real
=i
[(fcc
-f
a
)
J,
if
210
coefficients.
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
X and ^(\)
X = X 1 X 2 X3 are as follows
,
,
[c. XL
of b
6-X,
5
Hence f(x,
according as
coefficients
y, z)
\(x
,
L%2 M 2 ^2
X = X1
,
t>
X2
or
X3
The
to
factors
with real
root,
correspond
therefore
the
mean
X2
(Cf.
93.)
To find the 146. Conditions for equal roots. tions that the discriminating cubic should have,
roots equal,
(ii)
condi(i)
two
The cubic
is
X, h,
9>
h,
g
c
= 0.
6-X,
f>
/ -*i
Therefore, as in
141, if
is
sign.
If
is
and
and therefore
(&-X)(c-X)=/
2
,
(c-\)(a-\)=g\\
........
'
also
Any
(c
_A)(a-X)=<7
(a-\)(b-\) = W,
(a-X)/=^,
(c-\)h=fg,
(A')
-X)(a-X) =
2
,
(c')
145,146]
is
211
For
if (A') is
given, substi-
(b-\)g = hf,
(c-\)h=fg,
2
.
whence
Therefore,
X,
if
(6-X)(c-X)=/
is
/, g,
is zero,
and we have
hf-- r c
fy
-7-
/
or
^
9
F
>
X=^=-= T .................. h f
ff
If /, one of the three quantities /, (/, h, is zero, then, from (A), X b or c. If X 6, then A 0, and
If
\ = c, then
(7
= 0, and
is zero,
another
or
or
The equations (1) and (2) give the conditions for a of equal roots and the value of the roots in each case.
(ii)
pair
equation
0,
or
(a-X)+(6-X)+(c-X)=0.
But,
by
(A),
Therefore X = a = 6 = c, and /= g
this case
h = 0.
The
conicoid in
must be a sphere.
212
147.
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
The
[CH. xi.
We
al+hm+fin_hl+bm+fn_gl+fm+cn_ A) ~~ m ~ n ~ I
or
?n = n
21
*dl
'dm
= *dn = A, 2m 5 2n
If \
I,
is
m, n
of the direction-cosines of
a principal
direction,
X=/(Z, m, n).
21
2m 2n
o/ 2 2(/
+m
.
> 2
+7i
?\ 2
2%e principal directions corresponding to two distinct roots of the discriminating cubic are at right
148.
angles. If X x>
X 2 are the
roots,
and
l)
l)
'
2,
2>
n2
are the
\l
=z^j~>
etc.;
2^X2 =
etc.
and therefore
which proves the proposition.
149. Oases of equal roots,
(i)
If
X2 = X3
"dL
is
satisfied
by the
147-149]
213
and
A 2 = a-
= &-=c/
9
'l
gl 2
all
become
since the
And
sum
>
-i
- \) l + hm + g^ =
l
may
be written
to
\ therefore give
The
single to X 2 is the condition that the equation corresponding n 2 should be at right directions given by gh hf:fg, 12 2
:
which determine a
angles. If we
have
/i
A 2 = X 3 = a, # = 0,
= 0, and (6-aXc-a)^/2
\ are
If
X 2 = X 3 = 0,
be
then
D = 0,
ab = /t2
;
ca = g*,
X! are
= 0,
214
If
COORDINATE GEOMETKY
[CH.
XL
the discriminating cubic has three equal roots, any direction is a principal direction. For X = c6 = 6 = c, and /=<;=: /i = 0, and the equations for principal directions
(ii)
reduce to
_m_n
is
The reason
to
it.
is
obvious.
To sum
the
equations of
147,
which
determine the principal directions. Therefore in all cases we can transform the equation, taking as new rectangular
axes three lines through the origin whose direction-cosines satisfy the equations
"dl
_ ~~
__
'dm
_^
'
where X
150.
is
Transformation of f(x,
z).
3,
2 X3 2 /(#> 2A z) transforms into A^-f X 2 j; n2 Let o 0*7, o have direction-cosines l v v 7i t Z2 2 to the roots X 1? X 2 X 3 of the cubia TI s S corresponding
.
m
,
etc.
etc.
We
have also
And
similarly,
149-151]
215
Hence, multiplying by
respectively
and adding,
or
Ex.
1.
(i)
f(x,y,z)
In Ex.
(i),
140,
8,ry
transforms into 6
2 -f 1 2rj
+ 18f*.
2
.
In Ex.
2
1, (i),
142,
2o;2 -f
20y
2
transforms into 14
-f26r;
(iii)
In Ex.
2
143,
^ +y +z -2yz+2zx-2jcy transforms
Ex.
2.
into 3
2
.
THE CENTRE.
151.
If there is
is
any point
P',
on a conicoid and PO is produced its own length to P' is also on the conicoid, O is a centre of the conicoid.
If the origin is at a centre, the coefficients of the equation to the conicoid are zero. Let the equation be
f(x, y,
x, y>
z in
Then
if
is
(-#',
-i/', -z'),
and
/(&', y',
f(x', y',
Therefore
...................... (1)
satisfied
by an
infinite
number
of values of
we must have
216
152.
COOEDINATE GEOMETEY
To determine
the centres of the conicoid
[CH.
XL
F(x,y,z) = Q.
Let (a, /8, y) be a centre. and the equation becomes
F(X+OL,
or
f(x, y, 2
Change the
origin to (a,
/8,
y)
)+^+2/^g+z^;+F(a,
0, y) = 0.
Cor.
The equation
to
is
of the
form
The central
1
planes.
The equations
f
^p
2
1
^ = aa>+%+fl *+ u==0
................... (!)
~-/^+%+/^+^ = 0,
................... (2)
represent planes which we may call the central planes. Any point common to the central planes is a centre.
Multiply equations
by
A, H,
respectively
and add
then, since
= D and
/iA
+ &H+/G = 0,
etc.,
-D
f*.
.f
i
Similarly,
y=
Lji/ M/
p/t.
z-
We
I.
cases, (cf.
45) :
(ellipsoid,
hyper-
boloid, or cone).
152-154]
II.
THE CENTRES
single centre at
infinite distance,
217
D = 0,
an (paraboloid),
AU+I
ill.
D = 0,
line of centres at
(elliptic
or hy-
finite distance,
perbolic cy-
(central
pair of intersect-
linder,
ing planes),
IV. A, B, C,
F, G, H,
line of centres at
infinite
an (parabolic cylinder).
all zero,
distance,
fu=f=gv,
V. A, B, C,
F, G,
H,
plane
of
centres,
(pair of parallel
planes).
all zero,
(central
planes
coincident,)
If is at a centre. a centre (a, (3, y) at a finite distance, and the conicoid has the origin is changed to it, the equation becomes 154.
or, since
W
f(x, y,
3F
- do
Cor.
If F(#, y, z)
= represents a cone, S
and
218
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
1.
(i)
(ii)
[CH.
XL
Ex.
conicoids,
14#2 +14# 2 +82 2 -4#2-42.r-8^+18.r- 18^+5=0, 3#2 + 53/ 2 + 332 -2.?/2+22,r~2.r?/ + 2.r + 123/4-102 + 20=0,
(iii) 2.r
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
+ 20/ + 182 2 -12#2 + 12.r# + 22.r + 6y-22-2=0, 5x +26y*+Wz* + 4yz+l4:ZJC + 6xy-8x -18y- 102 + 4=0, #2 +#2 + 22 -2y2 + 22.r-2ji#-2a7-4#- 22 + 3=0, #2 +#2 + 22 -2j/2 + 22,r-2,ry-2,r + 23/-22--3=0.
2
An*,
(i)
(-g,
g, o),
(ii)
(iii)
-^-=f =|, 3 1 y
*z| =B -2 =s ?2 11 lo
1
the line of
is
(vi)
,r-y+2=l
the
(ii)
is
(i)
and
Ex. 3. If the origin is changed to (5, 0, -3), or to any point on the line of centres, the equation (iv) becomes
Ex.
4.
ellipses
Prove that the centres of conicoids that pass through the 2 2 ^/a 2 +2 /c =l, y=0 lie on the lines
;
Ex. 5. The locus of the centres of conicoids that pass through two given straight lines and two given points is a straight line.
Ex.
6.
If F(,r,
;/, 2,
3F ~ 3F == 3F == 3F == n
5
5~~ ox
^~
oy
T~ oz
"rvl
U-
ot
Ex. 7. Through the sections of a system of confocals by one of the principal planes and by a given plane, cones are described. Prove that tneir vertices lie on a conic.
Ex.
circle
8.
Prove that the centres of conicoids that pass through the OZ as a generator, he on the cylinder
conicoid touches the axes (rectangular) at the fixed
Ex.
0), (0, 6, 0), (0, 0, c), and its section by the plane is a circle. that its centre lies on the line
through
Shew
Ex. 10. Shew that the locus of the centres of conicoids which touch the plane 2=0 at an umbilic at the origin, touch the plane #=rt and pass through a fixed point on the 2-axis, is a conicoid which touches the plane 2=0 at an umbilic.
155]
219
Ex.
y =0.
Ex. 12. Find the locus of the centres of conicoids that pass through two conies which have two common points.
I).
The discriminating cubic has three non-zero roots, A 1? A 2 A 3 and there are three determinate principal directions, (A^Ag^Ag), or three directions that can be taken The lines as principal directions, (Ag- A 3 or A 1 = A 2 = A 3 ).
,
, ,
through the centre in these directions are the principal axes of the surface. They are the lines of intersection
of the principal planes.
Take these
lines as coordinate
a hyperboloid of one sheet, a hyperboloid of two sheets, or a sphere, if If S = 0, the surface is a cone.
is
The surface
thus an
ellipsoid,
Ex
1.
tf+y^+z^-fyz-^zx-Zxy-Sx-ty is
--^-, - -
4,
2 a9
-/^,
say
#--z-3=0,
# = 1,
'
These give
S
is
y=
1,
2=-!.
therefore
re-
Appendix, p.
220
Note.
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
[CH. xi.
If the roots of the discriminating cubic cannot be found by be determined by a corollary of Descartes' inspection, their signs may Rule of Signs "If the roots of /(A)=0 are all real, the number of In positive roots is equal to the number of changes of sign in /(A)." the above case, /(A)== A 3 3X 2 -8A 16, and there are two changes of
:
sign,
positive roots.
Ex
Reduce
(i)
(ii)
(in)
Ans.
(i)
^-f 2/4-4*2 = l,
-f-2/-4^=4,
(iii)
156.
CaseB: D = O,
is
There
a single centre at
infinity,
153,
II.).
If
^i> ^2> ^3 are the roots of the discriminating cubic, X 1 ^0, are the direction-cosines X 2 r0, A 3 = 0, ( 141). If Z3 3
,
m %
,
X3
hl^
^ H
Hence ul3 +vm3 +wn& ^=0. Denote The principal plane corresponding
(142).
by
k.
to
X3
is
at infinity,
wu Where
r the line
xu
^
,
>
OC
L m* we have
L =y 8=Z y=r
>
n* o
3
(op +W3 3^
^
2
^c
^cr\
3y
+ F((X
'
^'
y)=0
'
147,
may
be written
or
Therefore
any
line
in
the principal
direction correfinite
A s meets the surface in one point at a and one point at an infinite distance.
sponding to
If the line
= -. = ^
156]
is
221
y',
z'\
a point of
the surface,
BF
3F
3F
3F
2k.
(x', y',
z)
lie
(3)
But
parallel to r = F
I*
'
is
=
>
n3
Therefore there
the normal
is
is
is
-^-= r = ra 7i Z
3 3
OP
11
*Z
.
That point r
by
the equations
= 0.
^\C*
But
Fx,,z = $x
(1), (2), (3)
and the
To reduce the given equation, change the The equation becomes vertex, (#', y', z'\
y,
origin to the
or
f(x, y, z)
through the vertex in the principal has directiondirections as coordinate axes, so that o
lines
cosines
3,
s,
222
COOKDINATE GEOMETRY
surface
is
[CH.
xt
The
,
therefore a paraboloid.
Since,
from
3F
3F
+ W2
,
'
the principal planes corresponding to X x and X 2 pass through the vertex. The new coordinate planes are therefore the two principal planes at a finite distance and the tangent
A3 -5A 2 -f2A=0.
Whence
,
x X=
5-\/l7 A
2
,
and
is
v2
for the
vertex give
axis
is
Ex. 2. The following equations represent paraboloids. Find the reduced equations, the coordinates of the vertex, and the equations
to the axis.
^
(ii)
Ans.
(i)y + 3*W;
(1,1/2,5/2);
= 0;
157.
(1,
-9/4, 3/4);
153, III.)
zero-root,
X8 giving
,
156),
l^m,^ AH G'
=
or,
since
QH-AF,
156,157]
223
Q and the principal plane corresponding to X 3 is indeterminate, ( 142). It may be any plane at right angles to Fx = Gy = H#.
The
line of centres
has equations
Q,
ax + hy+gz+u
which may be written
uf
~T_
l/F
y ~G
1/G
vq
wh
_*
1/H
Hence
centres.
s,
3,
n3
Any
we change
f(x
,
the origin to
it, F(cc,
y, z)
becomes
y,
or, since
M
,,
y,
u zf v 2 *)+-- +,
,
Transform now to axes through the centre chosen whose directions are the principal directions, and the equation
further reduces to
where
rf-
if
If d'=f=Q, the surface is an elliptic or hyperbolic cylinder; d' 0, it is a pair of intersecting planes.
Ex.
1.
is
Whence
A = 3<\~, 0;
0,
a.
2
,
-^8
2
,
0,
say.
2m3 - n 3 = 0,
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
and therefore
and Hence there
[CH. xi.
k =*&. =
5
*, 1
a line of centres, given by 2# + by -f 2 = 0, y 4-2^=0. on this line is (-1, 0, 0). Change the origin to it, and the point given equation becomes
which reduces to
Ex.
(i)
(ii) 26a; -f
20/+ 102
6o;
2
-4j/2~16eo;-36^-i-52a7-36j/-162;-f 25=0?
axis
Ans.
(i)
(ii)
2^+3 = 2^ = 2$- 1
axis
#=y-l=z-l.
Ex.
3.
represents a pair of planes which pass through the and are inclined at an angle 2 tan~ a \/2.
x+3=y=z+l
158.
CaseD: A = B = C = F=G = H = O,
IV.).
There is a line of centres at infinity, ( 153, X 2 X3 are the roots of the discriminating cubic, x
,
,
If
If
19
m %
1
,
direction corresponding to
/t
\ 19
since
2 / = 6c,
2
gf
= ca,
and
=a6, we have
1
+ \/acn _
l
whence
And since ufvg^Q, u\fb v\/a=f=Q, or um^^ Let o Oiy, O^be a set of rectangular axes whose directioncosines are llt m ly ^ Z2 m 2 7i 2 i3 9?i3 7i 3 Then Z2 m2 nz
;
, ,
^s
(
m %
s>
149).
satisfy the equations for principal directions, The equation to the surface referred to o Oiy, o
is
therefore
1
+ vm +
l
by
Sreekanth
158,159]
225
Now
and we can choose
mm +
x
7i 7i
x
= 0,
2,
?Ji
2,
7i
to satisfy also
ul 2 + vm 2 + wn 2 = 0.
n 3l 2 )
v(m2 n^
7i 3 2 ),
+ vm3 + ^7i3
is
denoted by
wv
+ wnv
d
the
equation
to
the
2 X^ + 2^8 + 2^0 + d = 0,
u*
e;
or
1
X1
which
may
The The
xi
surface
is
= 2w = 2{(Wc~W5)H(Wa-Wc)H(^^
1
Case E: A=B = C = F=G = H = O, uf=vg=wh. There is a plane of centres, ( 153, V.). As in Case D, X 1 = a + 6+c, A 2 = X 3 = 0, and
159.
_
Jo,
\/5
*Jc
But
since
^/= vg = w/i, u_
\/a
t;
ti;
\/6
%/c'
and therefore
is
226
160.
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
[CH.
XL
Reduction when terms of second degree are a perfect square. The following method of reduction is applicable to Cases D and E, and is the most suitable
coefficients in the
Since
A = B = C = 0,
f(x, y, z)
is
a perfect square.
Hence
vy + 2wz + d.
If,
ni
/ii
/lii
+ Jby + Jcz) + d = 0,
and represents a pair of
parallel planes.
But
if,
(Case D),
-^ =-/=>
the equation
may
be written
Now
A^
as
new
=0,
17
= 0,
A and
so that
N/a
+ +c
fe
to
(a + 6 + c) =
identity,
But,
by Lagrange's
160, 161]
227
may
be written
Ex.
x*
+
2
y*+z*
(ii) 9o7
2
An*,
(i) 6,r
-2V6tf-3=0,
x*=
161.
Summary
In the reduction
of the general equation of the second degree with numerical coefficients the following order of procedure is generally the most convenient
:
If the
proceed as in 160. If the terms of second degree do not form a perfect square, solve the discriminating cubic.
If
the three roots are different from zero, find the centre
^C"
"x-^CT
(<*>
&
^C*
= 0, and
the
reduced equation
If one root,
X8
is zero, find Z3 ,
s,
n3 from two
,
of the
k.
equations
~
Ov*
= ^- =
C/TTi'Q
^= ^^3
0.
If
fc
= 0,
there
is
the equations *
on
it
any point
228
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
Reduce the following equations
:
[CH.
XL
Ex.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)
(viii)
(ix)
(x)
5^+26y +102 +4y0+142jp+6^y-8^-18y- 10^+4=0, 4#2 + 9y2 + 3632 -36yz + 24^-12^/-10^+15y-302 + 6= 2 lly +14y*+8^ + 14^-6#-16# + 2z-2=0, 2^2 -7^2 + 222 -10^-8^-10^+6jr+ 12^-62 + 5=0.
2 (i) 3,*
2 2 +2y +6* =l,
Ans.
(ii)
14a?2 +26/==2x/9]2,
(iii) ( v)
(iv) (vi)
(viii)
(vii)
(ix)
-12^2 =l,
(x) x* +
2/ - 4* 2 = 0. two
of the roots of the
If
discriminating cubic are equal and not zero, the equation = reduces to F(x, y, z)
+ = 0, .................... (i)
or
or
X 1 (a?+y 8 )+2fe =
................... (ii)
A^+^Hd'^O
The surface
is
.................... (iii)
therefore,
(ii),
(i),
an
ellipsoid, hyperboloid, or
cone of revolution,
a paraboloid of revolution, or (iii), a right circular cylinder. These are, if we exclude the sphere, the only conicoids of revolution, and therefore the conshould represent a surface of ditions that F(#, y, 0) = revolution are the conditions that the cubic should have a
repeated root different from zero,
viz., (
146),
or or
or
\ = a, \= \=
b,
c,
(6~ a )(o-a)=/,
= 0,
/=0,
h = 0;
......... (2)
......... (3)
(c-b)(a-b)=g
z
,
h=0, /=0;
gf
(a-c)(6-c)=/i
2
,
.......... (4)
162]
CONICOIDS OF EEVOLUTION
229
y, z)
And
line
therefore
any plane
CC
1i
+^=
'
The
is
the
is,
through the centres of the circular sections, that the perpendicular from the centre of the sphere
Its equations are therefore
if
Ex.
1.
ellipsoid
which can only be satisfied if ab=c, or (If <z=6=c, the ellipsoid becomes a sphere, and any enveloping cylinder is a right cylinder.) Using conditions (2), (3), (4), we obtain
or
or
l=m=n0.
m=,
n=0,
real values for If a 6 c, the second only of these equations gives the direction-cosines of a generator, viz.,
I
> >
wt
If
is
230
COOEDINATE GEOMETRY
to the cylinder is
[CH. xi.
or
Ex.
2.
the hy perboloid
Ant. 4(j<?+2y z -3z'i
+ ty - & = 1.
Ex.
3.
Prove that
focus.
represents a paraboloid of revolution, and find the coordinates of the Ans. (I, 2, 3).
Ex. 4. Find the locus of the vertices of the cones of revolution that pass through the ellipse
Ex. 5. The locus of the vertices of the right circular cones that circumscribe an ellipsoid consists of the focal conies.
Ex.
6.
'
If /(#, y,
z)=0 represents a
g
A
anglea
\f
Ex. 7. If /(#, y, z) = l represents an ellipsoid formed by the revolution of an ellipse about its major axis, the eccentricity of the
generating ellipse
is
given by
# -h b + c __
gh
a perfect square. Hence shew that the four cones of revolution that pass through the coordinate axes are given by ayz + bzx+cxyQ y where
9 sm z ~
444
sin 2 .
-a
s^ 2 ^
2t
.
b
cos 2 ^
2 sm 9 7r
&
cos2 &
~~
or
cos'
a TA 2
~~^
-
or
9
sm
2M
* ^-
cos 2 2*
v'
A cos j 2t
,u
JL
cos^^ 2t
9 v sin 2 .
2t
Ex. 9. Find the equations to the right circular cones that touch the (rectangular) coordinate planes. Ans. aP+y*+z2 %yz%zx2xy=:(), (one or three of the negative signs being taken).
1631
INVARIANTS
231
INVARIANTS.
163.
If the equation
to
a conicoid F(x
y, 0)
is trans-
a+b+c,
remain unaltered in
A + B + C,
value.
and
therefore
If
a+b + c, A + B + C,
the coordinate axes be turned about the origin so that f(x, y, z) is transformed into
now
then
f(x y, z)
y
\(x* + y
+z )
2
becomes
If
f(x, y,
z)-
represents
two
planes,
And X is the ivill also represent the planes. in both equations, therefore the equations
a-X,
h,
ff>
same quantity
h,
= 0,
X,
/tj,
gl
6-X,
f>
/
c
~*
In each the
coefficient of
roots.
Xs
is
unity,
Again becomes
if
the origin
is
changed to
(a,
/3,
y), F(#, y,
z)=0
f(x,
y,*)+
+y
232
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
of S,
1
a,
h, 3*
[CH. XI.
3F
-^W
h,
b,
J>
Iff 7\fi
f)
1
f,
1
3F
C>
2 By"
.
3F
3F
SF
2?v7' 6 OOL
Multiply the numbers in the first three columns by <x, )8, y respectively, and subtract the sum from the numbers
in the fourth
column
rows, and
a, h,
^7 ^
^,
b,
/
/
'
</,
u =S.
v
/,
'
u,
t>,
w,
c?
Therefore S
If the
is
axes be
becomes
then
transforms into
F(,
y,
0)-A(a
If F(x, y, 0)
X(cc
+y 2 +22 -fl) =
represents a cone
163]
INVARIANTS
233
Xf
'
Ji>
u
i
f Ji> c i
/*
u "\
>
w
/%/
have the same roots. In each equation the coefficient of X 4 is unity, and therefore the constant terms are equal, i.e. S = S'. Hence S is invariant for any change of rectangular
axes.
Ex.
a,
/?,
1.
If /(#, y, z) transforms into cuc +/3y 2 + yz 2, are the roots of the discriminating cubic.
>2
prove that
Ex.
is
2.
invariant.
Ex.
3.
If
+ 2^^-f 2A,ry,
at^
2 -f 6j3/ -f c t 2
remains unaltered.
Ex. 4. If any set of rectangular axes through a fixed origin meets a given conicoid in P, P' Q, Q' R, R', prove that
;
;
w
v
n\
pp/2
OP .OP
2
/2
/2
2'
1
'
are constant.
Ex. 5. Shew by means of invariant expressions that the squares of the principal axes of a normal section of the cylinder which envelopes the ellipsoid #2 /a 2 +#2/& 2 +22/c 2 ==l, and whose generators are parallel to the line xll=ylm = zjn^ are given by
Examples VIII.
1.
Prove that
5#2 -f5/-f 822 -h 8^ + 8^-2^ + 12^- 12^ 4-6=0 represents a cylinder whose cross-section is an ellipse of eccentricity
l/\/2,
and
234
2.
COORDINATE GEOMETKY
Find the eccentricity
of a section of the surface
[CH.
XL
line
x=y=z.
What
is
/(
)=l
if
-^=6-|U-.f
and
real cone
2
2
=0?
x 2 + az 2 = 2cy,
are given
-f bz
by
5.
triangle.
Prove that
ct/
m\.
az2 +by2 +
<
=1
at
its its
^-^-= -. m n
7.
Shew
Prove that
if
a? -f b 3
+ c3 = Zabc and
If F(or, y,
*)=0 represents a
as
3s
as
3S
-?ST-
of a
normal section
is TT
OH. xi.]
10.
EXAMPLES
if
VIII.
235
of revolution,
Prove that
F(x, y,
we have
and that
if it
we have
also
7 9 ^~
11.
'
The
z)
=I
z
are given
by
y,
=0,
a? ay
3F
where
F(,r, y,
a*
3F
3F
)=0
is
12. Prove that the centres of conicoids that touch vertex and at all points of its generator y = kx, kz = m,
yz~mx
lie
at its
on the line
13. Prove that z(ax+by + cz) + ouv-\- /3y=0 represents a paraboloid and that the equations to the axis are
14.
A hyperbolic
^=-; and
yl
=^ = --ao^sc
'Y*
t/
?=0.
Shew
a
15.
'
*= - h and
;
Paraboloids are drawn through the lines y=0, 0=A, #=0, touching the line #=a, y=&. Shew that their diameters through the point of contact lie on the conoid
16.
that the cone whose vertex is one of the foci of the ellipse 3=0, 2 2 #*/a +y /6 ==l, and whose base is any plane section of the ellipsoid is
2
Shew
of revolution.
17.
The axes
(
six points
a, 0, 0), (0,
of the conicoids of revolution that pass through the 6, 0), (0, 0, c) lie in the coordinate planes
or on the cone
^"
18.
circle
_ *2 2
+ "TF" + ~/"" a
i
22 *
_ ^2
4/
a/
*&
_ 7/2 V
xv
Prove that the equation to the right circular cylinder on the through the three points (a, 0, 0), (0, fc, 0), (0, 0, c) is
236
19
COOEDINATE GEOMETRY
Find the equation
to the paraboloid
[CH. xi.
which has
y=: Z -k
= Q, # = Z-f =
as generators and the other system parallel to the plane 2=0. Find also the coordinates of the vertex and the equations to the axis.
20. The axes of cylinders that circumscribe an ellipsoid and have a cross-section of constant area lie on a cone concyclic with the ellipsoid. 21.
x+ y+
y=
is
#=0,
b.
two
Shew
w
A
is
-f) +
y - M*=
22. A, B, C are the points (2a, 0, 0), (0, 2ft, 0), (0, 0, 2c), and the circle is circumscribed about the triangle axes are rectangular. conicoid passes through this circle and is such that its OAB. are rectangular hyperbolas which sections by the planes #=0, y = O, C and A respectively. Prove that pass through O, B and C the equation to the conicoid is
= 0,
where A and
such conicoids
/UL
is
~ax by-cz=0.
23.
Shew
that the equation to the conicoid that passes through the whose faces are
#=0,
and
is
y=0,
2=0,
j?/
is
parallel to the
opposite face,
a
24. Shew that the equation to the ellipsoid inscribed in the tetrahedron whose faces are #=0, y=0, 2=0, #/a-hy/6-f 2/0=!, so as to touch each face at its centre of gravity, is
3.r2
-^
Shew
and that
that
its
+ 3y2~ +
3^ 2
~?
+ 3?/2 + ~6c
ca
ab
~ +i _ a
its centre is at the centre of gravity of the tetrahedron equation referred to parallel axes through the centre is
a
lie
_4.^_4.. - l + 2+ 2 A
-2
u*
22
is
the cone
yV
zW
x^
CH.
XL]
of
EXAMPLES
symmetry
VIII.
237
on the cone
represents a pair ot that the planes bisecting the angles between them are planes, prove given by =0
26.
If
ax
<2
ax + hy+gz, F' 1
,
hx -t-fy/-f/z,
G :I
gx+fy + H- 1
27.
Prove that
is
#_ o.= y - /?= - y.
OH. XII,
CHAPTER
XII.
Any
have a common generator, any plane which does not pass through it meets it in one point and meets the locus of the other common points of the conicoids in three points, and therefore the locus is a cubic curve.
If the conicoids
of intersection of
two
conicoids
may
Ex. The conicoids zx=y2 xy~z have OX as a common generator. Their other common points lie on a cubic curve whose equations may be written xt, y = 2 z=t3, where t is a parameter.
,
Again, an asymptote of one of the two conies, in which a given plane cuts two conicoids, may be parallel to an
sect in three points at a finite distance, and the locus of the common points of the two conicoids which are at a
finite distance will
be a cubic curve.
have seen that three cylinders pass through the feet of Ex. the normals from a point (OL, #, y) to the conicoid
gp __ Q^
4/
We
==
ax
z__ti =
_ <y
L
by
zx(c
cz
yz(b
- c) -
byy+cftz^Q,
- a) - COLZ+
ayx =0,
xy(a-b)~ a
164, 165]
CONICOIDS WITH
is
COMMON GENERATORS
239 be
may
-c
One asymptote
of
any
--b-c
and one asymptote
of
'
any plane
-^= a
Hence any plane meets the two cylinders in two conies such that an asymptote of one is parallel to an asymptote of the other, and
the conies therefore intersect in three points at a finite distance.
The cubic curve common to two conicoids. Suppose common points of two conicoids S t and S 2 coftsists of a common generator AB and a cubic curve.
165.
generator, PQ, of S v of the opposite system to AB, meets S2 in two points, one of which lies upon AB and the
Any
FlO. 49.
other upon the curve. Let P, fig. 49, be the first of these points and Q the second. The plane containing AB and PQ meets the curve in three points, one of which is Q. But
all
points of the curve lie upon S x and the plane intersects S t in the lines AB and PQ, therefore the other two points
lie
upon AB or PQ, or one upon AB and one upon PQ. lie upon PQ, for then PQ would meet the surface S2 in three points, and would therefore be a generator
must
Neither can
940
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
.
[CH.
xn.
of S2
common
P move
generator AB at two points. Let AB meet the curve in R and along AB. As P tends to R, Q tends
limit
S,
and
let
to P, so that in the
a tangent at R to the surface S 2> and the plane of AB and PQ is then the tangent plane at R to the surface S 2 But the plane of AB and PQ is tangent plane And therefore at P to the surface S x for any position of P.
PQ
is
the surfaces S x and S 2 have the same tangent plane at R. But we have Similarly, the surfaces also touch at S.
proved,
134, Ex. 10), that if two conicoids have a common generator, they touch at two points of the generator. Hence the locus of the common points of two conicoids
(
which have a common generator consists of the generator and a cubic curve, which passes through the two points of the generator at which the surfaces touch.
Ex.
1.
The
as a
conicoids
............. (1)
-*.r+# + ?/=0,
............................... (2)
have
is
OZ
common
*.r.
given
common
obtain
byy =
generator.
find
this plane meets the cubic curve to the conicoids, substitute in equations (1) and (2).
To
Any
where
x #(5 + 20-*(* + 2)+2(* + l) = 0, .................. (3) -z + * + l =0................... (4) #=0, 2x corresponding to # = lie upon the common generator.
of intersection of the plane and cubic has, coordinates
z
We
and
(4),
#=*(* + !),
a variable parameter, so that we may take the equations (5) represent the curve. The points where the curve meets the common generator OZ are given by =0, =-1. They are the points (0, 0, 1), (0, 0, 0). It is easy to verify that the common tangent planes at these points are y =0, x+ y = 0.
But
t is
to
Ex.
2.
have
common
points in the
int
8(1-0
4* 3
+ 5*'
165, 166]
CONICOIDS
241
shew that the cubic meets the common generator at the origin and the - and verify that the surfaces have the same tangent point x=yz
,
166.
Oonicoids with
common
generators.
The cubic
curve
may O
be the points of the common the measure generator at which the surfaces touch and let Take OP as 0-axis and O as origin. Let OX of OP be y. and PG be the other generators of the conicoid S x which
Let
arid
50),
pass through
O and
PG
P.
Take OX
as #-axis,
and the
a=
parallel
through O
to
as i/-axis.
2/
Then, since
= 0, y = 0;
are generators of S 19
its
= 0, = 0;
may
= y,
equation
be written
(1)
Pia. 50.
since the tangent planes at the origin and (0, 0, y) to S 2 is to S 2 are y = 0, x = respectively, the equation 2 = ....... (2) 2h^y 2yy
And
to
if
ggi
points of the
242
COORDINATE GEOMETEY
[CH.
xn.
shall consider meantime the common generator OZ. case where g=f=g r From (1) and (2), by subtracting, we obtain
We
h)=:Q
>
......... (3)
clearly represents a surface through the common It is in general a cone, having OZ as points of S l and S 2 a generator, and in general, the locus of the common points
which
S l and S 2 is a cubic curve which lies upon the cone. But if equation (3) represents two intersecting planes, the cubic will degenerate. The condition for a pair of planes is
of
If 6 1
g)
= 0, and
hence
of
S 2 and equation (3) then becomes equivalent to # = 0, a 1aj + 20(gf 1 -gr)+2y(A 1 -A) = 0.
,
lie
upon a conic
in the plane
= 0.
If, also,
The plane of the generator of S 2 conic then passes through OX, and is therefore a tangent The conic therefore becomes two plane to both conicoids. one of which is OX, and the other a generator straight lines,
0^
is
.
= 0, OX
same consists therefore of OX and a The complete generator which intersects OX and PG. of the common points of S l and S 2 is then a skew locus quadrilateral formed by four common generators.
of the
If
all
points of
(3)
the
common
generator
becomes
which represents a pair of planes through OZ. If these planes are distinct, they meet the conicoids in two other common generators of the opposite system to OZ. If they are coincident the conicoids touch at all points of a
second
common
generator.
166]
EXAMPLES OF INTEESECTION
1.
243
Ex.
The
conicoids
2#2 -y* - 5*2 - 6yz - 3zx+4xy - 2r+ y -f 62=0 have two common generators and a common conic section. (The generators are #=0, 3/4-2 = 1 y = 0, z+,r=L)
;
Ex.
2.
The
conicoids
have
OX
for a
common
generator.
o?
of their other
common
Ex.
3.
points.
Ans. ar-f 1=
The
4s;
- Gyz -
(y=0,
Ex.
4.
= 0;
The
2=0,
^=0
.r=0,
3y~22=l
conicoids
have two common generators and touch at all points of these generators.
Ex.
5.
y -2y-,r-l=0
is
may be
written
Ex. 6. Find the points of intersection of the plane #-9y-4 and the quartic curve which is common to the parabolic cylinders 2 224-10^-3/4-26=0, y -2y -# + 2=0.
Ans.
Two
7.
coincident at (17,
5,
-7)
(2, 2,
-4)
Ex.
touch one another at all points of the common generator a?=y=e, and that their other common generators lie in the planes
Ex.
points
8.
lie
If two cones have a common generator, their other common on a cubic curve which passes through both vertices.
Ex.
9.
If
to a given plane
two paraboloids have each a system of generators parallel and touch at two points of a common generator of the
all
844
COOKDINATE GEOMETEY
10.
[CH.
xa
Ex.
z(a-x)~a?, x(a-y) = a? pass through a cubic curve which lies on the surface xyz + a?=Q. Ex. 11. Prove that if the cubic curve
y(a
z)=a
x
meets a conicoid
~t=3
y ~~t^~V
2
Z
Shew
in seven points, it lies that the curve lies upon the cylinders
G! ^yz(b
- c)-
2y + 22=0,
Prove that the locus of the centres of conicoids that pass through the curve is
and that
this surface is also the locus of the mid-points of chords of the curve. Shew that the lines
y y
22 a-b
2=
__.
;
a-c
b-c
22 - - 22
X=
b-a'
y c-a J c-b
through them and through the curve. Ex. 12. Prove that the general equation to a conicoid through the cubic curve given by = x g ^ fl
s
^
Verify that this surface
is
the surface
is
of the curve.
Ex.
13.
The equations
{
x = a^ 3 + 6^ 2 + c
is
^r
etc.;
2, 3,
oa\
which
it is
167]
INTERSECTION OF
14,
TWO
CONICOIDS
245
Ex.
determine a cubic curve, which lies upon three cylinders generators are parallel to the coordinate axes.
whose
Ex.
15.
_ X~
lies
where
=B^
3A
etc.;
4-
B 2 y+ B 3z+B 4
+ D4
If A, B, C,
each of the conicoids passes through two of the lines BA, AD, DC. The equations w3w 1 =^ 22 represent cones whose vertices are D and A respectively. The curve passes through A and D and touches BA at A and
,
u^u^
DC
The
it lie
2 (a 4
The cones through the intersection of two conicoids. Four cones, in general, pass through the curve of intersection of two given conicoids, and their vertices are the summits of a tetrahedron which is self-polar with
167.
intersection. respect to any conicoid through the curve of If the equations to the conicoids are
COOEDINATE GEOMETEY
[CH.
xn.
the equation S + XS'=0 represents a conicoid through the curve of intersection. This conicoid is a cone if
h+\h',
= 0,
v+\v'
u+\u',
v + \v',
w+\w',
and this equation gives four values of X. If these are \ 19 X 2 X 3 X 4 then (a, /3, y), the vertex of the cone corresponding to \ v is given by
, , ,
where S a E=-
etc.
ooc
/3,
y)
+^^
which by means
through Hence this plane is plane with respect to the conicoid S the polar plane of (a, /3, y) with respect to the three cones corresponding to X 2 X 3 X 4 and therefore passes through
7
.
of (a, {3, y) with respect to any conicoid the curve of intersection is therefore the polar
of the cones is the polar plane of the fourth vertex with respect to any conicoid of the system,
any three
their curve of intersection consists of two conies. If the points of contact are A and B, any plane through AB meets the conicoids in two conies which touch at A
and
B,
Take AB
as y-axis
lines
through
167,108]
247
a point on AB as x- and z-axes. Let the conies in which the #y-plane cuts the conicoids be
and
to the
0(JM) = 0,
0(2/,z)
+ X'22 = 0.
are given
The
by the plane x =
and therefore
m=m
(2),
and p=p'.
From
(1)
and
by
subtraction,
we have
common points of the two conicoids lie in two which pass through AB, or the curve of intersection planes consists of two conies which cross at A and B. If AB is a common generator of the two conicoids, the other common points lie on a cubic curve, which may, as we have seen in 166, consist of a straight line and a
therefore the
conic, or three straight lines.
points
two planes. In the first case, if the generators AB and AC meet the conic in B and C, the coniFor the tangent coids touch at the three points A, B, C.
lie
in
common common
plane to either conicoid at B is the plane containing AB and the tangent to the conic at B, and the tangent plane to either conicoid at C is the plane containing AC and
the tangent to the conic at C; also the plane BAC is the common tangent plane at A. In the second case, the
common
points of the conicoid lie on the sides of a skew quadrilateral and the conicoids touch at the four vertices.
248
COOKDINATE GEOMETRY
[CH. xn.
common plane
sections
The
meet
line of intersection of the planes of the sections will the conicoids in two common points A and B. The
tangents to the sections at A are tangents to both conicoids at A, and therefore, since two tangents determine the tangent
plane at any point, the conicoids have the same tangent plane at A. Similarly they touch at B. If one plane section consists of two generators CA and CB, the conicoids If the other also consists of two generators also touch at C.
the conicoids touch at their point of intersection, and thus touch at four points.
analytical proof is equally simple. equation to one conicoid, and
The
If
S=
is
the
represent the planes of the common sections, the equation to the other conicoid is of the form
If u'
is
/?,
y),
then
(1)
to the second
conicoid
is
xS a + yS
or,
ft
by
(1),
+ zS y + S + X (uv' + vu') = 0, xS a + yS + zS y + S = 0,
t
ft
which represents the tangent plane at A to the first conicoid. Hence the conicoids touch at A, and similarly they touch
at B.
170. The general equation to a conicoid having double contact with S = 0, the chord of contact being u = 0, u = 0, is
or,
since
u' = v' = 0,
xS a + ySp + zSy + S
= 0.
B.
Thus the conicoids touch at A, and similarly, at Again, three conditions must be satisfied if a conicoid is
to
169-171]
CIRCUMSCKIBING CONICOIDS
249
touch a given plane at a given point, and therefore the general equation should contain three disposable constants,
which
Cor.
it
does.
focus of a conicoid
is
and the
corre-
Circumscribing conicoids. If two conicoids touch at three points A, B C and none of the lines BC, CA, AB is a common generator, then the conicoids touch at all points of their sections by the plane ABC. Since the conicoids touch at B and C, their common points
f
two planes which pass through BC, ( 168). Since these planes pass through A, they must coincide in the plane ABC. The curve of intersection of the surfaces consists therefore of two coincident conies in the plane ABC, and the surfaces touch at points of their section by the
tie
in
plane.
When two
one
is
conicoids touch at aJl points of a plane section said to be circumscribed to the other.
If two conicoids have a common plane section, their other of intersection lie in one plane. points
Ex.
1.
Ex. 2. If three conicoids have a common plane section, the planes of their other common sections pass through one line.
Ex. 3. The locus of a point such that the square on the tangent from it to a given sphere is proportional to the rectangle contained by its distances from two given planes is a conicoid which has double contact with the sphere.
Ex.
4.
Two
in plane curves.
Ex. 5. When three conicoids are circumscribed to a fourth, they intersect in plane curves, and certain sets of three of the six planes of intersection, one from each pair of conicoids, pass through one line.
Ex.
6.
ellipsoid
2
5(.
#=8, 2=2.
If a system of conicoids has a common conic section, the them of any point in the plane of the
250
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
8.
[CH. xn.
Ex.
Ex.
If
common
generators.
The
the surface
at its points of intersection with the chord the plane z=0 in a circle, lie on the line
intersect
Z=Z Q '
jL_Jl = i_i.
aa.
b/3
b'
Ex. 10.
ellipsoid
A sphere of
its
^2
centre
+ ^2 + = 1 a* i* ?
lie
zz
'
Prove that
must
r X2
Examine when the contact is real and within the ellipsoid. Cf. 130.
when
the sphere
lies
wholly
Ex. 11. If a conicoid is circumscribed to a sphere, every tangent plane to the sphere cuts the conicoid in a conic which has a focus at the point of contact.
Ex. 12. If a conicoid is circumscribed to another conicoid, the tangent plane to either at an umbilic cuts the other in a conic of which the umbilic is a focus. Ex.
13.
Any two
fey
+ w2 = l
whose
vertices lie
have double
contact.
Ex. 14. The centres of conicoids which have double contact with a given conicoid so that the chord of contact is parallel to a given line lie in a given plane. Ex. 15. If two cones have a common circular section, they have double contact, and if the line joining their vertices meet the plane of the circle in P, the chord of contact is the polar of P with respect to the circle.
Ex. 16. If a sphere has double contact with an ellipsoid, the chord of contact is parallel to one of the principal axes, and the angle between the planes of the common sections of the sphere and tne ellipsoid is the same for all chords parallel to a given axis.
172, 173]
CONICOIDS
251
Conicoids through eight given points. An infinite number of conicoids can be found to pass through eight
172,
given points.
fixed points.
Then one
conicoid can be found to pass through A and the eight given points, and one to pass through B and the eight given Let the equations to these conicoids be S = 0, S' = 0. points.
S = 0,
S'
= 0,
represents a conicoid which passes the points common to the conicoids given by and therefore through the eight given points.
;
value can be assigned to the parameter X therefore an infinite number of conicoids can be found to pass
And any
points.
= = is a points of S 0, S' Hence all conicoids through eight given quartic curve. points pass through a quartic curve.
The
locus of the
common
Cor.
points,
One
but
the ninth point lies on the quartic curve through the other eight, an infinite number of conicoids passes through the nine.
if
173.
to
pass through a
fixed line. Any conicoid through the eight points is given by S XS' = 0, where S = and S' = represent fixed conicoids through the points. The equation to the polar plane of with respect to the conicoid S + XS' = is /3> y)
X,
Ex. 1. If four conicoids pass through eight given points, the polar planes of any point with respect to tnem have the same anharmonic
ratio.
Ex. 2. The diametral planes of a given line with respect to the conicoids through eight given points pass through a fixed line.
252
COOEDINATE GEOMETRY
[CH. XIL
Ex. 3. The polars of a given line with respect to the conicoids through eight given points lie on a hyperboloid of one sheet. If A!, (04, ftu yi) and A 2 (04 /J2 y 2 ) are points of the given line, ~ and we denote u c n
,
,
.
by P ai
and
^Soj+ySft+^S^ + Stj, by
S + AS'=Oare
The
then the equations to the polar of AjA 2 with respect to the conicoid
is
therefore given by
fltj
PP'
<ti
P O^r P'
o
ttl
\J.
Ex. 4. The pole of a given plane with respect to the conicoids through eight given points lies on a cubic curve, the intersection of two hyperboloids which have a common generator. Let A x (0.1, &, yOi A 2 (-2 A 3f (<x3 /33t y 3 ) be three points 72)* of the fixed plane. Then the pole of the fixed plane with respect to the conicoid S-f- AS' = is the point of intersection of the polar planes of AI, A 2 A 3 and therefore is given by
,
&
Pa t
+ AP ai = 0,
'
Po2
+ AP'a* = 0,
,
Pas
+ AP'a - 0.
3
The
is
hyperboloids
p aj p ag ~" p as p 03 _ ^j r
p ag p a^ "~ p r ra
03
Ex.
points
5.
lie
The
on a cubic curve.
174. Conicoids
S'
If
s = 0,
S" = 0, are the equations to fixed conicoids through the seven given points, the general equation to a conicoid
= 0,
is
S + AS' + //S" =
........................ (1)
fixed conicoids intersect in eight points whose coordinates are given by S = 0, S' = 0, S" = 0, and therefore
The
evidently satisfy the equation (1). Therefore all conicoids which pass through seven given points pass through an
Ex. 2. The diametral planes of a fixed line with respect to the coincoids which pass through seven given points pass through a fixed
point.
Ex. 3. The poles of a given plane with respect to the conicoids which pass through seven given points lie on a surface of the third
degree.
174]
EXAMPLES
4.
lie
IX.
253
Ex.
points
The centres of the conicoids which pass through seven given on a surface of the third degree. The
vertices of the cones that pass
Ex.
points
5.
lie
Examples IX.
1. Tangent planes parallel to a given plane are drawn to a system of conicoids which have double contact at fixed points with a given Prove that the locus of their points of contact is a hyperconicoid. bolic paraboloid which has one system of generators parallel to the
given plane.
2. Tangent planes are drawn through a given line to a system of conicoids which have contact with a given conicoid at fixed points A and B. Prove that the locus of the points of contact is a hyperboloid which passes through A and B.
3.
The
feet of the
lie
straight line
4. The edges OA, OB, OC of a parallelepiped are fixed in position, and the diagonal plane ABC passes through a fixed line. Prove that the vertex opposite to O lies on a cubic curve which lies on a cone
that has
5.
OA, OB,
OC
as generators.
variable plane
ABC
is
axes,
OABC
in A, B, C.
passes through a fixed line and cuts the Prove that the locus of the a cubic curve.
6. The feet of the perpendiculars from a point (<x, /J, y) to the generators of the paraboloid xy cz lie on two cubic curves whose equations may be written
1+**
shortest distance between the fixed line .r=a, 2 = 6, and the = generator y A, Ao?=z, of the paraboloid xy=z, meets the generator in P. Shew that the locus of P is a cubic curve which lies on the
7.
The
8. Find the locus of the centres of conicoids that pass through a given conic and a straight line which intersects the conic.
9. Two cones have their vertices at an umbilic of an ellipsoid and meet the tangent plane at the opposite umbilic in two circles which
two
Shew that tneir curves of intersection with the planes, each of which contains the pole of the other.
10. If a cone with a given vertex P has double contact with a given conicoid, the chord of contact lies in the polar plane of P with respect to the conicoid.
254
COOEDINATE GEOMETEY
[CH. xn.
variable plane ABC meets the axes in A, B, C, and is at a 11. cone passes through the constant distance p from the origin. curves of intersection of the ellipsoid whose semiaxes are OA, OB, OC, and the planes OBC, ABC. Prove that its vertex lies on the surface
12.
When two
AB.
is
common
generator
AB, the
13.
intersects
a given chord of a cubic curve. Prove that an infinite be found to pass through the curve and through AB, and that one of these will touch a given plane which passes through AB at a given point of AB.
AB
number
of conicoids can
The
z-axis is a
Prove that the equation to the conicoid which passes through thf curve and the z-axis and which touches the plane 2# = 3^ at the point
(0, 0, 2) is
14.
have a
common
generator
x=y=z, and
3t
+ 2'
1,
1,
1).
15. If two conicoids, C and C 2 have double contact, and the pole with respect to C l of one of the planes of the common sections lies on C 2 then the pole of the other also lies on C2
,
.
16. Find the locus of the centres of conicoids of revolution that circumscribe a given ellipsoid and pass through its centre.
17. P is any point on the curve of intersection of two right cones whose axes are parallel and whose semivertical angles are a. and CL. If d and d' are the distances of P from the vertices, prove that
e/co8a.rf'cosa/
is
constant.
18. If a variable conicoid has double contact with each of three confocals it has a fixed director sphere.
a Prove that two paraboloids can be drawn to pass through small circle on a given sphere and to touch the spnere at a given given point, and prove that their axes are coplanar.
19.
are the generators of a hyperboloid through a 20. OP and Prove that the two paraboloids which point O on the director sphere. contain the normals to the hyperboloid at points on OP and intersect in a cubic curve whose projection on the tangent plane at is a plane cubic with three real asymptotes.
OQ
OQ O
IH.
XTI.]
EXAMPLES
IX.
255
#-axis, the y-axis,
y = 0,
i(l pa iva
Ix+mz 4-1=0;
#=0,
l'y
+ mz + l =0.
vhere
a.
I'
or
I'
-4
(/z
'/o) (
#1/0).
22. Give a geometrical interpretation of the equation of the conicoid n Ex. 21 in the case when a~ = l'.
if the joins of the mid-points of AB, ; AC, DB ; are taken as coordinate axes, the equation to any conicoid kD, is of the form hrough the four sides of the skew quadrilateral
23.
Prove that
CD
BC
ABCD
vhere
ii)
is
A=-l?
a parameter.
What
surfaces correspond to
(i)
A = l,
24.
>ass
Find the locus of the centres of hyperboloids of one sheet that through the sides of a given skew quadrilateral.
of a tetraIf a conicoid passes through the edges AB, BC, the pole of the plane bisecting the edges AB, CD, AC, tedron, vill lie on the plane bisecting the edges AB, CD, AD, BC.
25.
26.
CD
BD
If the intersection of two conicoids consists of a conic and two straight lines through a point P of the conic, the sections of the coni:oids by any plane through P have contact of the second order unless -he plane passes through the tangent to the conic at P, when the contact is of the third order.
and a conicoid S have two plane sections S t and S 2 each touch S along one of the jurves of section. Prove that if S and S 2 pass through P, they touch it P and have a common conic section lying in the polar plane of P
27.
jommon.
arith
respect to S.
If
;
28.
Dj,
in
three cones and 19 2 3 have their vertices collinear intersect in plane curves, then C 3 C l intersect also 2 plane curves and the six planes of intersection pass through one
C C3
,
line.
29. If conicoids pass through the curve of intersection of a given conicoid and a given sphere whose centre is O, the normals to them From lie on a cone of the second degree, and the feet of the normals lie on a curve of the third degree which is the locus of the centres 3f the conicoids.
conicoids are inscribed in the same cone and any secant the vertex meets them in P, P' Q, Q'. Prove that the lines through 3f intersection of the tangent planes at P, Q ; P, Q' ; P', ; P', Q' lie
30.
;
Two
in
256
COOEDINATE GEOMETRY
[CH.
xn.
are along generators 31. The aides of a skew quadrilateral of a hyperboloid, and any transversal meets the hyperboloid in P u P 2 in A n A 2 , Bj, B 2 and the planes ABC, BCD, CDA, Prove that
ABCD
DAB
P 2 A 2 .P 2 B 2
32.
curve is drawn on the sphere jfi+yV + zt a 2 so that at any the latitude is equal to the longitude. Prove that it also lies on point the cylinder x?+y* ax. Shev that the curve is a quartic curve, that its equations may be written
and that
33.
e values of t for the four points in which if ^, 2 ^3? *4 a ^ e the curve meets any given plane, t^t^t^l.
,
ellipsoid,
S = 0,
is
S + AC! + MC 2 -f vC 3 = 0,
where
C^O
C 2 = 0, C 3 =
normals.
Prove that the axes of paraboloids of revolution that pass through the feet of six concurrent normals to the conicoid a#2 -H by* + cz2 = l are parallel to one of the lines
is (a, 0,
0)
and base
whose vertex
2
is (0, 6,
0)
and base
r2
in a parabola of latus
rectum
Va^
line
175. 176J
CHAPTER
A
XIII.
THE CONOIDS.
by a straight line fixed point and intersects a given which passes through a curve, and a cylinder is the surface generated by the parallels to a given straight line which intersect a given
175.
cone
is
curve.
Another important
may
be defined as follows a conoid is the locus of a line which always intersects a fixed line and a given curve and is If the given line is at right parallel to a given plane.
angles to the given plane, the locus is a right conoid. Ex. The hyperbolic paraboloid is a conoid, since it is the locus of a line which intersects two given lines and is parallel to a given plane,
(
50,
Ex.
3).
176.
The equation
to a conoid.
be chosen so that the given line is the 2-axis and the given plane the #i/-plane, the generators of the conoid will project
the given curve on the plane x = l in a curve whose Let P, (1, y lt t ), be equation, let us suppose, is z=f(y).
any point
(0, 0,
1 ),
of this curve
then z l =/(2/ 1 ).
The generator
of
is
we
Ex. 1. Find the equation to the right conoid generated by lines which meet OZ, are parallel to the plane XOY, and intersect the circle #=a, /2 +*2 =r2 Ans. x*(z*-r*+a?* =0,
.
B.Gk
258
COOEDINATE GEOMETRY
CCH. xni.
Ex. 2. The graph of csin#, from 6=0 to 0=2r7r, is wrapped round the cylinder x*+y2 *sr* so that the extremities of the graph Lines parallel to the plane XOY are drawn to meet coincide on OX. OZ and the curve so formed. Prove that the equation to the conoid
they generate
is
rtan"" 1
-=sin~ 1 ~.
C
Ex.
3.
Prove that
if
to the locus
becomes
(The locus
is
the cylindroid.)
FIG. 51
Ex.
cut
all
4.
helix.
The curve drawn on the right cylinder x2 +y*=a? so as to the generators at the same angle is called the right circular The coordinates of any point on it are easily seen, (fig. 51),
by
helix
lines parallel to the plane is the helicoid, (fig. 52).
to be given
XOY
which
that
Shew
0==ctan
-i^
where
^ atantx.
to intersect
OZ
177]
SUKFACES IN GENERAL
6.
259
Ex.
by
= 4acx,
(ii)
= yz*
Ex.
7.
Conoids are constructed as in Ex. 2 with the graphs of c tan 0. Find their equations, considering specially the
Ans.
r=2,
Ex.
8.
same angle, /?, and a right conoid is generated by lines which meet the curve and cut OZ at right angles. Prove that the coordinates of any point on it are given by
as to cut all the generators at the
where
177.
We
shall
now
surfaces which are represented by an equation in cartesian In the following paragraphs it will somecoordinates.
*/,
of the
nih
degree
may
be written
in
-9 i.z.o
= IN -f i,
say.
Hence the equation contains N disposable constants, and a surface represented by an equation of the nih degree can be found to satisfy N conditions which each involve one relation between the constants.
Ex.
stants,
1.
260 Ex.
If
2.
COOEDINATE GEOMETRY
M=O,
[CH.
xm.
A cubic surface contains 27 straight lines, real or imaginary. # =0, w=0, ^=0, 1^=0, ^=0 represent arbitrary planes,
the equation
contains 19 disposable constants, and therefore can be identified with any cubic equation. Suppose then that the equation to the given surface has been thrown into this form. Clearly the lines
^=0,
^ = 0;
^,=0;
w=0,
1^
= 0;
w=0,
w =0;
t
w=0,
lie
w=0,
^ = 0; w=0,
1^ =
upon the
lines, real or
Consider
now
of one sheet which intersects the surface It represents a hyperboloid at points which lie in the plane Kw+X.w { = 0. Now K can be chosen so that this plane is a tangent plane to the hyperboloid, and then the common points lie upon the two generators of the hyperboloid which are in the plane. Thus the surface contains two other straight lines. But since each of the sets of quantities u, v, w\ u v , v i9 w l can be divided into groups of two in three ways, there are nine hyperboloids, each of which has two generators lying upon the surface. The surface therefore contains twenty-seven straight lines, real or
imaginary.
178.
line
The degree of a
surface.
If
an arbitrary straight
is
meets a surface in
of the
nil
degree.
nth
degree,
F(,
17,
f)
= 0. The
straight line
whose equations
m
are given
n
(a?,
y, z)
by
y>
F(S +
^ y+m,,
+/,)-<>,
*)+M^+ m^+^) F
values of
p,
line
178-180]
261
n points. Hence the locus of an of the 7&tb degree is a surface of the n ih degree. equation th Cor. Any plane section of a surface of the 7i degree is
meets the surface in
a curve of the
179.
7i
th
degree.
If in equation (1)
(x, y, z) is
= 0, 2)
the point
on
the equation gives two zero values of p, and the line meets the surface at (x, y, z) in two coincident points. If therefore
c)F
3F
*dy*
3F
3z
fix'
are not all zero, the system of lines whose direction-ratios satisfy equation (2) touches the surface at (x, y, z\ and
is
(x, y,
z\
which
is
given by
made homogeneous by
the introduction of an auxiliary variable t which is equated to unity after differentiation, the equation to the tangent
plane
may
be reduced, as in
134, to the
form
Ex.
1.
of the surface
Find the equation to the tangent plane at a point (x, y, z) = a3 Ans. /# -I- r)/y 4- C/z = 3. r/f
.
Ex.
lie
2.
The
feet of the
upon a
180.
conicoid.
ratios
The inflexional tangents. Two values of the l:m,l:n can be found to satisfy the equations 3F 9F
32 F
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
formed by equating to zero the
coefficients of
[CH. XIIL
2 p and p in
The lines through (x, y, z) whose 178. equation (1) of directions are determined by these values meet the surface
in three coincident
points.
That
(x, y> z)
in the
contact of higher order than the others. They are called the inflexional tangents at (x, y, z\ They may be real and distinct, as in the hyperboloid of one sheet, real and
coincident, as in a cone or cylinder, or imaginary, as in
the ellipsoid.
The
at a
ih degree, and any line point P on it is a curve of the n through P which lies in the tangent plane meets the curve P is therefore a double point of in two coincident points. the curve. The inflexional tangents at P meet the curve in three coincident points, and are therefore the tangents to
the curve at the double point. Hence, if the inflexional tangents through P are real and distinct, P is a node on the curve if they are real and coincident, P is a cusp if they are imaginary, P is a conjugate point.
;
;
181.
The equation
=/(
n\
^ie
equation to the
surface is given in the form =/( */), the values of p corresponding to the points of intersection of the surface
and the
line
^_3r-y_- :? ~ m ~ n
I
( (
p)
are given
by
where
p=*>
3z
<?
= x-> r = ^~s'
30
32
32
SE=
>
=
its
(x, y, z)
has for
equation
inflexional tangents are the lines of intersection of the tangent plane and the pair of planes given by
180-182]
SINGULAR POINTS
inflexional tangents
263
Ex.
1.
The
are real.
One
therefore real.
inflexional tangent is the generator through the point, Hence the other must also be real.
:
and
is
Or thus
The
2 according as rt-s
0.
and hence
Ex.
point
2.
rt
- s2 = -
~4/'
inflexional tangents
3
(#, y, z) of
(i)
r?
f=4c,
*
(ii)
>?
=a
;
through a
3
.
Ans.
(i) v '
^f.azlf.t^ -2 2 3#
iz5=^ = tf 4c
Ex.
3.
Any
is
given by
u sin 3 ^
cos ^
==
u cos 3 ^
sin ^
2c cos 2 2^
2- c sin 2^
Ex.
4.
182.
Singular points.
If at
a point
P, (x, y>
z\ of the
surface
every line through P meets the surface in two coincident P is then a singular point of the first order. The points.
lines
P,
and are
264
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
[CH. xin.
the tangents at the singular point. The locus of the system of tangents through P is the surface
Singular points are classified according to the nature of the locus of the tangent lines. When the locus is a proper
a conical point or conic node, when it is a pair of distinct planes, P is a biplanar node or binode, when the biplanes coincide, P is a uniplanar node or unode.
cone,
is
The whose
six tangents through a singular point P, (x, y, z\ direction-ratios satisfy the equations
have four-point contact with the surface at P, They correspond to the inflexional tangents at an ordinary point of
the surface.
Ex.
1.
is
a conic node.
The
The
six tangents
^=0, #+2=0;
Ex.
2.
2=0,
the origin
is
a binode.
The
six tangents
#=0, #+0=0;
2=0,
y=0, 3z+,r=0;
#+2y = 0;
The equation
to a surface
is
of the
form
Prove that there is a unode at the origin, that the section of the surface by the plane 2=0 has a triple point at the origin, and that the three tangents there, counted twice, are the tangents to the surface
with four-point contact.
182,183]
265
Ex.
4.
The equation
of the
form
Shew
Ex.
OZ
has
ay + z(ax
prove that the origin
is a binode and that the line of intersection of the biplanes lies on the surface. Shew that the plane cx + dy=0 is a tangent plane at any point of OZ.
Ex.
6.
Find and
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
aV-6y=^(<?-^),
xyz=
(iv)
Ans. (i) (0, 0, 0) is binode ; (ii) (0, 0, 0) is conic node ; (iii) (0, 0, 0) conic node, (the surface is formed uy revolution of the curve 2 2 = (iv) (a, a, a) is a conic node. x(x* + 3y*)~3a(x -y ), 2 0, about OX)
is
;
Find the equation to the surface generated by a variable 7. c) and intersecting the circle passing through the points (0, 0, 2 2 z=0, # -fy =2a.r, and shew that the tangent cones at the conical points intersect the plane z=0 in the conic
Ex.
circle
2
(c
- 4a 2)^2 + cV =
a<?x.
Ex. 8. If every point of a line drawn on a surface is a singular Find the nodal lines of the surfaces point, the line is a nodal line.
(i)
(ii) (iii)
Ans.
(i)
#=#=0;
(ii)
# = ?/=();
(iii)
y =2=0,
y- 2.r=2=0.
Ex.
9.
on the surface
any point
(0, 0,
= 0.
two
real
Prove also that if r and p have the same sign there are u nodes lying on the nodal line.
Ex.
10.
is
(0, 0,
- 2),
have seen that the 183. Singular tangent planes. at a point P of a surface meets the surface tangent plane
in
We
P.
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
have other double
points.
[CH.
xm.
another double point, the plane contains the inflexional tangents to the surface A plane at Q, and is therefore the tangent plane at Q.
If
is
a tangent plane at two points of a surface is a We may likewise have planes touching double tangent plane.
which
is
at three points of the surface or triple tangent planes, and tangent planes touching at four or more points of the
surface.
Ex. 1. For the cubic surface uvw+u^w^Oj the planes M=0, #=0, w=0, ^=0, ^=0, 1^ = are triple tangent planes. The intersection of the plane ^=0 and the surface is the cubic curve = = consisting of the three straight lines ^ = ^=0, ^ ^ 0, u=w =Q. These lines form a triangle and the three vertices are double points, so that the plane u = is tangent plane at three points.
1
Ex.
2.
2\/2<y/=
two
Ex.
4.
by planes parallel to XOY are lemniscates. Prove that the planes z= c are singular tangent planes
'
to
the cylindroid
THE ANCHOR-RING.
Ex. 5. The surface generated by the revolution of a circle about a line in its plane which it does not intersect is called the anchor-ring or tore. If the straight line is the z-axis and the circle isy=0,(#-a)2 +*2 =& 2 (a> 6), shew that the equation to the surface is
,
+ a*~ 62 )2 = 4a2(#2 +y 2
).
of the singularities of surfaces the student referred to Basset's Geometry of Surfaces. An interesting account of the properties of cubic surfaces with methods for the construction of models is given in Cubic Surfaces, by W. H. Blythe. Rummer's Quartic Surface (Hudson) contains an exposition of the properties of various quartio
surfaces.
183]
267
Ex.
of the surface
parallel
Prove that the polar equation of the curve of intersection and the tangent plane #=a-6, referred to a line 2 2 to_OY as initial line, is r =4a sin(a- 0)sin(a.+ 0), where
Prove that the inflexional tangents at (a -6, r
0,
7,
0) are
#=-&, y\lbZ'Ja^b.
8.
sin
The tangent plane which passes through OY is oL=6/a and it touches the surface at the two points
0,
zx tan
OL,
2 2 (acos a, 0, a cos a. sin a), (-#co8 a, Where it meets the surface we have
-a cos a. si no.).
;
(x
2 2 2 +y 2 + z 2 -a 2 cos 2a) 2 = 4a%r +y) - 4a (a; +y2 + z 2 ) cos2a, = 4a2(.r2 -f #2 ) sin 2a. - 4aV cos2a,
Hence
#2 + (y
a sin ex.) 2 -f z 2 = a2
Therefore the curve of intersection of the surface and the tangent plane consists of two circles which intersect at the points of contact 2 2 a cos a sin a). (acos a, 0, a cos a sin OL), ( acos a, 0,
N'ON
is
ellipsoid
^j.^j.^-1 2 a 8
a
6
c
;
'
and lengths OA, OA' OB, OB' equal to the axes of the section are measured along ON and ON', the points A, A', B, B lie upon a surface Since the axes of the fourth degree, which is called the wave surface. of the section by the plane lx+my+nz=Q are given by
;
is
where r2 = ^2 -f- y2 -f z2
The
If the plane of section of the ellipsoid passes through one of the axis is an axis of the conic in which the plane cuts principal axes, that the ellipsoid. Thus one of the axes of any section through Y'OY is equal to b. The remaining axes of such sections coincide in turn with the semi-diameters of the ellipse y=0, x2/a 2 +z 2/c 2 = I. Hence the points A, A', B, B corresponding to sections through Y'OY, describe a circle of radius b and an ellipse which is simply the above ellipse
;
y=0
268
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
[CH. XIII.
=\. The circle and this ellipse clearly form the intersection of the wave surface and the plane y=0. The result can be immediately verified by putting y equal to zero in the equation to the surface, when we obtain
Similarly, the sections of the surface by the planes the circles and ellipses given by
Fig. 53 shews an octant of the wave surface. b If a c, the only two of these circles and ellipses which have common points lie in the plane ,y=0, and the points are given by
> >
Fio. 53.
such as
The wave surface consists of two sheets, one described by A and A', the other by points such as B and B'. The
points sheets
only where the axes of the central sections are equal. since there are only two real central circular sections, and the radius of each is 6, the only four points common to the two sheets lie on the normals to the central circular sections, and are at a distance b from the centre. They are given by
will cross
Hence
-==
and are thus the points of intersection of the plane y =0, as clearly should be the case.
circle
and
ellipse in the
If P is one of these four points, the section of the surface by the plane y=0 has a double point at P, and the plane y=0 is not a tangent plane at P. This suggests that P is a singular point on the wave surface. Change the origin to P, (, 77, ), noting that
183]
269
and hence P
a conical point. Thus the wave surface has four and they are the points of intersection of the circle and ellipse which form the section or the surface by the plane y=Q. Since any plane section of the surface is a curve of the fourth
conical points,
if
degree,
of the tangent plane with the surface will consist of two coincident conies, or the plane will touch the surface at all points of a conic. and R, the singular Any plane will meet the conic in two points tangent plane in the line QR, and the surface in a curve of the fourth and R. Considering, then, the sections touches at degree which
by the coordinate planes, we see that any real singular tangent plane must pass through a cdmmon tangent to the circle and Their equations are ellipse in the plane y =0.
of the surface
QR
easily
found to be given by
,
y = 0,
or
N/^lftp
ax
4- cz
by
77,
where (,
is
and hence the tangent plane at any point of the to OY, and therefore the plane
Now
6 2 (r2 - a 2 )(r2
or
-c')f-(r
on one
^
points of these spheres
Therefore the plane axg + cz=abc meets the surface at points lying of the spheres
lie in
we
common
or
ax+cz
Thus the plane meets both spheres in the same circle, or the section by the plane consists of two coincident circles, and therefore the plane is a singular tangent plane. The wave surface
of the surfac3
270
184.
COORDINATE GEOMETEY
The
indicatrix.
[CH. XIIL
If the tangent plane and normal at a given point of a surface be taken as the plane = and the 0-axis, and the equation to the surface is then
z =/(#,
y\
this equation
may
be written
where p,
q, r, s, t
at the origin
or, since
p = q = 0,
y
in the neighbourhood of the origin to be small quantities of the first order, z is of the second order, and therefore, if we reject terms of the
Hence,
if
we
consider x and
third
and higher
orders,
we have
as
an approximation to
This conicoid
cylinder
if
is
.
rt = s2
and conicoid by a plane parallel to the tangent plane, and at an infinitesimal distance h from the section of the conicoid is the conic given by it, coincide
sections of the surface
;
z = h,
2h = rx 2 + 2sxy + ty 2
which
is
The
given by
z = o,
rx
+ 2sxy + ty = 0,
and are clearly parallel to the asymptotes of the indicatrix. Hence if the inflexional tangents are imaginary, the indicatrix is an ellipse, and the origin is an elliptic point on the surface; if they are real and distinct, the indicatrix is a hyperbola, and the origin is a hyperbolic point and if they are coincident, the indicatrix is two parallel straight lines, and the origin is a parabolic point. At an elliptic point the shape of the surface is approximately that of an elliptic paraboloid, and therefore the surface lies on one side of the tangent plane at the point.
;
At a hyperbolic
184,185]
THE INDICATRIX
271
point the shape is approximately that of a hyperbolic paraboloid, and the surface lies on both sides of the tangent
plane.
At such a point
1. 2.
it is
said to be anticlastic.
Ex.
Ex.
y,
MHO.
Every point on a cone or cylinder is a parabolic point. Find the locus of the parabolic points on the surface
(#, y, z)
are given
*XV)
yyi
=0.
Fy*,
,.(1)
Fy*,
Fy
F,
Fx
But Fx
is
,
F2y Fy
F,
F,,
Fz
therefore
a homogeneous function of x, y, z, t of degree (w-1), and xFxx +yFxy + zFxz + tFxt (n \)Fxy etc., means of which equation (1) can be reduced to by
}
Fxx
'
Fx
FV *yy)
y*>
y*j y
This equation determines a surface whose curve of intersection with the given surface is the required locus.
Ex.
3.
and the coordinate planes are parabolic points. Ex. 4. Prove that the parabolic points of the cylindroid
lie
upon the
lines
-c.
is
Prove that the indicatrix at a point of the surface z=f(x,y) 5. a rectangular hyperbola if (1 +p*)t + (l +q*)r-2pqs = 0. Ex. 6. Prove that the indicatrix at every point of the helicoid Ex.
- = tan"" li-
is
a rectangular hyperbola.
of the surface xyz-a(yz+zx-\>ocy), at which a rectangular hyperbola, lie on the cone
Ex.
7.
The points
is
the indicatrix
If x, y, z are 185. Representation by parameters. functions of two parameters it, and v and are given by the
equations
x =Mu, v\
y =/2 (t*,
v),
=/3 (u,
v\
272
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
[CH.
xin
the locus of the point (x, y, z) is a surface. For u and v can be eliminated between the three equations, and the elimination leads to an equation of the form F(x, y, 0) = 0.
The tangent
plane
we may
To
But
and
u and
v,
F^ + Fyy + F z
v
z v
= 0.
xu y v
is
<>
-
Therefore
=
cv
^~
xuzv
The equation
?-*.
n~y>
-* =
" Ex. 1. Find the tangent plane at the point " u Q on the for which
y
helicoid,
for
"
on the cylindroid,
and prove that its intersection with the surface consists of a straight line and an ellipse whose projection on the plane z=0 is the circle
>
Ex. which
Ex.
3.
is 4.
Prove that the normals at points on the cylindroid for constant lie on a hyperbolic paraboloid.
,#=a 1 A + &i/x-l-CiA,//<,
where
ya^X + biii
-j-
2 A/x,
z == #3 A -h 63/4
+ c^\fA
if
if
A^O, and
tfj
.
a plane
A=0,
A=
A + 0,
15
&!,
Ex.
5.
If
is
has as
185]
EXAMPLES
X.
273
Examples X.
1,
(1,~1, -1),
(-l,l,-i),
(_i, -1,1).
(x+y+z-df^xyz
has binodes at the points
3.
line
2#=a, z=0
is
cz\x -a) + by(2z- a) = 0, and that there is a unode at the point where it meets the plane y0. Prove also that the section of the surface by any plane through the nodal line consists of three straight lines, two of wnich coincide with the nodal line.
4.
contains an infinite number of straight lines. Examine the nature of the sections by planes through the line # = 3 ?/-z = 0.
t
5.
a(y-b)(z-c)*-b(x-a)(z + cy* = represents a conoid which is generated by lines parallel to the plane XOY which meet the line x=a, # = &. Shew also that the normals to the surface at points of the generator x/a=y/b, z=0, lie on the hyperbolic paraboloid
ab(bx
6.
ft
2 2
Shew
and
the point (a, 7. Prove that the perpendiculars from generators of the cylindroid
/?,
y) to the
lie
on the conicoid
8.
on the
are
Shew also that the section of the surface by a plane through one of these lines consists of a straight line and a conic. Determine the y 4-2=0 which meets the position of the plane through the line surface in a conic whose projection on the ys-plane is a circle.
#=,
B.Q<
274
COORDINATE GEOMETEY
CH
xm
9. Shew that an infinite number of spheres with centres on the 2 #y-plane cuts the surface (,r +y*)(#+tf)+^(a;~a)=0 at right angles, and find the locus of their centres.
10.
Shew that it is a ruled surface, and give a geometrical construction for the generator through a given point of the parabola in which it meets the #y-plane. Prove also that any point on its curve of inter2 section with the cylinder #2 +y 2ay is given by
x = 2a sin
11.
cos
6,
#,
y = 2a cos
0,
= k (sec
A,
- tan
A' are
;
0).
P,
6,
P' are
(a,
c\
(-,
-6,
-<?);
(a,
6,
-e),
and C, C' are (-a, 6, c), (-a, -6, c) Prove that the equation to the surface 6, c), (a, -6, -c). (a, generated by a conic which passes through P and P' and intersects
(-a,
-c);
B,
B' are
CO'
is
that this surface contains the lines, A A', BB', CC', PA, PB, Examine the shape of the surface at the PC, P'A', P'B', P'C', PP Shew that any point on PP' is a singular point, and that origin. P and P' are singular points of the second order, (that is, that the locus of the tangents at P and P' is a cone of the third degree).
Shew
an
are the parameters of the confocals through a point P of 2 2 2 2 -f 2 /c = l, centre O, prove that the points on 4-y ellipsoid the wave surface which correspond to the section of the ellipsoid by the diametral plane of OP are given by
12.
If A,
\i
2 2 ,r /tf
2-
_22
-
'
_
2
22 --^
2
'
186,1871
CHAPTER
XIV.
CURVES IN SPACE.
186.
The equations
to a curve.
The equations
together represent the curve of intersection of the surfaces = and f2 (x, y, z) = 0. If we eliminate given by f^x, y, 0)
and then
y,
y=/s(*)>
If,
and
(t),
fc(0.
Hence the coordinates of any point on the curve of intersection of two surfaces can be expressed as functions
of a single parameter. Conversely, the locus of a point
given by
x^^(t\
a parameter,
y = fc(),
is
t
where
t is
two equations
y^ y)
y*^
= 0>
of intersection
40, 41, 76, 165.)
(Compare
The tangent.
to
x, y,
To find
at
a given point
Suppose that
t.
a given curve.
meter
We
z are given as functions of a parashall throughout use the symbols x', x", .,
276
ft
*
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
i
[CH. xiv.
etc.
is
to denote
meaning
Let the given point, P, be (#, y, z\ and let Q, (x+Sx, x + Sy, z + Sz) be a point on the curve adjacent to P. Then, if #=/(),
expressly assigned to them.
x+ Sx=f(t+St),
r?/ 2
'
=xx"
Similarly,
JJ/2
y + Sy = y+y'St+y"r^ + ...
Stz
Now,
as
tends to
is,
P, 8t
the tangent at
given by
of
y'
Fi (>
y>
= 0,
F2 (a;,
y, z)
= 0,
we have
/3 _
therefore
^y
te
?w
3#
32;
ox ty
*dy ?>x
section of
The tangent at a point P to the curve of intertwo surfaces is the line of intersection of their
P.
tangent planes at
187-189]
DIRECTION-COSINES OF TANGENT
to the
277
Ex.
IX
1.
Ex.
2.
Shew
is
that the tangent at a point of the curve of inter#2/a2 +y2/62 4-z2/ c I an(^ the confocal whose
parameter
is
given by
*(-*)
a 2(62 ~c2)(a2 -A)
6 2(c2 -a 2 )(6 2 - A)
y(n-y)
*(-*)
c 2(a 2
-6 2)(c2 -A)'
Ex. 3. Shew that the tangent at any point of the curve whose equations, referred to rectangular axes, are
2
,
z=2* 3
188.
If the axes
are rectangular, and P, (x, y, z) and Q, (x Sx, y Sy, z+Sz) are adjacent points of a given curve, Sr, the measure of PQ,
is
given by
S r* =
^2 + ^2 +
Ss.
Then
or
s
x, y, z
a;
where
are functions of
and
x'
// T*
-j->
etc.
Hence
y' 3
~~7>
z'
~~7>
m* UI
s
0,
dx _ ds
7
>
dy _
ds
7
fZ_
>
_
ds
z
7
dz
aO tan <x, prove that -^= a sec a, and that the length of the curve measured from the pointwhere 0=0 is adsecoL. (Compare fig. 51.)
Ex.
1.
y=a sin 0,
Ex.
2.
between the points where t=ti and t=t2 is 4\^2a(^2 -^). that the curve is a helix drawn on a cylinder whose base and making an angle of 45 with the generators.
,
Shew
is
also
a cycloid
plane. The locus of the normals to a curve at a point P is the plane through P at right angles to
189.
The normal
278
COOKDINATE GEOMETRY
[CH. xiv.
the tangent at P. If the axes are rectangular the equation to the normal plane is
190.
If P, P 1? P 2
...
,
. . .
Pn
Pn points of a given curve, lie on a given surface and P 1? P 2 tend to P, then in the limit, when P1? P2 ,...Pn coincide
with
at
P.
P,
n ih
order
To find ike conditions that a curve and surface should have contact of a given order. Let the equations to the curve and surface be
and
let
F(<)
Then the roots of the equation F() = are the values of t which correspond to the points of intersection of the curve and surface. If the curve and surface have contact of the first order at the point for which t = t l9 the equation F() = has two roots equal to t v and therefore
=
and clearly J
,
, ,
and
=0,
,
dF
-,
.
dt
-,-.-
dx
dt^
dy dt
dz dt^
If the contact is of the second order, the equation has three roots equal to t v and therefore
F()=0
And
generally,
if
the contact
is
of the
ili
order,
Ex. 1. Find the plane that has three-point contact at the origin with the curve
x= ^_^ y= p_^
^_ L
Ans.
ar-
189-191]
279
Ex.
2.
may have
Determine a, /*, b so that the paraboloid 2z= closest possible contact at the origin with the curve
the order of the contact
?
What
Ex.
3.
is
Fourth.
Find the
inflexional tangents at (x ly
z{ )
y l9
Zj)
on the surface
The equations
The
to a line
through (x^ y
t ,
may be
written
Q.
For
all
values of
dx _,
"77
dy
~T7
dz
dt
^i
at
^>
'
_^ ~rT
a^
Hence
^,
^),
we have
(ii)
- 4cZ +
tyiZim ^y^n
= 0,
(iii) ^ 1
Therefore
(Compare 181, Ex. 2.) Ex. 4. Find the lines that have four-point contact at
the surface
direction-ratios satisfy foi7i==0, f2 -?M2 -
(0, 0, 1)
with
The
Ex. 5. Prove that if the circle Ix + my + ?iz = 0, jr2 has three-point contact at the origin with the paraboloid
Deduce the
191.
result of
88,
Ex.
5.
The osculating
and Q and
curve,
plane.
plane
PQR
is
P.
To find
(x,
be
z).
The equation
to
any plane
is
ax+by + cz+d
ax'+by'+cz'
'
0,
=0, =0.
280
COOEDINATE GEOMETEY
6,
[CH.
xiv
c y d,
we
_/y
f' x,
fit
?.?
,
1l'
*' z
Ex.
1.
Am.
Ex. meets
2.
it
plane at
#=3, v=3 2 2=2 3 shew that any plane and deduce the equation to the osculating
, ,
A ns.
Zt^x
- 2^ + 1 =
2^
Ex. 3. Prove that there are three points on the cubic ^=a^3 -f 6, 2 y=3c -h3rf, z=3et+fi such that the osculating planes pass through the origin, and that the points lie in the plane 3cex+afy = Q.
Ex. 4. P and Q are points of a curve and Prove that the limiting position of the plane
the osculating plane at P.
PT
is
PQT
as
Ex.
5.
Normals are drawn from the point (a, /?, y) to the ellipsoid Find the equation to the osculating plane at
a4#
____
**'",
6V
LI +
n U
Ex. 6. Shew that the condition that four consecutive points of a curve should be coplanar is
=0.
.y",
*"'
*'"
/",
Ex.
7.
it
Ex.
8.
Shew
cis
a-t
the plane
b-t
lies in
192.
To find
the osculating
= 0.
191,192]
281
of
That this plane should have contact of the second order with the curve, we must have
and
But
...(2)
...(3)
and therefore equation (1) is an identity. This is to be expected, since any plane through the tangent to a curve has contact of the first order with the curve. Differentiating the equations
(3),
we
obtain
whence ky
Ex.
1.
Prove that the osculating plane at (x^y^ ,) on the curve x2 +z*=a 2 i/ 2 4-z2 =b? is given by 3- zzf - a4 - 4 xx? _yj/i zz? 6
,
""'"
tf
P
of the curve of inter-
Ex.
2.
We have
.henc.
where
Jl
f,,,
J
<#>^=2a,
etc.
which reduces
to
2(-#)
282
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
etc.
[CH. XIV.
The equation may be further transformed. 2 = 2 We have (x/-a$ Zfe -C^ -(a-a)=0, Hence the equation may be written
.-a) =
= -(J&2 or
CAifr,
Ex.
3.
Shew
that at
(a/,
y\
/),
confocals,
~+
-9
^l'
..
+ 19
==
/ ,24.,|
^'
is
the osculating plane of the curve of intersection of the given by xja* + ft ) n((# + n) "" + a + A) c^(c 2 + X)
first
two
^(y
"
Ex. 4. Prove that the points of the curve of intersection of the sphere and conicoid
at which the osculating planes pass through the origin, a r A b r A c r
lie
on the cone
6~c
193.
c-o
The principal normal and binormal. There is an infinite number of normals to a curve at a given point, A,
Pro. 54.
on it, and their locus is the normal plane at A. normals are of special importance, that which
osculating plane at
Two
lies
of the
in the
A and
is called
193]
283
that which
principal normal,
osculating plane,
AB the binormal; the plane ATP and the plane ABP is the normal
called the rectifying plane.
is
the
plane.
is
We
at
A the
shall choose as the positive direction of the tangent direction in which the arc increases, and as the
positive direction of the principal normal, that towards which the concavity of the curve is turned. shall then
We
choose the positive direction of the binormal so that the positive directions of the tangent, principal normal and
tangent by
principal normal
19
by
2,
m m
ly
^\\
7i
2
;
2,
binormal by v
Then, (188),
,
L. WQ, O 5'
"
n<>.
dx
dy
dz
Again,
o
j*
/
191),
''&0
'2
//
Z/yy) _
yz
zy
rr
nt
//
~~^
w zx
/
//
/?
r* xz
ry
// '
^^ 3=
/yi
fvn
>
r^rti
ft fl
xy
1
/liVy
/ t
11}
Gt'tX/
0*
.
vy
*AJ X-/
yx
at
rJ+
AFP V3UV^
t '
188),
and therefore
' *
ns
y'z"-z'y"
z'x"-x'z"
x'y"~y'x"
1
We have
also
L-
284
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
[CH. XIT.
Therefore
_
2
z'(z'x"-x'z")-y'(x'y"-y'x")
'
'*"-2
x"s'-x's"
"z
"*-"*
and
similarly,
-J2 .-..,
y"*'-y'"
/
/_//.>
//a
//.i
//o>
n2 =
through the origin to the binormals
Ex.
lie
1.
parallels
of the helix
#=acos0,
y=asin0,
.
z=0
is
Ex.
2.
the normal
to the cylinder.
A 1 and A 2 are points of a given curve so that the arc A X A 2 is positive and of length 8s and the angle between the tangents at A and A 2 is S\fs, the
194. Curvature.
If
a
A^.
is
The
by
rate of change at
Ax
--^,
and
is
called the
1/p,
It is
denoted by
and p
195. Torsion.
a point of any
direction of the osculating plane at curve which is not plane changes as the
If
The
Sr
is
the binormals at
A l and A 2 the
,
ratio
A X A2
is
The rate
^7
of change at
At
is
that
by -y-, and is called the torsion at A,. * x as by l/o-, and o- is called the radius of torsion.
denoted
193-197]
FBENET'S FORMULAE
285
The formulae for 196. The spherical indicatrices. curvature and torsion are readily deduced by means of spherical indicatrices, which are constructed as follows.
the origin, O, draw in the positive directions of the tangents to the curve, radii of the sphere of unit radius whose centre is O. The extremities of these radii form a
the spherical indicatrix of the Similarly, by drawing radii in the positive tangents. directions of the binormals, we construct the spherical
is
From
In
figs.
A 1? A 2 A 3
,
...
be adjacent points of a given curve, and let O^, be drawn in the same directions as the tangents
2,
3 , ...
AT AT M 3 AT
1
>
'
2>
'
'
' * '
and O6 1 O6 2 O63
,
. . .
in the
same
Then
2,
3,
...
b l9 6 2 63
,
...
Fio. 55.
Since
O^ and
curve, the limiting position of the plane t^Ot^ is parallel to the osculating plane of the curve at A r Hence the tangent
being the limiting position of ^<2 is at right angles to the binormal at A r And since it is a tangent to the sphere, it is at right angles to the
at
to the indicatrix
>
2 3
...
radius Ot ly and
gent
A^.
286
is
COOBDINATE GEOMETRY
,
[CH. XIV.
Let parallel to A 1 P 1 the principal normal at A r as the positive direction of the tangent to the inus take dicatrix, the positive direction of the principal normal.
'
B,
T,
B,
FIG. 56.
Since the sphere is of unit radius, the measures of the arc tJ 2 of the great circle in which the plane ^O^ 2 cuts the sphere, and of the angle tjOt* are equal, and hence the
is S\{s.
'
Let
SOL
t^
of
Then
&x
S\I,
we take
the arcs
and great circle through t l9 t 2 in the same the limit is +1, and since we have fixed the positive
direction of the tangent to the indicatrix at t l9 we thus fix the sign of S\[s. Hence we have, in magnitude and sign,
^
&\js
&x
da.
Again, ^ is the point (1 19 v TI I ), and therefore, by 188, the direction-cosines of the positive tangent at ^ to the
indicatrix are
dL
'
doC
doL
x
Whence
,
or,
by ^
y -v (1),
Tin 2
_dn^ = -7
doL
>
n9
>
Further, if we consider O p O 2 cone of the second degree, the planes ^O^, 2O 3 are ultimately tangent planes, and therefore their normals O& p O& 2
,
p O< 3 to be generators of a
-"^ ds
dn*
.(A)
197]
FRENET'S FORMULAE
287
i.e. the tangent plane to the position of the plane reciprocal cone, is at right angles to Ot l9 and the limiting position of bj)^ i.e. the tangent at 6 X to the indicatrix
y
\O\
^6263...
at right angles to Ot v Besides, the tangent at a tangent to the sphere, and is therefore at right angles &! is to O6 r Therefore the tangent at b l to the indicatrix 6 1 62 63
is
. . .
is
that
the principal normal at A r Suppose direction is that of the principal normal. positive If the measure, with the proper sign, of the arc 6 1 6 2 of
parallel to
its
A^,
the indicatrix
is S(3,
b^ of
the
If
and
Ltj-=l.
we take the arcs in the same sense so that the limit is +1, since we have assigned a positive direction to the tangent at 6 X to the indicatrix, we fix the sign of ST. Hence we
have, in magnitude and sign,
os
Ss
ds
3,
3,
n3 and
,
hence the
mi
/.
Therefore
r\
o^o
l^-rZ,
* - = TJ a2 ^
,
Or,
by J
/o\
(2), ' v
ds
&
ds
7-^,
8
a-
ds
We
have
also,
l*+l*+l* = l.
1
Hence
ds
*ds
(B),
ds
~=
9
/*
<>
i.
a-
s
.
.,
dm*
ds
Similarly, -7-^= J
m, TM. dn* -- -- -^ ds s p
i
^,
cr
or
results (A), (B), (c) are exceedingly important. are known as Frenet's Formulae.
The
They
COOEDINATE GEOMETKY
[CH. xiv.
We 198. The signs of the curvature and torsion. have agreed that the positive direction of the tangent at ^
to the indicatrix t^t^ ... is that of the principal normal. But if the positive direction of the principal normal is that towards which the concavity of the curve is turned, the
direction at
t
l
of the arc
t^
is
55, 56).
Therefore,
SOL,
also agreed that the positive direction of the tangent at &! to the indicatrix 6 1 6.2 63 ... was the positive direction of the principal normal. The direction at 6 1 of the arc 6 X 62 is
We
the positive direction of the principal normal for a curve such as that in fig. 55, but is the opposite direction for a
For the curve in fig. 55, the apparent rotation of the principal normal and binormal as the arc increases is that of a left-handed screw, and such curves are therefore called sinistrorsum. For such a curve For the curve in fig. 56, the S/3, ST and or are positive. apparent rotation is that of a right-handed screw, and such curves are said to be dextrorsum. For this class of curve 8r and or are negative. (J/3,
curve such as that in
fig.
56.
To find the radius of curvature. From (A), 197, by squaring and adding we
199.
obtain
T\
But
TT Hence
6,
*^ = -7,
V
8
^
8
therefore -j 0,8
rl? ^k*
T'Y O
t'
Q O
7*
V
O/
8?e
Therefore, since
Za;'
= s and ZccV^sV,
/2
,
198-201]
289
the length of the arc measured from a fixed point, so that t = s, then s'=l, s" = 0, and
Cor.
The student should note the analogy between these formulae and those for the radius of curvature of a plane curve.
Ex.
200.
Deduce equation
(1)
10,
23.
To find
equations
the
direction-cosines
of the principal
From
(A),
197,
x"s'-s"x'
-i
Similarly,
* = p y'V-s'V 7=^8
n2 = p
,
z'Y-s'Y
S^
.
Again, since
V m = ~, 8
l
TI X
= Z*
8
and
= m^
.,
Similarly,
= p zx
xz
o
-73
,
%=
xy
/>
/ o 3
yx'
Compare
Cor.
If
t
193.
= 8, we
have.
d*x
d*v
d*z
ds*
-. df}' ds
and from
cr
etc
201.
To
find
From
200,
Frenet's
formulae,
(B),
we have
= -2 -2,
or
t,
we
obtain
"-zy),
(1)
B.O.
290
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
[CH. xiv.
Similarly,
p
p
-( 2 )
...(3)
and
Multiply
??^ +
or
3V *"=p(ay^
2
by
2,
2,
and we have
x"a'
which, on substituting p
for
z>
etc.,
becomes
z'
c",
y",
z"
Ex.
1.
We have
Therefore
Hence and
Therefore
;/=acos0, / = = x'* +/ 2 + ^ = a2 sec2ou ^ = - a cos ^, y" = - a sin 6, z" = 5" = 0, = - a cos 0, z " = 0. x'" = a sin 0,
#'=-asin0,
s'
and
-5-
-re
6,
0,
0,
a tan a
tana
whence
Ex.
2.
cr
cos
oc.
#=3, y = 3
z=2
3
,
prove that
Ex.
Ex.
3.
#=2aA
2
,
z=4aA,
prove that
4.
p=
-or- = 8aN/l
-~
2
.
For a point
p= -cr=
0=\/6aA, prove
Ex.
5.
y=a(l+3A2),
Ex. 6. Find the radii of curvature and torsion at a point of the 2= az. curve ar+y*=a *>
An*. p2
=-\*'
201,202]
TANGENT TO A CURVE
to
291
oc
p tan a.
Take the
Then
3
and
p
Therefore
=
and
7i8
as
= 0, (197,
(A)).
n^Q,
=sina.
Again,
Therefore
^+^=-^ =
a-
= 0,(197,(c)).
p tan a.
Ex. 1. For the curves in Exs. 2, 3, 4, 201, shew that the tangent makes an angle of 45 with a fixed line, and hence that /> = cr. Ex. 2. If a curve is drawn on any cylinder and makes a constant 2 angle a, with the generators, /o=p cosec o,, where l/p and l/p are the curvatures at any point P of the curve and the normal section of the
cylinder through P. Take the 2-axis parallel to the generators of the cylinder. Then if 8s, 8s l are infinitesimal arcs of the curve and normal section, _ cfoi dz , d?z Tf r> / \ -7-=sm<x., -i- = cosoc and -7-2 = 0. If P is (#, y, z),
.
-
A and
sr?
of the helix
-
Ex.
.
3.
Apply Ex. 2
^,
,
,
to
cos 2
is
--a
. ,
^,
is db
Ex.
4.
is
3
,
a helix.
Since
p
Therefore
Similarly,
=$ ds
, ,
and
*?=<r
ds
dL^kdl^. 3 1
^=3 + ^, where ^
l
,
is
an arbitrary constant.
.
.
n l =knz -\rkz and adding, we obtain ^r^, + k^mi + ^3^! = 1 nx Multiplying by v l 2 2 2 2 Hence, since ^1 + ^2 + ^3 = l-l-^ and therefore k l9 K^ k^ cannot all be zero, the tangent to the curve makes a constant angle with the
m^km^k^
,
fixed line
x
A/1
Parallels drawn through points of the curve to this line generate a cylinder on which the curve lies, hence the curve is a helix.
a right circular helix. curve is drawn on a parabolic cylinder so as to cut all Ex. 6. the generators at the same angle. Find expressions for the curvature
Ex.
5.
If
p and
cr
is
and
torsion.
is
#=a
is a.,
292
203.
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
The
circle of curvature.
If P, Q,
[CH. xiv.
a curve, the limiting position of the circle tend to P is the osculating circle at P.
the definitions of the osculating plane and the curvature at P, it follows immediately that the osculating
circle lies in
is
From
the osculating plane at P, and that its radius the radius of curvature at P. It also follows that the
centre of the circle, or the centre of curvature, lies on the principal normal, and therefore its coordinates are
We
the centre by means of Frenet's formulae. If (a, /3, y) is the centre and r the radius of the circle of curvature, the equations
be taken to represent it. Since the sphere (2) has three-point contact with the curve at (x, y, z\ differentiating twice with respect to s and applying Frenet's formulae, we have
may
0,
............ (4)
And
/3,
y)
lies
in the osculating
plane, (1),
l^x-aL) + m^y^^)+n^z-y)^Q.......... (6) Square and add (4), (5), (6), and
Therefore,
by
(3),
r = p.
Multiply
by l v
05
2 , lz
respectively,
I
<X=
2 p.
Similarly,
Therefore
204.
y /3 = <x = #+ 2 p,
2 />,
y=
n2p.
z+n^p.
/8
= 2/ + m2p, y
The osculating
sphere.
If P, Q, R,
203,204]
293
Then, for four-point contact at (x, y, z), entiating three times with respect to s,
we have on differ-
-y)=
or,
by
(2),
3 (x
......... (4)
where
Whence, as in
203,
we deduce
^
and
a = x + I2 p
Izpp,
y + m<ip
3 o-/),
y=
These shew that the centre of the osculating sphere, or centre of spherical curvature, lies on a line drawn through the
centre of circular curvature parallel to the binormal, and distant <rp from the centre of circular curvature.
Cor.
If a curve is
cr
is
drawn on a sphere
p2
&--.
of radius a,
R = a,
can be
and therefore
deduced.
=a
Hence,
if
is
known,
cr
P
Further,
if
^79
we
differentiate
a2 = /> 2
+(^)^ we
a and obtain a
differential equation
by
all
spherical curves
curve is drawn on a sphere of radius a so as to make a Ex. 1. constant angle a with the plane of the equator. Shew that at the point whose north-polar distance is 9, p=a(l
294
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
by
202,
o
[CH. XIV.
We have,
Also
a2 -
cr=pcotoL. dz ,
ds
and -r=smoL.
But
z=aco8 0,
9
therefore -/ = ds
- a sin 6 -y-.
ds
Whence
Integrating,
pdp
^/a
a __
__a
sin
Q dd
p2
cos
a.
we
obtain
>v/a
2
-/)
acos #sec<x-f-&,
Ex.
(1, 2,
2.
3)
Find the equation to the osculating sphere at the point on the curve
Ans.
Ex. 3. Find equations to represent the osculating circle at (1, 2, 3) of the curve in the last example. s. The equation to the sphere and 0=3.
Ex.
is
Prove that at the origin the osculating sphere x = a^ + 36^2 + 3c^, y = a2 t 3 + 3&2 *2 + 3c2 t, z = =0. r, given by 2y,
4.
3
of the curve
26, 2
,
26
0,
Ex. 5. Find the curvature and torsion of the spherical indicatrix of the tangents. The direction-cosines of the tangent are ?2 , 2 w 2 , ( 197), and if
SOL is
an infinitesimal
if
arc,
Lt
is
So. ?rr
oy/"
= l.
Hence,
the curvature
Po
1
,
If the torsion is
or
= 7^%>
as in Ex.
1.
204]
295
Whence we
where
Ex.
6.
dp j =~f- and
as
dcr
<r ==-7-.
ds
and
>
' ,
curve is drawn on a right circular cone, seniivertical Ex. 7. angle OL, so as to cut all the generators at the same angle ft. Shew that its projection on a plane at right angles to the axis is an equiangular spiral, and find expressions for its curvature and torsion.
Pro. 57.
of the cone as origin and the axis as -s-axis. Let C, be the projection of P, the point considered, on the axis, and CP and OP have measures r and R respectively. Then if CP makes an angle 6 with OX, r, are the polar coordinates of the projection of P on any plane at right angles to the axis. From fig. 58 we obtain
fig. 57,
(1)
J
Whence
which
is
dr
where k = cot
B sin a. and A
is
arbitrary.
COOKDINATE GEOMETEY
Again, from
(1),
[CH. XIV.
= coso.cos/3.
We have therefore
Since
-5-5
-j-g
= 0,
=
o-
= p tan y
=0,
FIG. 58.
Now
#=rcos0,
y=
s,
by
(1),
= sin/3.
;
Therefore
0) #,
-
Hence
fsmy'
Ex.
8.
and
' r
/3
cosy*
Deduce equations (1), Ex. 7, by differentiating the equations 2 2 2 2 2 #2 +3/ 2 =r2 #2+# =* tan a, x +y*+z*= R
,
and applying
#.a/ -f yy' 4-
^ = R cos
/3.
Ex. 9. The principal normals to a given curve are also principal normals to another curve. Prove that the distance between corresponding points of the curves is constant, that the tangents at a constant angle, and that there corresponding points are inclined at must oe a linear relation between the curvature and torsion of the
given curve.
If O, (#, y, z) is a point on the given curve, O', the corresponding point on the second curve has coordinates given by
204]
297
where OO'
for origin and OT, OP, If we take is of length r. the tangent, principal normal, and bi normal as coordinate axes,
OB
and O'
to
is (0, r, 0).
The tangent
is
at right angles
OP
^=0
i.e.
mi
-r(^
Hence, since
Again,
if
m = m3 =0, -T-=O,
1
and r
is
constant.
'==-,
etc.,
we have
OT such
tan0=
1-r/p
p
therefore, at the origin,
9 2
--9 --5~ 2
(TV
O"
'
II
OP, and
f '"-"'=<>,
rp'
rv
cr
or
Integrating,
we
obtain
where
or
-4 is
an arbitrary constant,
p/
cr
is
0= ^
is
constant.
first
investigated by Bertrand, and curves which on that account called Bertrand curves.
Ex.
10.
curve
is
makes angles
and
ft
projected on a plane the normal to which with the tangent and binormal. If p 1 is the
p=^
1
.
COOEDINATE GEOMETEY
[CH. XIV.
and R the points of the curve Let P be a point of the curve and distant 8s from P. Then, if the area of the triangle PQR is denoted
by A, -=Lt
whence the
205.
sion.
2A
-3.
A and
85.
=Lt^-, where A', But A'= A cos /?, and Ss' = 8s sin a.,
2A'
The following geometrical investigation of the curvature and torsion of a curve is instructive. Let A 1? A 2 A 3 ... (fig. 59), be consecutive vertices of an equilateral polygon inscribed in a given curve, and let
,
M,
FIG. 59.
M 1? M 2 M 3
,
...
sides.
,
Planes
MI CI S I> M 2 C2 S 2>
the sides.
planes
drawn through
l
M 1S M 2
;
...
normal to
M
1
x
,
M 2C
M 1 C 1 S M 2C 2 S 2
and M 3C 2 lie in Then C x is the centre of the circle through the points A x A2, A3 and its limiting position when A 2 and A 3 tend
,
M 2C 2
to Aj
is
Ar
205]
GEOMETRICAL INVESTIGATION
Ar
299
From
the cyclic
C 1 M 1A2 M 2
At A2
2sinM C M 2
1
1
_
!
'
But
A X A 2 and A 2 A 3 are
tangents,
A X A2
ds_
C^
is
/>,
ds
= -,
,
where p
is
Since the planes M 1 C 1 S 1 M 2 C 1 S 1 are at right angles to the plane A 1 A 2 A 3 their line of intersection C 1 S 1 is normal
,
is parallel to the plane A 1 A 2A 3 Therefore, in the limit, But since C 1 S 1 is the locus of points to the binormal at A r
.
C^
is the locus equidistant from the points A p A 2 A 3 and of points equidistant from A 2 A 3 A 4 S l is the centre of the
,
, , ,
C^
sphere through A 1? A 2 A 3 A 4 and the limiting position of S x is the centre of spherical curvature at A r Therefore,
,
the centre of spherical curvature lies on the line drawn through the centre of circular curvature parallel to the
binormal.
Since the limiting positions of C 1 S 1 and are parallel to consecutive binormals, we may denote the angle C 1 S 1 C 2 intersect at K, then C 1 K = C 1 S 1 5r. by ST. If C^Mg and
C^
C^
But C 1 K
differs
from C l M l
C 2 M 2 by an
infinitesimal of
Hence,
if
By
our convention of
is
binormal
that of
S^.
is
300
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
[CH. xiv.
dextrorsum, and Sr is therefore negative. Also Sp is Hence, if the conegative, so that Sp/Sr is positive.
ordinates of
position of
Ax
are x
,
y
,
0,
,
S t are #
2/
x = projection
of MjC^-f projection of
C^ on OX,
Or
Similarly,
"""~"
The points S 1 S 2 S3 ... are consecutive points of a curve which is the locus of the centres of spherical curvature, and S^g, S 2 S 3 ... are ultimately tangents to that locus. The plane 8^83 or M 3 C 2 S 1 is ultimately an osculating plane to the locus, and hence the osculating planes of the
,
locus are the normal planes of the curve. Therefore, if are the angles between adjacent tangents and biS\fs, Sr
normals to the curve, and S\fsl9 S^ are the angles between adjacent tangents and binormals to the locus,
= l,
and
Lt
= l.
Hence, if infinitesimal arcs of the curve and locus are denoted by Sa and Ss v and the curvature and torsion of
the locus
by
l/p l
and
l/cr v
8s.
-T-T-
rrL pp l
Sa = T j-jJLt
Ss = T jLit
Ss.
Y~ Sr S
= orcrr
l
limiting positions of CjSj, C,^, ... are the generators of a ruled surface which is called the polar developable.
The
Since
1
C^
the normal planes to the curve are the tangent planes to the polar developable.
1
C1 S C2 C S and hence
1,
coincident, the plane touches this surface at all points of the generator
205,206]
301
Ex. 1. Shew that if dsl is the differential of the arc of the locus of the centres of spherical curvature,
,
RdR
etc.,
If
(A
T/,
) is
RK
RR'
Ex.
2.
fig. 59.
Ex.
3.
Prove that
Pi ri
= ^~r-)
dp
0-1
= -^
or
-j-j
dp
pp^ov^
Coordinates in terms of a. If the tangent, principal normal and binormal at a given point O of a curve are taken as coordinate axes, and s measures the arc OP, we may express the coordinates of P in terms of 8. We have
= 8XQ +
where
origin.
cc^,
O"
OO
",
//x
,
...
x',
x", x'",
...
at the
Similarly,
We
7 ',
',
etc.
the #-axis,
1,
<=
^=
is
0,
<=0.
the y-axis,
302
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
[CH. xiv.
flT
_f2= Ct6*
P
Therefore
*
zo'" =
,
&"'=
P
5,
y*>"^ P
s3
we have
"
Gpcr
Ex.
point.
1.
Shew
its
Unless
Ex. 2. Prove that the projection of the curve on the normal plane O has a cusp at O. What is the shape at O of the projections on the osculating plane and rectifying plane ?
and higher powers of s can be rejected, shew that the direction-cosines of the tangent, principal normal, and binormal at P
Ex.
3.
If s 2
are given by
OP
is
of length
s.
O and
is
+o-)*.
Ex.
5.
The
and P
is of
length
and
2
/o
:
it
2
.
curvature at
O in
Vp 2 -f (T2
the ratio
cr
Ex.
at
6.
O and P makes
Ex.
7.
O is */2cr.
O and
Ex.
P
8.
at
The
osculating spheres at
206)
EXAMPLES
XI.
303
Examples XI.
1. Shew that the feet of the perpendiculars from the origin to the = tangents to the helix #=acos$, #=asin0, z cQy lie on the hyper-
boloid
2.
2222 curve
is
so as always to cut the generators at a constant angle OL. Shew that by properly choosing the starting point it may be made to coincide with the intersection of the helicoid with the cylinder 2r = c(00 cot -<2-0cota) > r> Q Find the equations to the prinbeing ordinary polar coordinates.
helicoid
cipal
3.
drawn on the
z=ct&ur l y/x
plane curve.
4. If the osculating plane at every point of a curve pass through a fixed point, the curve must be plane. Hence prove that the curves of intersection of the surfaces #2 +y 2 +z2 = a2 2(x*+y* + 2*) = a* are circles of radius a.
,
5. A right helix of radius a and slope a. has four-point contact with a given curve at the point where its curvature and torsion are l/p and 1/cr. Prove that
a = ---70 p + ar*
6.
and
tan
a.
=
z
>
<r
0,
y = a cot 0,
2>/2a
= \/2
log tan 0,
7.
Shew
z)
on the curve
has equation
2
(ft
- c2 )( - x)(x + a)3 + (c2 - a2 )(?7 -y)(y + 6) 3 + (a2 - 6 2)(f- z)(* + c)3 =0.
8.
Shew that there are three points on the cubic x = a^ 3 + 36^ 2 4- 3c^ 4- c?! y = 2 ^ 3 + 362*2 + 3c2^ + ^2*
the osculating planes at which pass through the origin, and that they lie in the plane
"
#1
y>
a lf
9. If p, />!, p2 , p3 are the radii of curvature of a curve and its projections on the coordinate planes, and OL, /?, y are the angles that the tangent makes with the coordinate axes, prove that
sin e oL
,
sin 6 /:?
2
'
sin e y
2
1 ==
~2
Pi
sin 3 a cos
o.
sin 3 /? cos/?
sin 3 ycosy_
Pi
P2
Ps
304
10.
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
FCH. xiv.
Prove that at the point of intersection of the surfaces ~1 y/^, where y=#tan#, the radius of curvature of the
inter-
section is
catenary, constant <?, is wrapped round a right circular radius a, so that its axis lies along a generator. Shew that cylinder, tne osculating plane at a point of the curve so formed cuts the tangent plane to the cylinder at the point at a constant angle tan^c/a.
11.
0,
s=ccosh^.)
&Z
r====,
<r=
==.
(ZZ*
12. If a curve is drawn on a right circular cylinder so that its osculating plane at any point makes a constant angle with the tangent plane at the point to the cylinder, then when the cylinder is developed into a plane, the curve develops into a catenary.
For the circular helix prove the following properties the normal to the cylinder is the principal normal at P to the helix ; the binormal at P makes a constant angle with the axis of the cylinder ; the locus of the centre of circular and spherical curvature is a helix ; if P' is the centre of circular curvature at P, P is the centre of circular curvature at P' for the locus.
13.
:
at
curve is drawn on a sphere of radius a, and the principal 14. normal at a point P makes an angle with the radius of the sphere 7/1
-I
to P.
0,
-=
<r
-?-.
ds
15. If O, P are adjacent points of a curve and the arc that the difference between the chord OP and the arc powers of s higher than the third being neglected.
16.
OP
OP=s, shew
is
3
/24/>
Prove that
s.
17. If from any point of a curve equal infinitesimal arcs of length s are measured along the curve and the circle of curvature, the distance between their extremities is s?R/6p2cr. 18.
The
2
(
\dp/
stant
$=0
curve is drawn on the paraboloid x2 +y2 =2pz making a conShew that its projection on the plane ex. with the 2-axis. angle
given by
is
and
torsion.
CHAP, xiv.]
EXAMPLES XL
305
curve is drawn on a sphere, radius a, so as to cut all the 20. meridians at the same angle a. Shew that if 6 is the latitude of any point of the curve, a? tan a, a cos 6
21. point Q is taken on the binormal at a variable point P of a curve of constant torsion 1/cr so that PQ is of constant length c. Shew that the binormal of the curve traced by Q makes an angle with PQ.
22.
equal to
its
its
latitude is
2a?-z
8a 2 -3e2
drawn on a right cone so Shew that the locus angle. curvature satisfies the same conditions.
23.
A curve is
same
at the
24.
curve
so as to
</>
<f>
being the angle which the tangent to the meridian through the point makes with the axis.
25. The normal plane at any point to the locus of the centres of circular curvature of any curve bisects the radius of spherical curvature at the corresponding point of the given curve.
curve is drawn on a right circular cone of semivertical 26. angle a. so as to cut all the generating lines at an angle /3. The cone Shew that is then developed into a plane.
p p
:
= sin OL
where p, p are the radii of curvature at a point and of the developed curve respectively.
27.
of a point of a curve are functions of a paraline drawn through any point (#, y, z) of the d^x d 2y d*z ,. ,. .,, ,. ,, curve, with direction-cosines proportional to -7-5- , -7^, -r-^, lies in the
The coordinates
meter
t.
Git
Git
Git
angl
curve is drawn on a cylinder of radius a and the cylinder is 28. developed into a plane. If p be the radius of curvature of the curve and pi the radius of curvature of the developed curve at corresponding
points, ~2
3
= Sm a
where
<
is
curve makes with the generator of the cylinder through the point.
B.O.
IF
306
29.
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
[CH. xiv.
length equal to the radius of torsion, cr, being marked off the binomials to a curve of constant torsion, prove that p the along
,
is
given by
^
%
2 =/> -f2cr
PQ Prove also that the direction-cosines of the binormal to the locus. referred to the tangent, principal normal and binormal of the original curve as axes, are
->/2p
30.
/4cr,
\/2p
/4cr,
N/2/> /2p.
Shew
A length c is measured along the principal normals to a curve. that the radius of curvature, p , of the locus is given by
) 2 (p -c) J
31. With any point of a curve as vertex is described the right Shew that its axis circular cone having closest contact at the point. lies in the plane containing the binormal and tangent to the curve and that its semivertical angle is tan" 1 3tr/4/o.
32. P is a variable point of a given curve and A a fixed point so is taken on the tangent at P so that that the arc AP = s. point is at right angles to the tangent the tangent at to the locus of at P to the curve. Prove that PQ = a-s, where a is an arbitrary constant. Prove also that if X 15 /*!, v l A 2 /x 2 v2 A 3 /XQ, v3 are the direction-cosines of the tangent, principal normal and binormal to the locus,
and that
its radii of
(p 4- cr ~
) (a
s)
33. Prove that the radius of curvature, p l9 of the locus of the centres of circular curvature is given by
Pi
where
p' r ==-/-. dr
34. With any point of a curve as vertex is described the paraboloid Prove that its latus of revolution having closest contact at the point. rectum is equal to the diameter of the osculating sphere.
207]
CHAPTER XV.
ENVELOPES.
Envelope of system of surfaces whose equation contains one parameter. The equation
207.
%,
where a
is
y, 0, a)
= 0,
an arbitrary parameter, can be made to represent the different members of a system of surfaces by
assigning different values to
a.
The curve
of intersection
oc,
OL+&X,
is
given by
f(x, y,
z, oc)
= 0,
f(x,
y,z,GL+ SOL) = 0,
or
by
that
is,
by
f(x, y,
z,
a) = 0,
/0>
y> z>
a + 6 SOL) = 0,
where 6
a proper fraction. Hence, as SOL tends to zero, the curve tends to a limiting
is
position given
f(x,
by
~\
2/>
z,
= 0, oc)
is
/K y
The
*>
a) = 0.
the envelope of the system of surfaces. obtained by eliminating a between the two
is
equations
/(a?,
0,
a)
= 0,
/(,
y, *> a)
= 0.
308
COORDINATE GEOMETEY
ICH. xv.
lie
Ex. Find the envelope of spheres of constant radius whose centres on OX. The equation to the spheres of the system is
characteristic
where a is an arbitrary parameter and r is constant. The = corresponding to a a. is the great circle of the sphere
which
lies in
is
the cylinder
The envelope touches each surface of the system at all points of the corresponding characteristic. Consider the surface given by a = oc. The equations to
208.
a) = 0,
f^(x, y,
z,
a) = 0.
to the envelope may be obtained by eliminatthe equations to the characteristic, and this ing a between may be effected by solving the equation f^(x, y, z, a) =
for a,
The equation
and substituting in
envelope. therefore
is
where
is
introduced to
make
homogeneous.
f^ = 0,
But
at
which represents the tangent plane at (x, y, z) to the surface /=0. Hence the envelope and surface have the same tangent plane at any point of the characteristic.
At any
point of the characteristic corresponding to
a=a, we have
/^+/ dy+//b+/*x.=0
f
and
/a =0,
fjte+fjiy +/&=(). But if (x,y,z) is a singular point on the surface /(#,y, 3, a)=0, ^s/ysa^ssO, and hence tne characteristic passes through the singular point. The locus of the singular points of the surfaces of the system
and therefore
208-210]
therefore
lies
309
For any point of the locus the coequation to the tangent plane to the envelope are all zero, and the proposition thus fails for such points. Consider, for example, the envelope of the right cones of given semivertical angle OL, whose vertices lie upon OX and whose axes are The equations to the system and to the envelope are parallel to OZ.
efficients in the
The locus of the singular points of the system is OX, and the tangent planes to the envelope and surfaces are indeterminate at any point of the locus.
209.
acteristics corresponding to
of any common point of these characterthe four equations, and therefore satisfy the istics satisfy
The coordinates
equations
(/=)__
are proper fractions. Hence, as SOL tends to zero, the common points tend to limiting positions
2
where 9 l and
given by
*-<*-
(I=L @L-
.......... (I
>
These limiting positions for all values of a lie upon a curve whose equations are obtained by the elimination of oc between equations (1). This locus is called the edge of
regression or cuspidal edge of the envelope.
210.
sion.
regres-
We may
/=0, /a = 0,
where a is a function of x, y, z, given by /aa = 0, to represent two surfaces whose curve of intersection is the edge of
regression.
y, z) to the
edge of regression
310
is
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
[CH. xv.
surfaces.
the line of intersection of the tangent planes to the Its equations are therefore
At any point
a
we have /a =
= 0, and
x,
y,
to
the
curve
f= 0, fa = 0,
Ex.
that
1.
i.e.
to a characteristic.
,
its
edge of regression
y*=xz, xy=zz.
Ex.
2.
of the sphere
Ex. 3. The envelope of the surfaces /(a?, y, z, a, i)=0, b are parameters connected by the equation <(a, 6) = 0,
eliminating a and b between the equations
/=0,
<
= 0,
^r~
Ex.
4.
a, i, c are
/ and
nating
<
of the surfaces /(#, ?/, 0, a, 6, c)=0, where parameters connected by the equation </>(a, 6, c)=0, and are homogeneous with respect to a, 6, c, is found by elimi-
The envelope
a, 6, c 5.
<
= 0,
x^
9a
= r ^i
===
<f>6
9c
Ex.
the plane
Ex. 6. The envelope of the osculating plane of a curve is a ruled surface which is generated by the tangents to the curve, and has the curve for its edge of regression. The equation to the osculating plane is 2Z3 (-#)=0, where functions of s. characteristic is given by l$i 3 , 7& 3 , a?, y, Zj are
2J3 (-#)=0,
/
2J2 (-,r)=0,
(Frenet's formulae),
if?=M = tzf, HI
6j
ni l
which represent a tangent to the curve. point on the edge of regression is given by
=#, ??=y, t=z, an d the points of the edge of regression are the points of the curve.
whence
Ex. 7. Prove that the envelope of the normal planes drawn 2 2 through the generators of the cone ax + by'* + cz = is given by
210,211]
ENVELOPES-TWO PARAMETERS
311
211.
= 0,
6 are parameters, may also be taken to reprea system of surfaces. The curve of intersection of the sent
where a and
a.+&x
of a,
and
/3,
(3+Sfi of
b, is
given by
/(a,/3)=0,
or
by
where
and
If
<S/3
= X&x,
the
SOL
and
S(3
tend to zero, by
and S/3 are independent, so that X can assume any value, and the limiting position of the curve depends on the value of X and will be different for different values The limiting positions, however, for all values of X of X.
But
(So.
will pass
characteristic points,
is
the envelope of the system of The equation to the envelope is found by elimisurfaces. nating a and 6 between the three equations
points
f(x y> z / \*> v > *>
>
a &)-o v, u)
<*, ,
,
Consider for example the system of spheres of constant radius whose centres are on the ^ry-plane. The equation to the system is
where a and 6 are arbitrary parameters, and r is constant. P(o,/3,0) and P'(a 4- So, /3 + S/3, 0)
Let
312
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
[CH. xv.
be the centres of two spheres of the system. If the ratio 8/3/So. remains constant the direction of PP' is fixed. The limiting position of the curve of intersection of the spheres as P' tends to P along the line PP' is the great circle of the sphere, centre P, which is at right angles to PP'. But all the limiting positions pass through the ex* tremities of the diameter through P, whose equations are x=a^ y=/?, and these are the characteristic points. Their locus is the pair of
planes
z2
=r2
212.
the system at
= 0. The
character-
by
The equation
to the envelope
may
be obtained by elimi-
/3 between these three equations, and this nating may be effected by solving /00 = 0, /^ = for oc and /3 and
and
substituting in
/= 0.
Hence,
f(x,
T/,
we may
regard
z, oc,
= 0, /3)
9
f = 0,
ft
are functions of x y, 0, given by /^ = and as the equation to the envelope. The tangent plane to the envelope has therefore the equation at (x y, z)
where
oc
and
(3
point,
/<*,
and f
ft
= 0,
which represents the tangent plane at (x, y, z) to the Therefore the envelope and surface have the surface. same tangent plane at a characteristic point.
Ex.
1.
of the plane
j<f>
sin
<f>
+ b sin 6 sin
4- -
cos <i ^
=1
Ans. tf/a?+y*/b*+z*/c*=l.
Ex.
2.
-X)* + (l + A __
where X and
An*.
/x
are parameters.
212,213]
313
Ex. 3. Prove that the envelope of the surfaces /(or, y, z, a, 6, c)=0, where a, 6, c are parameters connected by the equation <(a, 6, c)=0, is found by eliminating a, 6, c between the equations
/-"
Ez.
4.
*-
--
Prove that the envelope of the surfaces /(#, y, 2, a, 6, c, c?) == 0, c, d are parameters connected by the equation </>(#, 6, c, e/)=0 are homogeneous with respect to a, 6, c, rf, is found by eliminating a, 6, c, rf between the equations /=0, <=0 and
<
Ex.
5.
Find the envelope of the plane Ix+my + nzp when = aW + b*m2 + A* 2 (ii) a2^2 + 6 2m 2 + Znp = 0. (i) jp2
,
(i)
(ii)
^2/a 2
that forms with the (rectEx. 6. Find the envelope of a plane angular) coordinate planes a tetrahedron of constant volume c?/Q. Ans. Zlxz =c3
.
Ex.
7.
6,
Shew that it envelopes a conicoid which has the axes as equal conjugate diameters.
a point P on the conicoid a 2.r2 -f-& 2y 2 -f c222 =l, perpendiculars PL, PM, PN are drawn to the coordinate planes. Find the envelope of the plane LMN.
Ex.
8.
From
Ans.
2= 2 2 2 2 l meets Ex. 9. tangent plane to the ellipsoid ^/a + ?/ /& -h* /<; the axes in A, B, C. Shew that the envelope of the sphere OABC is
RULED SURFACES.
213. Skew surfaces and developable surfaces. the equations to a straight line
If,
in
are functions of a single parameter t, we can eliminate the parameter between the two equations and
a, 6,
oc,
/5
thus obtain an equation which represents a surface generated by the line as t varies. The locus is a ruled surface.
314
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
ty
[CH. xv.
The two generators corresponding to values the parameter have for equations
~~
t+St of
}
a
Therefore,
if
~
b
>
a+Sa
~"
is
SoiSb-SpSa
...
etc.,
Therefore,
cubes and
- a'b?
an infinitesimal of the same order as St if ^O. But if a'&'~ /3V = 0, then we have also ''-^^'-^^'^, and therefore d is at least of the order of St*. If, therefore, St is so small that St 2 and St* are inappreciable, c = 0, or the two generators are
Hence d
is
coplanar.
The
result
may
be stated thus
if a'6'
fa' = 0,
if
consecutive generators of the surface intersect, while oc'&' /3V =0, consecutive generators do not intersect.
If
consecutive
generators
if
intersect
the
surface
it
is
developable surface,
surface.
is
a skew
If
and
sect,
B,
way.
of a surface, interuntil it
coincides with the plane of A and B, and thus the whole surface may be developed into a plane without tearing.
Clearly cones and cylinders may be so treated, and are On the other hand the therefore developable conicoids.
shortest distance
same system
(
114),
so
of a hyperboloid or paraboloid does not vanish, that the hyperboloid of one sheet and the
hyperbolic paraboloid are skew conicoids. Ex. 1. Shew by means of Exs. 5 and 7, 206, that the tangents to a curve generate a developable surface and that the principal normals generate a skew surface.
213,214]
315
Ex.
Ex.
2.
Shew Shew
a developable surface.
3.
,r=3^+2*(l -3*
y= -2fc+*2 (3 + 4*2)
214.
to a ruled surface.
We may
regard the coordinates of any point on the surface as functions of two variables t and 0, given by the equations
at
OL,
(t,
z)
ri
gz
1
a'z+a.',
a,
b'z
+ p,
6,
or
a'z+a.',
0,
i- e '
=0,
b'z+/3',
0,
bp)(a'z+GL)==()
(1)
which
If
is
(t, z).
a'ft
b'a.'
= 0,
or
-p^-^^k,
say,
where k
is
some
function of
t,
and
is
is
involves
0.
generator.
a'/3'
and
t,
so that
the plane given by (1) changes position if t is fixed and z varies, or the tangent planes are different at different
points of a generator. Hence the tangent plane to a developable surface is the same at all points of a generator ; the tangent planes to a
skew
Cor.
surface are different at different points of a generator. The equation to the tangent plane to a developable
316
215.
COOEDINATE GEOMETKY
The generators
of a
If the equations
[CH. xv.
developable surface
are
aaf
bff
a.'
t,
These express the coordinates in terms of one parameter and hence the locus of the points of intersection of conis
a curve.
^7g
az,
^2
-_
T/,
oz
>
z) has for
_?/
-
or
=a
(x, y, z).
Envelope of a plane whose equation involves one parameter. We have seen that the equation to the tangent
plane to a developable involves only one parameter, ( 214, We shall now prove a converse, viz., that the Cor.).
envelope of a plane whose equation involves one parameter is a developable surface. Let
where
a, 6,
c,
t,
be the
characteristic
<H/
is
given by
^ = 0,
and
therefore, since
= 0,
iy,
,
u and
the characteristics are straight lines and the envelope is a ruled surface. Two consecutive characteristics are given by
215,216]
PROPERTIES OF DEVELOPABLES
clearly lie in the plane
317
and these
intersect.
u + u'St~Q,
and therefore
Hence the envelope is a developable surface. The edge of regression of the envelope is given by
any point on the edge
and hence,
if (x, y, z) is
of regression,
ax+by+cz+d = 0, a'x+b'y+c'z+d' = 0,
a"x+b"y + c"z+d" = Q ................... (1)
But the coordinates
are functions of
t.
of
of regression
Therefore, from
and
whence we
+ (a"x + V'y + c"z + d") = 0, the plane ag+by + cg+d Q has three-
point contact at (x, y, z) with the edge of regression, or is the osculating plane. Thus a developable surface is the locus of the tangents to, or the envelope of the osculating its edge of regression. planes of,
Ex.
1.
able in Ex.
The point
by
z=t\ y=2* and these equations may be taken to represent the edge
,
,
:
#=3*2
of regression.
Ex. 2. Find the equations to the developable surfaces which have the following curves for edge of regression
(i)
o?=6*,
#~3*
2
,
s=2*3
(ii)
(iii)
#=acos#, # = e*,
y=asin#,
y=e~"
e
j
z=cQ;
Ans.
(i)
(ii)
where
(iii)
#=
Ex. 3. Find the edge of regression of the envelope of the normal planes of a curve. A normal plane is given by
Z^-aO-Q.
And by
Frenet's formulae,
we have
318
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
n 2 ^3> = x + l%p
>
[CH.
XV
Multiplying by
an(l adding,
3crp',
we deduce
and
similarly,
- m3oy>', 77 =y + mtf
Hence, the edge of regression is the locus of the centres of spherical curvature. The envelope is the polar developable, ( 205).
217.
developable surface.
Let <f>=px + qy
z.
Then,
and hence, by the elimination of t, we can express p and Now if u and v are functions of x and as functions of q. y the necessary and sufficient condition that u should be a
c 3(u, v) = 0.* A 3 tunction ot v 13-7 ( 3(0, y)
...
Py
q*>
that
is,
r, O
s
v
necessary condition
is
therefore rt
s2
= 0.
S,
Again,
r
s2
rx + sy,
8.
sx + ty
L
Therefore,
if
= 0,
<f>
is
a function of
is rt
q.
Hence, the
= 0.
This
may be proved
as follows
If
w=/(v),
ux
and
and therefore
/^
/
Hence ^7^
3 (^,
(~0
2/)
is
a necessary condition. J
It is also sufficient.
For
if
dv=0
v,
if
the variation of
or u
319
the surfaces
By
if
a?y
Ex. 2. Shew that a developable can be found to circumscribe two given surfaces. The equation to a plane contains three disposable constants, and the conditions of tangency of the plane and the two surfaces give two equations involving the constants. The equation to the plane therefore involves one constant, and the envelope of the plane is the required developable,
Ex. 3. Shew that a developable can be found to pass through two given curves.
2
= 0, y2 = 4o# # = 0, y 2 = 4bz
;
Ex.
4.
Shew
that the developable which passes through the curves 2 is the cylinder ?/ = 4a#-f- 4bz.
Ex. 5. Prove that the edge of regression of the developable that 2 = passes through the parabolas 2 0, y^~\ax\ #=0, (y a) =4az is the
curve of intersection of the surfaces
(a -f y)
2
= 3a(a? +y + z\
first
(a + ?/)
= 27a 2 r.
is
Any
and
parabola
,
myx + am2
- w).
is
easily obtained.
Shew that two cones pass through the curves #2 4-2/ 2 =4a 2 2 = 0; #=0, ?/ 2 = 4a(2+a);
,
2a),
2a, 0,
2a).
Ex. 7. Shew that the equation to the developable surface which passes through the curves
is
2 2= 4a2 (bz.v + ay 2 )(c 2y + az2), (<#yz- bc x) edge of regression is the curve of intersection of the
and that
conicoids
its
22
that the edge of regression of the developable that x a, y 2 = 4az is given by the parabolas #=0, z 2 4ay passes through
Ex.
8.
Shew
3.r_?/__
~~I~"3(a-,a?)'
Ex. 9. Prove that the edge of regression of the developable that 2 2 2 2 2 = passes through the circles 2 0, # -f?/ =a .r=0, y -f2 =&2, lies on the
,
cylinder
320
COOEUINATE GEOMETRY
[CH. xv.
Ex. 10. Prove that the section by the #y-plane of the developable generated by the tangents to the curve
is
given by
.
Z == 0, '
a\d> + c
x*
5
2
)
,
V\b* + c ~
)
2
)
_ (a2 ?*
y*
2 2 Ex. 11. An ellipsoid #2/a2 +y 2/b2 +z /c =I is surrounded by a 2 Shew that the boundary of the z 2 =a 2 luminous ring .#=0, y + shadow cast on the plane 0=0 is given by 2 2 y _ a
.
~~
generator of a skew surface. B3 are any three consecutive generators If AJJp A 2 B 2 A 3 of a skew surface, a conicoid can be described through The conicoid will be a paraboloid if the AjB^ A 2 B 2 A3 B 3 generators are parallel to the same plane, as in the case of any conoid, otherwise it will be a hyperboloid. If P is any point on A 2 B 2 the two planes through P and AjBj, A3 B3 respectively, intersect in a straight line which meets A 1 B 1 and A 3 B 3 in Q and R, say. Now PQR meets the conicoid in three ultimately coincident points, and therefore is a generator of the conicoid. Hence the plane of A2 B 2 and PQR is tangent plane at P to the conicoid. But PQR also meets the surface in three ultimately coincident points, and therefore is one of the inflexional tangents through Therefore the P, the other being the generator A 2 B 2 A 2 B 2 is also the tangent plane to the plane of PQR and Thus a conicoid can be found to touch a surface at P.
218.
Properties of a
,
given skew surface at all points of a given generator. We can deduce many properties of the generators of a skew surface from those of the generators of the hyper-
For example, it follows from 134, Ex. 10, that if two skew surfaces have a common generator they touch at two points of the generator; and from 113, Ex. 1, the locus of the normals to a skew surface at points of a given
boloid.
generator is a hyperbolic paraboloid. Since the surface and conicoid have three consecutive
generators in common, the shortest distance and angle
218]
321
between the given generator and a consecutive generator Hence the generator has the same are the same for both. central point and parameter of distribution for the surface
and conicoid. Thus it follows that if the tangent planes at P and P', points of a given generator of a skew surface, are at right angles, and C is the central point,
CP.CP' =
where S
is
-<S 2
the parameter of distribution. The locus of the central points of a system of generators of a skew surface is a curve on the surface which is called
line of striction.
Ex, 1. Prove that the paraboloid which touches the helicoid y/# = tanz/c at all points of the generator ,rsin 0=ycos #, z = c$ is c(x sin 6 y cos 0) + (z c6)(x cos 6 +y sin 6) = 0.
Prove also that the parameter of distribution and that the line of striction is the 2-axis.
of
any generator
is
Ex. 2. Prove that the conicoid which touches the surface y^z at all points of the generator x z^ # = 2c is y(x+ 3z) = 26'(3.r-f z\ and that the normals to the surface at points of the generator lie on the
paraboloid
z*
x2 = c(y
2c).
Ex. 3. For the cylindroid 2(.r2 + ?/2 ) = 2rary, prove that the paracos is meter of distribution of the generator in the plane x sin
2w cos 26.
Qy
Ex. 4. If the line x=az + a., y = fo-f/?, where a, 6, a, /? are functions of , generates a skew surface, the parameter of distribution for the generator is (oL y/ _.'/
Ex.
5.
If
the
line
ZZ,
I
(where
distribution for the
71
generates generator
d/3
dl,
19
dy
dn
n
should generate a developable
dm,
m,
line
Ex. 6. Apply the result of Ex. 5 to shew that the binomials of a given curve of torsion I/a* generate a skew surface and that the parameter of distribution for any generator is the corresponding value
of
<r.
Ex.
skew
Prove that the principal normals to any curve generate a 7. surface, the line of striction of which intersects the normal at a
x
B.Q.
322
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
[CH. xv.
are any pair of distance po-2/(p 2 -{-o- 2 ) from the curve, and that if P, to the on a normal such that the tangent planes at P and points a a 4 a 2 surface are at right angles, CP -p <r /(/o + cr ) where C is the point of intersection of the normal and the line of striction. (Apply 206, Exs. 4, 5.)
CQ=
is
If the line
x = az + cL,
y=bz+ft
generates a skew surface, the ^-coordinate of the point where the line of striction crosses the generator is
- al>(a'B' + 6'q/)
Ex.
10.
line
prove that the parameter of distribution of the generator and that the line of striction is the curve
is
f (1
+ 2*2 )2
Ex.
11.
If the line
n
generates a skew surface, the point of intersection of the line of striction and the generator is
mr,
where
Ex.
12.
r=
Deduce the
- my')
2,(mn
^7
,a
inn)*
results of Exs. 7
and
8. is
Ex. 13. The line of striction on a hyperboloid of revolution principal circular section.
the
Ex.
14.
Shew
#-acos0 _y - b sin ~~
a sin
bcosO
l,
__ ~~
elliptic
c\a*
fc
sin
cos 0(a 2
Examples XII.
1.
O
O
is
#y-plane. to PO.
a fixed point on the z-axis and P a variable point on the Find the envelope of the plane through P at right angles
is a fixed point on the 2-axis, and a variable 2. plane through cuts the jry-plane in a line AB. Find the envelope of the plane at right angles to the plane AOB. through
AB
CH. xv.]
EXAMPLES
XII.
323
in a conic so 3. Find the envelope of a plane that cuts an ellipsoid that the cone whose vertex is the centre of the ellipsoid and whose base is the conic is of revolution.
4.
variable
S3
Given three spheres S l? S 2 S 3 S x and S 2 being fixed and S 3 Prove that the radical plane of and with its centre on S^ and S 2 envelopes a contcoid.
,
5. The envelope of a plane such that the sum of the squares of its distances from n given points is constant, is a central conicoid whose centre is the mean centre of the given points.
6. Prove that the envelope of the polar planes of a given point with respect to the spheres which touch the axes (rectangular) consists
8. Any three conjugate diameters of an ellipsoid meet a fixed sphere concentric with the ellipsoid in P, Q, R. Find the envelope of the plane PQR.
9.
in A, B, C, so that
plane meets three intersecting straight lines OX, OY, OZ OA OB and OB OC are constant. Find its
.
envelope.
sets of three mutually perpendicular 10. Through a fixed point Prove that the lines are drawn to meet a given sphere in P, Q, R. is a conicoid of revolution. envelope of the plane
PQR
11.
in
equal
12. Find the envelope of planes which pass through a given point and cut an ellipsoid in ellipses of constant area.
13. O is a fixed point and P any point on a given circle. envelope of the plane through P at right angles to PO. 14.
Find the
x* +y* + z 2 = r2
of the normals
*2 z
i
the confocals
from
(OL, /?,
y) to
--I
a 2_X^6 a
-A
c2
-A
is
),
(9C
where A, B,
t,
py
"
yz
16.
P, Q,
The normals from O to one of a system of confocals meet it in R P', Q', R'. If the plane PQR is fixed and O and the confocal
;
324
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
[CH. xv.
17. Prove that the polar planes of (, 77, ) with respect to the confocals to xP/a+yt/b + zZ/cl are the osculating planes of a cubic curve, and that the general surface of the second degree which passes through the cubic is
where
18.
Shew
that the coordinates of a point on the edge of regression i.e. the envelope of the rectifying plane,
7
a
.,
etc.,
etc.,
4- (tan
as
0)
where tan0=p/(r. Prove also that the direction -cosines of the tangent and principal normal are proportional to l\p ltfr, etc.; 3/0 4- ^cr, etc., and that the radii of curvature and torsion are
_J
19.
*/_!
and
p*/_L_Y <frU(tsng)
I
ds
are confocal and a developable is circumscribed to the first along its curve of intersection with the second, the edge of regression lies on
20.
the curves
^ = (a~6)(2^~5);
edge of regression
x=0, y*=(a-b)(
on the cylinder
prove that
its
lies
21.
Shew
x
is
by
(o-o)(6-a)'
22.
__
(c-6)(a-6)'
(a-c)(6-c)'
Prove that the developable surface that envelopes the sphere 2 2 - 2/ci! = 1 meets the ^2+^2+22=02 and the hyperboloid ^/a +y /62
plane
y=0 in
the conic
a
z2
CH. xv.
23.
EXAMPLES
2
XII.
325
l,
shew that
its section
a.
+ sin
/?,
If the generator of a skew surface make with the tangent and principal normal of the line of striction angles whose cosines are A
and
/x,
prove that
=^, where p
P
is
line of striction
by the
x
cos
a cos
cos
h~~*
_y - a sin
sin
?
2
0~ sin ~ cos -
22
a,
,
is
an
ellipse in the
is
(
and
whose centre
ICH. xvi.
CHAPTER XVL
CURVATURE OF SURFACES.
proceed to investigate the curvature at a point on a given surface of the plane sections of the surface which pass through the point. In our investigation we
219.
shall
We now
make
in
184.
If the point is taken as origin, the tangent plane at the origin as #;y-plane, and the normal as z-axis, the equations
to the surface
>
= raj2 + 2sxy + ty z
z
Fio. 60.
Curvature of normal sections through an elliptic If rt s2 >0 the indicatrix is an ellipse, (fig. 60). point. Let C be its centre, CA and CB its axes, and let CP be any
220.
219-221]
327
semidiameter.
is
CP 2
radii of
curvature of normal sections are proportional to the squares of the semidiameters of the indicatrix. The sections OCB,
OCA, which have the greatest and least curvature, are called the principal sections at O and their radii of curvature
are the principal
radii.
If
p l9
/o 2
If the axes
OX and OY
XOY
until they lie in the principal sections OCA, the equations to the indicatrix become
OCB respectively,
or
= h,
'--+
Pi
P2
to the surface is
Pi If
P2
angle 9 with the principal section OCA, the coordinates of P are r cos 0, r sin 0, h. Hence, since P is on the indicatrix,
2/6
.
CP = r, and
OCR makes an
_ cos
2
, i
sin 2 0.
3
r*
,,
Pi
P2
sin 2
t
therefore
= cos
2
1
Pi
PZ
where p
221.
is
bolic point.
(fig. 61).
<0,
the indicatrix
is
a hyperbola,
The inflexional tangents are real and divide the surface into two portions such that the concavities of normal sections of the two are turned in opposite directions. If we consider the curvature of a section whose concavity
is
328
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
[CH. XVI.
positive, then the positive radii of curvature are proportional to the squares of semidiameters of the indicatrix
z = h,
2k = rx 2 +2sxy + ty*,
(fc>0),
(1)
(&>0)
(2)
Fio. 61.
section of algebraically greatest curvature passes through the real axis of the indicatrix (1), and the normal section of algebraically least curvature through the
real axis of the indicatrix (2).
The normal
on the ory-plane into conjugate hyperbolas whose common 220, the asymptotes are the inflexional tangents. As in of greatest and least curvature are the principal sections If the axes OX and OY lie in the principal sections.
sections the equations to the indicatrices are
=
If p l9
sign,
71,
= 1;
(2)
*=
-ft,
or
~-=-l.
2
Pz
Pi
Pz
221,222]
329
Pi
P2
The radius of curvature of the normal section that makes an angle 9 with the 2#-plane is given by
I_cos
P
222.
2
sin 2
P2
Pi
Curvature of normal sections through a para2 s = 0, the indicatrix consists of two If rt bolic point. The inflexional tangents parallel straight lines, (fig. 62).
Fio. 62.
coincide,
its
and the normal section which contains them has curvature zero. The normal section at right angles to
maximum
sections.
curvature.
If
OX and
to
OY
in
equations
the
where a = CA.
The
finite principal
radius p l
is
given by
to the indicatrix
/V2 /y2
2h = -;
Pl
2*=-+....
Pl
is
OOP which
OCA,
Pi
330
COOEDINATE GEOMETRY
If r =
t
[CH.XVL
is
223. Umbilics.
and
= 0,
the indicatrix
circle and the principal sections are indeterminate, since all normal sections have the same curvature. Points at which
the indicatrix
224.
is
section.
The
re-
between the curvatures of a normal section and an oblique section through the same tangent line is stated in Meunier's Theorem If p and p are the radii of curvature
lation
:
of a normal section
and an
cos
0,
same tangent,
sections.
p~p
where 6
If the
is
taken as ccy-plane,
the normal as 0-axis, and the common tangent to the sections as cc-axis, the equations to the indicatrix are
z = h,
2/i
= ra2 + 2sxy + ty 2
and, (see
fig.
60),
The equations
to
QQ' are
l
2h = rx 2 + 2sxh tan
x and y are small quantities of the first order, h is of the second order, and therefore to our degree of approxiif
2 mation, hx and h
But
may
20V
be rejected.
Hence QV 2 =
and
P=
The following proof
QV 2 ==
of Meunier's theorem is due to Besant. Let OT be tne common tangent to the sections and consider the sphere which touches OT at O and passes through an adjacent and The planes of the ultimately coincident point on each section. sections cut the sphere in circles which are the circles of curvature at O of the sections. The circle in the plane containing the normal is a great circle, and the other is a small circle of the sphere. If C
is
the centre of the great circle and C of the small circle, the triangle is right angled at C, and the is the angle between angle the planes. Hence the theorem immediately follows.
COC
COC
223-225]
KADIUS OF CUKVATURE
331
Expression for radius of curvature of a given Let OT, the section through any point of a surface. tangent to a given section of a surface through a given point O on it, have direction-cosines 1 19 7n t n r Let the normal to OT which lies in the plane of the section have
225.
,
direction-cosines
2,
2,
7i
-P
0)
given by
But
therefore,
p
by Frenet's formulae, since dp dp dx dp dy = rl l -j^^r'-r+^r' -r ds dx ds dy ds dq do dx dq '-= dy
t
'
+
,
sl i
cos 9
or
rl.
-
+ 2-sZ.m, + tm, z
l
'
*-
Cor.
When
= 0,
p becomes
/>
immediately follows.
Ex.
1.
Ans.
1,
^.
x=3y,
3jc=-y.
are the radii of curvature ol any two perpendicular is constant. normal sections at a point of a surface, - +
Ex.
3.
If p,
/>'
332 Ex.
4.
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
[CH.XVL
by the plane
s
Ex.
surface
5.
The
2*=*+y
Pl
+...
P2
is
Principal radii at a point of an ellipsoid. Let p be a point on an ellipsoid, centre O. Take OP as 2-axis
226.
as ##-plane. Then take the principal axes of the section of the ellipsoid by the #?/-plane as x- arid i/-axes. Since the coordinate axes are conjugate
of
OP
its
equation
is
where y = OP, and 2a and 2/3 are the principal axes of the section of the ellipsoid by the plane through the centre which is parallel to the tangent plane at P. The equations to the indicatrix are z = y k, where k is ~2 .,2 small, and
Therefore,
if
6,
be the perpendicular from the centre to the tangent plane at P, and let h be the distance between the planes of the indicatrix and the tangent plane. Then
let
Now
k^h V~P
Therefore,
if
Pi ri
rX ^^r
2
-
2h
A and
p 2 = -Lt5i: = 2h
T.&
P*
226-229]
LINES OF CUEVATURE
radii at
i
333
(x, y, z)
Ex.
1,
ellipsoid x*la*+y*IW+e*/c
=l
a point
on the
are given
by
c2
Ex. 2. If PT is tangent to a normal section at P on an ellipsoid, the radius of curvature of the section is r2//), where r is the central radius parallel to PT. Ex.
P on
If X, \i are the 3. parameters of the confocals through a point the ellipsoid &2/a 2 +y2 ib 2 + z 2/c 2 = ], the principal radii at P are
'
abc
abc
Ex. 4. The normal at a point P of an ellipsoid meets the principal planes through the mean axis in Q and R. If the sum of the principal radii at P is equal to PQ-f PR, prove that P lies on a real central
circular section of the ellipsoid.
an umbilic of the ellipsoid X2 la 2 +y2 /b2 + z 2 /c2 = l, prove that the curvature at P of any normal section through P is (See 95, Ex. 2.) ac/b*.
Ex.
5.
If
is
LINES OF CURVATURE.
tangent at any point touches one of the principal sections of the surface at the point is called a line of curvature. There
227.
its
pass, in general,
of the surface,
two lines of curvature through every point and the two lines of curvature through any
Lines of curvature of an ellipsoid. The tangents to the principal sections at a point P of an ellipsoid whose centre is O are parallel to the axes of the central section of
228.
the ellipsoid by the diametral plane of OP, ( 226). But the tangents to the curves of intersection of the ellipsoid
and the confocal hyperboloids through P are also parallel to the axes of the section, (121). Therefore the lines of curvature on the ellipsoid are its curves of intersection
with confocal hyperboloids.
on a developable surface. One principal section at any point of a developable is the normal section through the generator. Hence the form one system of lines of curvature. The generators
229.
Lines
of curvature
334
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
[CH. xvi.
other system consists of curves drawn on the surface to cut all the generators at right angles. In the case of a cone, the curve of intersection of the cone and any sphere
centre at the vertex cuts all the generators at right angles, and therefore the second system of lines of curvature consists of the curves of intersection of the cone
its
which has
line of
curvature.
fundamental property of
:
lines of curvature
may
be stated as follows
are adjacent and ultimately coincident points of a line of curvature, the normals to the surface at O and P intersect ; conversely, if O and P are adjacent
If O and P
points of a curve
the surface at
drawn on a surface and the normals O and P intersect, the curve is a line
let
to
of
22= *V-+....
Pi
P-2
P will r cos
6,
lie
will
r sin
surface are
zh
1
r cos 6
Pi
r sin 9
Pz
is
1
Therefore,
at O,
i.e.
if
the normal at P
/
with OZ,
sin0cos0(~--Uo
Vi
/V
If
;
(1)
O and P are adjacent points of a line of curvature, sin 9 = 0, or cos = 0, and the condition (1) is satisfied therefore the normals at adjacent points of a line of curvature
intersect.
If the
normals at
O and
P intersect, cos
is
or sin
= 0,
a line of curvature.
Ex. The normals to an ellipsoid at its points of intersection with a confocal generate a developable surface.
229-231]
LINES OF CUJRVATUKE
335
The normals
Lines of curvature on a surface of revolution. to a surface of revolution at all points of a meridian section lie in the plane of the section, and therefore, by 230, the meridian sections are lines of curvature. The
231.
all
points of a circular section pass through the same point on the axis, and therefore any circular section is a line of curvature.
normals at
be any point on the surface, and let PT and PK be the tangents to the meridian and circular sections
Let
P, (fig. 63),
through
in N,
P.
P,
and
let
Then
Fio. 63.
are the planes of the principal sections. The principal radius in the plane TPN is the radius of curvature at P of the generating curve. The circular section is an
oblique section through the tangent PK, and its radius of curvature is CP. Therefore, by Meunier's theorem, if p is
CP = p cos 0, where
or
=
is
L CPN,
p = PN.
principal radius
axis.
its
In the surface formed by the revolution of a parabok directrix one principal radius at any point is twice tne other.
336
Ex. about
2.
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
its directrix,
[CH. xvi.
For the surface formed by the revolution of a catenary (the catenoid), the principal radii at any point are
(A
and
of
Ex. 3. In the conicoid formed by the revolution of a central conic about an axis one principal radius varies as the cube of the other.
Ex.
4.
given curve.
developable surface is generated by the tangents to a Prove that at the point Q on the tangent at P, where
is
.
PQ =
Let the plane through at right angles to generators in N and M, (fig. 64). Then N, Q,
PQ
Fio. 04.
But the angle between consecutive generators and the angle between the planes PQN, PQM is the angle between consecutive osculating planes, and therefore is ST. Therefore,
pl
is
of the line of curvature Ex. 5. Find the radius of curvature at of the developable. Draw at right angles to the consecutive generator. Then N, Q, L are consecutive points on the line of curvature. Let QM, NQ, meet the sphere of unit radius whose centre is in a, ft, c respectively. Then, if 8\jr' is the angle between consecutive tangents to the line of
QL
QL
curvature,
8^ = bc, S^ = ca,
is
S T = ab.
a,
right-angled at
we have
QL
Hence
232]
337
Ex.
Shew
the developable
^
,
1 where
== -
dp
' a- ==
do*
and
s is
Ex. 7. Shew that the lines of curvature of generated by tangents to a helix are plane curves.
the developable
232. The principal radii and lines of curvature through In 225 we have a point of the surface z=f(x, y). n are the direction-cosines of the found that if 1 19 lf tangent to a normal section of the surface through the
m
j
point
(x, y,
is
given by
+ Zslm
r
tm,*
................... ( )
We
have also
whence
Therefore, if (1) and (2) into
>
which correspond This equation gives two values of ^ x to the two sections through the point which have a given radius of curvature. If p is a principal radius, these
:
sections coincide,
(cf.
85).
are given
by
or
If
r-s
is
equation (4)
satisfied,
the
-i
,
coincident values of
/
9 2
L m, are
:
11
-i k
$P
i+</ --f k
*P
TP k
B.Q.
Pq ~li
8P
(5)
338
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
it'
[CH. xvi.
a straight line whcxse direction-cosines are n l9 and P'Q' is its projection on the #2/-plane, the ^, x projections of PQ and P'Q' on the x- and yaxes are identical, and therefore the gradient of P'Q' with reference to the
Now
PQ
is
axes
OX and OY
is
mjl^
Hence, from
(5),
the differential
equation to the projection on the ^y-plane of the line of curvature corresponding to the radius p is
dx
+
sp
or
If we eliminate pfk between these equations, we obtain the differential equation to the projections of the two lines of curvature, viz.,
dx*{s(l+p*)-rpq}+dxdy{t(l+p*)-r(I+q*)}
Shew
Ex.
//
1.
where
Ex.
a
2.
k2
a"
0*
Prove that at a point of the intersection of the paraboloid hV=22 and the confocal r+F r = 22- A, the principal radii r ^
!
a-A 6-A
A2
.
!i
'
7X are A: A, ^
a6P wnere r A
,
~
,
k*
T0
Ex.
3.
Shew
232]
339
Ex.
^LJi
dx
whence
or
dx
^=--,
y
are arbitrary constants. 231 for the paraboloid.
in Ex. 3 is
Shew
Ex.
yAx
or
where X
is
this
becomes
lf
'^aA-hi
its
Ex. 6. Prove that the intersection of the surface 3z = cuc3 + by3 and the plane ax by is a line of curvature of the surface.
Ex.
7.
drawn on
it
should
dp dq __ dx+pdz~~ dy -\-qdz*
and deduce the equation to the lines Apply 48. Also dzpdx + qdy,
Ex.
8.
of curvature obtained in
232.
dp^
If ID
tt
line of curvature,
and
are the direction-cosines of the tangent to a w, n are the direction-cosines of the normal
dl
dm dn
line of curvature of the ellipsoid
Ex.
9.
of
any point
'
a 2 +A
+ 6J --j.__--i 2 c2
-f
+X
verify this
Ex.
10.
= ctan~
^,
/i= -p2=
>
where w2 =^ 2
340
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
point, P, on the surface is given
[CH.XVL
Any
by
is
But
if
is
of the
Therefore
+ c2)c*02 - 2c
Vi^-f C
:
-=
du
,
/>
+ <* 2 = 0.
rf#
TT Hence
p=
where u and 6 are polar coordinates. Hence the lines of curvature are the intersections of the helicoid and cylinders
Zu = c(A**-A- e-'\
l
where A
Ex.
is
an arbitrary constant.
11.
For the
=
and deduce the
Ex.
12.
= 2* 2 wf, q ?^ 2
cu
ex ~
r=-^= %cxy /, IF
from the equations of
232.
results of Ex. 10
by
= 0,
where
,, r
^ ^ 7S
,
dz
etc<)
an ^ ^ 2 s
"*"
#= We have ^
-u
/, '
= -^
' ,
=
,
-z'
T
r
^2
232]
341
Ex. 13.
-WIT7
y
2
>
_
P'2~~
-(I
+ z'rf
>'
>
where ^ = -y-,
Ex. 14.
etc.
Deduce the
result of
231.
y=U8inQj
z=clog(u+ Vtt
c2),
= - p2 prove that pj
Ex.
15.
.
Find the principal radii at a point of the cylindroid Prove that at any point of the generator #=;?/,
is
2=?n, one principal radius is infinite and the other the distance of tne point from the 2-axis.
where u
is
Ex.
16.
of the surface
Pi
Pt
<*
If
is
I,
the arc,
!_Y^Y
ff
\daiJ
But
^{
-*(l+p*)} + Jm(r(^^
line of curvature that touches
...(1)
p=q=s=
ds^
Also
therefore differentiating
and substituting,
we
obtain
dm
<5*\ fa=~r^tv^ +m
doL
j^s
^
Pl
ty)~^rY^
P2
.
Again,
at the origin
And,
... since
7
7 dl ^-r--f
,
aa
r aa.
dl
A -=0.
Therefore,
if
/3
is
touches
OY is
342
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
17.
[CH. xvi.
Ex. form
ellipsoid can
be put in the
^ - ---*T
Pi
P2
^>
where
Ex.
77, jt?
18.
of curvature
A3/*
'
fi(/i
- A) 3
> ~A
'
where A and
p.
Ex. 19. PN, PN PN 2 are the normals at a point P to an ellipsoid and the confocal hyperboloids of one and two sheets through P. Prove that the curvature at P of the curve of section of the ellipsoid ~ and hyperboloid of two sheets is (/>i~ 2 + p 2 2 ) where p^ 1 is the curvature of the section of the ellipsoid by the plane PNN U and /Oo" 1 is the curvature of the section of the hyperboloid of two sheets by tne
>
plane PNjNg.
233.
Umbilics.
At an umbilic
therefore,
from equa-
~
r
t
~
s
~k'
any normal
section
of curvature of
of
By
differentiation,
we x
obtain
,
~o-fS=0, L L
pz
,.
'
or
Whence
r-
..=
or
At an
Hence
pq (1 -f
2
jt)
) 4-
rzpq
c
2
= 0.
^=00^=0;
(rz
+ l+p*^0
unless
+a 2 =0).
We have also at
01-
the umbilic
a 2p 2 (6 2 - c2 ) + 6 2g 2 (c2 - a 2 ) = c2 (a 2 - 6 2).
If Tf If
a>6>c, p =
q.
-* c
233]
UMBILICS
_x2^
a*z
843
Therefore, since
At an
umbilic
if
Hence,
P=7>
sinw y=0,
ac
(Cf.
Ex.
Shew
xyz
Ex.
3.
%+
3
<?
it
= b^y
<?z.
Ex. 4. Prove that in general three lines of curvature pass through an umbilic. If the umbilic is taken as origin, the equation to the surface is
P
is
the normal at (#, y, z) should intersect the /0 x 0/7 o?\ ^ bjr + x'yCZc - a) + xy*(a - 26) - c?/ 3 =0.
,
>
Therefore,
if
x
and
ctan oL+(26-rf)tan o.-(2c-a)tanoL-6=0. This equation gives three values of tan a which correspond to the three lines of curvature through the umbilic.
3 2
Ex. 5. If the origin is an umbilic of the surface z=/(,r, ?/), the directions of the three lines of curvature through the origin are
given by
Ex.
6.
normal at the origin the z-axis, arid the principal plane which contains the umbilics the #-plane, the
344
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
is
[CH.
XVL
= 0.
Whence, at the
origin,
^\~
we have
oJ
'"S
*dt__g
ox
w*
3r_3? oJ
ox
-^
cV_3*
'=
"i~
*J*
oy
oy
Therefore the directions of the lines of curvature through the by tan 3 a + tan a=0,
real line of curvature
of the ellipsoid
7.
through the umbilics is the section by the principal plane that contains the umbilics.
that the points of intersection of the line
Shew
o
and surface
umbilics on the surface, and that the }-?/+ c b directions of the three lines of curvature through an umbilic (.r, y, z) are given by
33 = &* are
6
'
-=/=a b c
^^ ^^ ^^
c
'
a*
If
P and
are adjacent
drawn on the
Also,
we have
since the tangent to the curve lies in the tangent plane to the surface.
If
-=^=-,
dx dy
:
dz,
and the
first
- bdz)(adz - cdx)(bdx -
ady) =0.
234.
Triply-orthogonal
systems
of surfaces.
When
three systems of surfaces are such that through each point in space there passes one member of each system, and the three members through any given point cut at right angles,
they are together said to form a triply-orthogonal system of The confocals of a given conicoid form such a surfaces.
system.
We
are
its
lines of curvature of
an
ellipsoid
curves of intersection with the confocal hyperboloids. This is a particular case of a general theorem on the lines
of curvature of a triply-orthogonal system, Dupin's theorem, which we proceed to enunciate and prove. // three systems of surfaces cut everywhere at right angles, the lines of curvature of any
234]
DUPIN'S
THEOREM
345
are
its
two systems. Let O be any point on a given surface, S p of the first system, and let S 2 and S3 be the surfaces of the second and We have to prove that third systems that pass through O. the curves of intersection of S x with S 2 and S 3 are the lines of
curvature on S 1
surfaces
planes.
The tangent planes at O to the three cut at right angles. Take them for coordinate The equations to the three surfaces are then,
.
to Sj
to
to
S2
S3
Near the origin, on the curve of intersection of the surfaces S z and S 2 x and y are of the second order of small quantities, and hence the coordinates of a point of the curve adjacent to O are 0, 0, y. The tangent planes to
Sj
and S 2 at
(0, 0,
y) are,
if
2 y be
rejected, given
by
we have
/^
and therefore
= h 2 = h 3 = 0.
Hence the coordinate planes are the planes of the principal sections at O of the three surfaces and the curve of intersection of S l and S 2 touches a principal section of S l But O is any point of S 19 and therefore the curve at O. touches a principal section at any point of its length, and
therefore
is
intersection of
Ex. 1. By means of Ex. 8, 232, prove that if two surfaces cut at a constant angle and their curve of intersection is a line of curvature of one, then it is a line of curvature of the other also, that if the curve of intersection of two surfaces is a line of curvature on each, the two surfaces cut at a constant angle.
;
Ex.
2.
surface
If a line of curvature of a surface lies on a sphere, the at all points of the line.
346
COORDINATE GEOMETEY
3.
[CH.
XVL
Ex.
If the
normals to a surface at
all points of a plane section the plane of the section, the section is a
Curvature at points of a generator of a skew We have shewn that a ruled conicoid can be surface. found to touch a given skew surface at all points of a given generator, ( 218). If P is any point of the generator, the generators of the conicoid through P are the inflexional tangents of the skew surface, and therefore the conicoid and surface have the same indicatrix at P. Hence the sections of the conicoid and of the surface through P have
235.
Whence
p = 0, ^
'
at (#,
q= l
0,
0)
,
we have
-
-hx
r=0,
s=
h* =
,
--
buP-Zftixw + cffix* * =
The
by
where 8
236.
is
A.
Draw from
the
centre of a sphere of unit radius parallels to the normals to the surface at all points of the boundary of S. These
intercept on the surface of the sphere a portion of area a, whose boundary is called the horograph of the portion S, and a is taken to measure the whole curvature of the
portion
S.
is
-p
If
is
a point within
is
then Lt -r as S
is
indefinitely diminished
specific
curvature at
P.
235-237]
347
237.
/>!
Expressions for the measure of curvature. // and p% are the principal radii at a point P the measure
of curvature at P is
Let PQ, PR, (fig. 65), be infinitesimal arcs of the lines of curvature through P, and let QS and RS be arcs of the lines Then the normals to the of curvature through Q and R.
surface at P
and Q
intersect at
C lf
so that
at P
PC 2 = RC 2 = p 2
FIG. 65.
PC 2 R
we have
is
pqrs
is
PQRS
Gar.
prfzSO^Oz
fll
p2
The measure
z =f(x, y)
348
Ex.
an
1.
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
[CH. xvi.
ellipsoid, the plane of contact divides the surface into two portions whose total curvatures are 27r(l-hsino.), 27r(l -sinrx). The horograph is the circle of intersection of the unit sphere and
is
Tr
2t
o..
2.
Any
The measure
of the ellipsoid
-:>-f a2 o2
T71-I-
=1
)*
is
2 a .;... ,., 6V
where p r
Prove that at any point P of the paraboloid y 2 -f z 2 = 4ax, the measure of curvature is -=;2 where S is the point (a, 0, 0), and
Ex.
4.
>
that the whole curvature of the portion of tho surface cut off by the
plane
x=x$
5,
is 2rr
- A/ >a
+ .r
\ /
x
Ex.
At
from the central point the measure of curvature is ^p ^, where 8 (o +# ) is the parameter of distribution. Ex. 6. If the tangent planes at any two points P and P' of a given generator of a skew surface are at right angles, and the measures of curvature at P and P' are R and /f 15 prove that *jR-\-*J R is constant.
Ex. 7. Find the measure of curvature at the point surface (# 2 + * 2 )(2>r
(#, y, z)
on the
Ex. 8. The binomials to a given curve generate a skew surface. Prove that its measure of curvature at a point of the curve is - 1/cr2
.
Ex. 9. The normals to a skew surface at points of a generator on a hyperbolic paraboloid. Prove that at any point of the generator the surface and paraboloid have the same measure of curvature.
lie
CURVILINEAR COORDINATES.
238.
We
have
seen,
are parameters, determine a surface. If we assign a particular value to one of the parameters, say varies is a U, then the locus of the point (x, y, z) as curve on the surface, since x, ?/, z are now functions of one
where
and
parameter.
If
the
to
Vv,
the position of P
U=u, may be
238,239]
DIRECTION-COSINES OF THE
NORMAL
349
considered as determined by the values u and v of the parameters, and these values are then called the curvilinear
Thus a point on an ellipsoid is coordinates of the point P. determined in position if the parameters of the confocal
hyperboloids which pass through it are known, and these parameters may be taken as the curvilinear coordinates of
the point. If one of the parameters remains constant while the other varies, the locus of the point is the curve of intersection of the ellipsoid and the hyperboloid which
What
Ex.
= cO.
The hyperboloid
y_i-A//, ~~
z_
"*
A.-//,
by
What curves correspond to A = constant, //. constant? If A and /ut are the curvilinear coordinates of a point on the surface, what is the locus of the point when (i) A = /x, (ii) A/A = ?
239.
O,
(fig.
Direction-cosines of the normal to the surface. If curvi66), is the point of a given surface whose
Ki<;.
66.
u,
v,
tangents at
to the curves
#V
Therefore
if
I,
>
2/1M
2V
#U> 2/U,2u-
normal at
to the surface,
+ my u + nz u = 0,
350
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
[CH.
XVL
and
_L
185.)
If
m
:
i1
where
F=xux +y u y +zuz
l>
(Cf.
Cor.
equation between the curvilinear coordinates of a point on a surface represents a curve drawn on the surface. We proceed to find the
240.
The
linear
element.
An
relation
between the
and Let O and P, (fig. 66), be adjacent points of the curve and have cartesian coordinates
the coordinates.
(a?,
y,
z\
(x
+ 8x, y + 8y,
(u + 8u, v + Sv).
Then
and hence
if
cubes and higher powers are rejected. Therefore if ds is the differential of the arc of the curve,
l,
2
since Lt(OP/<S*) =
cfo
The value
called the
Find/if df**
and lines of curvature. We can find the principal radii at a point of the surface when
241.
The principal
radii
239-241]
351
The normal
to the surface is the principal normal of section, and therefore if it has direction-cosines
whose radius of
d?x
m
,j 2 ds g
n
,~.
A17 ,
Whence
But
and
(!) ^ '
dx = x udu + x v dv,
Again,
~
f
J-jy
IIV
X U ZV
J--T
where
H* = EG-F 2
(1),
Substituting these in
we
obtain
(2)
H
P
where
E' =
yu
%it>
oc v>
Equation (2)
may
be written
and gives two values of du:dv which correspond to the two normal sections with a given radius of curvature. If
p
is
Therefore the
by
*=Q.
...(4)
352
If
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
p
is
[CH. XVI.
(4),
__
E'du+F'dv~F'du + G'dv~H*
Cor.
1.
The measure
E'G'-F'*
775
of curvature is
Cor.
2.
For an umbilic
(2)
E =z F ==
'
G* 7'
:
Equation
If 0,
may
the point considered, and P, (x+x, y + ty, z + Sz) is an adjacent point on a normal section through 0, p, the radius of curvature of the section, is given by
(.r, ?/,
z) is
where p
is
P to
The
2(^-.r)(y u
^) = 0, and
efcc -
Hence
2 (.ruu Su? + 2 JF
2/7
Therefore, since
^ ~~
p
Edtf+ZFdudv + O
radii
Ex. 1. Find the principal surface z=f(x> y). Take u==x, v =y, then
and
lines
of curvature of the
Hence
E
JE"
and on substituting
of
*
in equations (4)
and
(5),
232.
The student
&
Co.).
DiffArentieli
W. de
will find the methods of curvilinear coordinates discussed treatise on Differential Geometry by L. P. Eisenhart, He is also referred to Applications Gdome'triqma du Calcul
Tannenberg
Geometria
Differemiale, Bianchi.
241]
353
Ex.
curve.
ruled surface
is
The coordinates
and are functions
Frenet's formulae,
by
of s and r. we obtain
,
F=0,
-5
>
0=1,
H=\^l + ~i
<7
per*
Ex.
3.
The curve
curvature
is
Find the measure of curvature at the line of striction. is the line of striction, and when r=0, the measure of
2
I/or
Ex. 4. Apply the method of curvilinear coordinates to prove that the principal radius of a developable at a distance I along a generator
of regression is
Apply the method of curvilinear coordinates = u~ for the helicoid # = wcos 0, y = ^sin 0, z cd, Pi = /> 2 the lines of curvature are given by d0 -
to prove that
c2
and that
Ex. 6. Find the locus of points on the helicoid at which the measure of curvature has a given value. Ex.
7.
x _u + v
uv
where
by
du
Ex.
8.
2
i;
)--u
3
,
and the lines of curvature are given are arbitrary constants. B.Q. E
by
u=a
Vf
v = a2 ,
where a and
v
364
Ex.
point
9.
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
The squares
the conicoid
[CH. xvi.
P on
a
are
aa-A,
61
= 6-A, ^
as the curvilinear coordinates of the point, prove
Taking A and
p.
V^VT'
Deduce that
'
T
p
>V
and
and that the lines of curvature are A = constant, /z= constant. If lj m, n are the direction -cosines of the normal to the surface,
Llf
L
JT7"
"
since
We have
also
if
F and
Examples XIII.
1. Prove that along a given line of curvature of a conicoid, one principal radius varies as the cube of the other.
2.
are given
xyz^a?
where p
is
the point.
the perpendicular from the origin to the tangent plane at Shew that this equation can be written in the form
,
&B
38
+pp
ty
+PP
+ pp
_o ""
'
and that
if
(,
r/,
f)
is
(#, y, z),
aV=^
2
(a?
+y
at the
CH.XVI.]
5.
EXAMPLES
x == u cos 6,
XIII.
355
y=u sin 0, z =/(0), that the angles that the lines of curvature prove generators are given by
tan
<
- 1 =0.
6. For a rectangular hyperboloid, (in which the asymptotic cone has three mutually generators), the normal chord at perpendicular any point is the harmonic mean between the principal radii. 7. PT is tangent at P to a curve on an ellipsoid along which the measure of curvature is constant. Prove that the normal section of the ellipsoid through PT is an ellipse which has one of its vertices at P. 8. Prove that at a point of the intersection of the cylindroid 2 2 3 2 2 z(x*+y ) = mxy and the cylinder (# +y ) ^a (^ -?/ 2 ) 2 the measure of
<2
anangle
10. Prove that the on the surfaces
xy
az
lie
sinhr 1 ^ = A
1J
where A
11.
is
an arbitrary constant.
that the
is
Shew
on a
sum
A curve is drawn on
the surface
x at the origin and with its osculating plane inclined to the z-axis at an angle <f>. Prove that at the origin
touching the axis of
13.
xy^az bounded by
point
(x, y, z) is
Prove that the whole curvature of the portion of the paraboloid the generators through the origin and through the
2
-tan-*
14.
on the
a
is
2 BWxydx* - (/?Wr +
where
o.==&
-c
2
,
= c2 -a2
= a2 -ft2
356
COORDINATE GEOMETEY
[en. xvi.
Deduce that
where r p==^ and hence shew that the integral of the equation dx
is
*_-_**!_, k ~aa%-/#>
*
where k
is
2'
an arbitrary constant.
if
Prove that
=^
~"
tt ; 2
oca (a
-A)
2
x v
this reduces to
a2 (
-A)
and deduce that the lines of curvature are the curves of intersection of the ellipsoid and its confocals.
of a
Prove that the measure of curvature at points of a generator skew surface varies as cos 4 #, where d is tne angle between the tangent planes at the point and at the central point.
15.
16.
has a line
ruled surface is generated by the principal normals to a 17. given curve prove that at the point of a principal normal distant r from the curve the principal radii are given by
;
(cr
p<r\cr
p/
p
?
What
18. If ?, m, n are the direction-cosines of the normal at a point to the surface z=f(x, y) the equation for the principal radii can be written
1
/3T 3w\
;r
p
19.
o 2
"
p\d^
2
i
3y/
of the line of curvature of the
surface
Pi
Pt
6
<
ZOX,
such that
20. Prove that for the surface tractrix about its axis
of the
of curvature
CH.XVI.J
21.
EXAMPLES
XIII.
357
a minimal surface, f'(l+f*) + u>f' = Q. Hence, shew that the only real minimal surface of revolution formed by the revolution of a catenary about its directrix.
is
is
22.
At a
point of the curve of intersection of the paraboloid xy cz the principal radii of the para(1 ^
\/2). '
boloid are
23.
The
any point
of its curve of
intersection with a concentric sphere varies as (sinAsin/x)% A, and are the angles that the generator through the point fjL
where makes
lines.
is some function makes an angle 0, where Prove that the measure of curvature at P of the surface generated by the line is
variable ellipsoid whose axes are the coordinate axes touches 25. the given plane px -\-qy-\- rz= 1. Prove that the locus of the centres of principal curvature at the point of contact is
[CH. XVII.
CHAPTER XVIL
ASYMPTOTIC LINES.
242.
point one of the inflexional tangents through the point called an asymptotic line on the surface.
243.
1
The
TI
are the direction-cosines of the tangent to an L 19 asymptotic line on the surface z~f(x, y), we have, from
181,
mv
If
ri* + 2sl l
m + <m
l
2
1
= 0;
whence, as in 232, the differential equation of the projections on the ojy-plane of the asymptotic lines is r dx2 + Zsdxdy + tdy 2 = 0.
from the definition that the asymptotic lines of a hyperboloid of one sheet are the generators. This may be easily verified from the differential equation. If the equation to the hyperboloid is x2 /
It is evident
Whence
or
y = y lx^/a y^+b^
2
where y l =
This equation
ellipse
= 0, x
+y
242-245]
359
asymptotic lines are the tangents. We also have proved, ( 104), that the projections of the generators are the
tangents.
244.
line.
If
19
n1
the tangent to an
asymptotic
pli
+qm
r
7i]
= 0.
Therefore,
by
Frenet's formulae,
Whence
or
T-
-2
_
1
_
line.
P = -<7- = a
Therefore the binormal of the asymptotic line is the normal to the surface, or the tangent plane to the surface
is
lines
asymptotic line
245.
line.
Consider the
v2
P2
oc
a = A/ v
Pi
^ ==
and
Also,
1 2
=
244,
sin
m m
= 7i = 0. 2
ti
1
from
360
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
if
[CH.XVII.
Therefore
a:
But at the
origin, r
= l/p l9
mu c Therefore
or
Cor.
= 0, p = 0, since cos a -- =
= 0.
cot
a =V3.
lines
The asymptotic lines of a developable surface are the generators, and the osculating plane of an asymptotic line is the same at all points of the line. Hence l/cr = 0. But one of the principal curvaalso zero, and thus the equation developable surfaces.
tures
is
=V
**
is
verified for
PiP*
For a hyperboloid of one sheet, the asymptotic lines are also the generators, but the osculating plane of an asymptotic line is not the same at all points of the line. The osculating plane at each point of
the line
is
- has a
definite value
A/-H!
at each point. The value is the rate at which the tangent plane is have thus an instance of a straight twisting round the generator. line with a definite osculating plane at each point.
We
Ex.
1.
lines of the
2/2
paraboloid
is
2z-^
by -iT = A,
y,
where A
an arbitrary constant.
Ex. 2. Find the differential equation to the projections of the asymptotic lines of the conoid
,
z=f(0).
232,
of p, y,
(i)
r, 5,
we
obtain
cW=0,
is
or
dQ.
z
line
From From
Ex.
3.
(i)
0=a, where a
is
2
arbitrary,
is
the generator.
arbitrary.
lines of the helicoid
=A/, where A
245]
361
Ex.
is
leraniscate.
5.
Ex.
asymp-
Ex. 6. Prove that the differential equation to the projections on the ,ry-plane of the asymptotic lines of the surface of revolution
x
is
z"rftt
2
u cos
0,
y = u sin
0,
z =/(w)
f
z'
^~. du
1
Ex. Ex.
7.
u cot a.
o
8.
= 1,
prove that
w = asec(#-o.),
where
Ex.
a. is
an arbitrary constant.
lie
The asymptotic lines of the catenoid w = ccoshc %u = c(ae e + a~ l e~0), where a is arbitrary. cylinders
9.
on the
Ex. 10. Find the curvatures of the asymptotic lines through the origin on the surface
Pi
Pz
Differentiating
rl { 2
+ Zsl^ 4- /wtj 2 = 0, we
obtain
For one
= 0, 2
r
m = sinoL, ^=0;
1
And
*dt
'
at the
,
=-sina, m 2 = 5 = 0, t= origin, r=
?2
,
>
Pi
Pi
. TT1
P2
=a,
3r
*ds
*ds
"dt
Whence
.. (1) v y
becomes
To obtain
of v/:r^.
we must change
the sign
Ex. 11. The normals to a surface at points of an asymptotic line generate a skew surface, and the two surfaces have the same measure of curvature at any point of the line.
362
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
[CH.
xvn.
Ex. 12. In curvilinear coordinates the differential equation to the asymptotic lines is
#=0-2tt-elie
tt
,
y=e
z=eu -v
on the cylinders
where a and
Ex.
14.
= A,
#=/x, where
A,
and p are
Ex.
15.
x = 3^(1
2/=3y(l+^
y
)-i>
3
,
*=3tt 2 -3i;2,
= constant.
Prove that the asymptotic lines on the surface of revolux = u cos 9, y=u sin 0, z =f(u\
where
are given
z=a{ log
by
tan
-^
+ cos <]
and w = asin<^)
'
de==
GEODESICS.
246.
osculating contains the normal to the surface at any point is a geodesic. It follows that the principal normal
is
its
any point
of a geodesic coincides with the the osculating plane at P that is, by with a normal section through P. Therefore, by Meunier's
infinitesimal arc
An
PQ
theorem, the geodesic arc PQ is the arc of least curvature through P and Q, or the shortest distance on the surface
is
246-248]
EQUATIONS TO GEODESICS
363
The principal normal to a right helix is the normal to the and hence the geodesies on a cylinder are the helices that can be drawn on it.
Ex.
1.
cylinder,
Ex.
it is
2.
both.
247.
is
If the surface
a developable, the infinitesimal arc PQ is unaltered in length when the surface is developed into a plane. Therefore if a geodesic passes through two points A and B of a developable, and the surface is developed into a plane, the
geodesic develops into the straight line joining the points A and B in the plane.
The geodesies on any cylinder are helices. the cylinder is developed into a plane, any helix develops into a straight line.
Ex.
1.
When
Ex.
2.
points
If
of geodesies can be
is unwrapped from the cylinder and are the positions of A, B on the plane so A', A", A"', formed, the line joining any one of the points A', A", A'", ... to any one of the points B', B", B'", ... becomes a geodesic when the sheets are wound again on the cylinder.
any number
...
%2 +y2 = a 2 and A and B are (a cos a, a sin a, 6), (a, 0, 0), the geodesies through A and B are given by
Ex.
3.
If the cylinder is
248.
The
differential
equations
to
geodesies.
From
ds*
ds*
for geodesies
y, z)
= 0, and
d*y
d?z
ds*
d&
for geodesies
If
on the surface z=f(x y). an integral of one of the equations (1) can be found, it will contain two arbitrary constants, and with the equation
y
0,
364
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
[CH.
xvn.
and the
equation z~f(x, y) together represent the geodesies of the surface z =/(#, y).
Ex.
1.
to the geodesies
9
on the helicoid
cQ.
and
p=
--
sin
^~
dz
9=
cos
dz
;
~1T30
+/' sin Q
2
;
or
But
therefore
u"-u&*=Q ............................ (1) 2 = a l +.y' + / 2 = l ............................. (2) u' + (u* + c*)ff* - 2 u(l w' ) =
Z.2
/9
'*'
where k
a
(2),
we
obtain
first integral
\j
==
Mu
.....
----- .
in
terms of
elliptic
Ex. 2. Find the differential equation to the projections on the = #y-plane of the geodesies on the surface 2 /*(,r, y). If ID win ^! are the direction-cosines of the tangent to a geodesic,
and -
is its
curvature,
'
But by Ex.
the o^-plane
is
10,
(\ v
204,
2
V*
'
^ *--.
n3
And
n= m - ln=-~~~~is
f
/
of the projection
we have
248, 249]
365
249.
The equa-
tion to
any
form
z=f(Jtf~+^}
Hence
r>
or
z=f(u).
1J
p=
i
f and
j
2-f.
But
for a geodesic,
p -^ = q
-
^
df dx
dy\ = r <X ) as/
Therefore
d 2x y -r^ ^ds 2
TT
#-7-4 2
d?y = cs
or
-rlv-? dsV ds
Hence
c is
where
= u' cos
4.
U0' sin
0,
i/
J and we get B
2 u2< = c. -yc?.9
Ex. 1. If a geodesic on a surface of revolution cuts the meridian at any point at an angle <, tesin </> is constant, where u is the distance of the point from the axis.
We
that of
have
2.
sin</>
= w~7-,
ds
whence the
result
is
249.
Ex.
Ex.
3.
Deduce that on a right cylinder the geodesies are helices. The perpendicular's from the vertex of a right cone to the
tangents to a given geodesic are of constant length. If O is the vertex, the perpendicular on to the tangent at a point
>
Ex. 4. Investigate the geodesies through two given points on a right cone. Let the points be A and B, (fig. 67), and take the &r-plane through A. Let the semivertical angle of tne cone be OL and the plane BO7 make an angle /3 with the 2#-plane. Suppose that A and B are distant a and b from the vertex. and developed into a plane, the distance If the cone is slit along of the vertex from any tangent to the geodesic remains unaltered, and therefore the geodesic develops into a straight line, (cf. 247). Figures 67 and 68 represent the cone and its development into a plane. The circular sections of the cone through A and B become arcs of concentric circles of radii a and 6, and
OA
arc A, D,
arc
AD
==/3sina.
= y,
say.
366
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
:
[CH. XVII.
The geodesic develops into AjBj, and if P any point on AjBj, has polar coordinates r, ty referred to OjAj as initial line,
since
Now
the relations between the cylindrical coordinates u> Q in space in the plane are r,
of
any point
Pio. 67.
OAB
O^, O^
again on the cone, A,B 2 becomes a second geodesic passing through A and B and completely surrounding the cone. Similarly AjB 3 becomes a third geoaesic. A 1 B 4 however, does not lie on the sheets that have been unrolled from the cone, and hence the only geodesies, (in our figure), through A and B are those which develop into A 1 B 1 ,
,
from the figure, that if (/i+l) geodesies pass through two points A and B, and the angle between the planes through the axis of the cone and A and B is /?,
It is clear
AjB 2 A B 3
,
sn a
The equations
<
TT.
and to surfaces through all the geodesies through B can be obtained from equation (1) by writing (/J4"2??7r)sina for y. If A and B are points on the same generator of the cone, /3=27r So that, if we are to have any geodesic through A and B,
sino,./3<7r or
250]
GEODESICS ON A CONICOID
367
than ~. 6
Ex.
5.
of the geodesic
AB.
from any tangent to the
Am.
Find the distance AB. geodesic
Ex.
6.
of the vertex
Ans
and B are points on the same generator OAB of a Ex. 7. cone semivertical angle oc, and a geodesic through A and B cuts OA at right angles at A, then sin <x< }. Also OB=a sec (2?r sin ex.) and the length of the geodesic arc AB is a tan (2ir sin a).
Ex.
8.
AB If A
Shew
that a
first
is
of the cone
^=ztana
$inadd=
Wtt 2 -^
.
,
4
form
^=
where
Ik
sec (0 sin
+ <),
<
and
<
if the Ex. 9. Determine the values of k and geodesic passes through A and B, and deduce the equation (1) of Ex. 4.
Geodesies on conicoids. The following theorem is due to Joachimsthal If P is any point on a geodesic on a central conicoid, r is the central radius parallel to the
250.
:
P,
and p
is the
perpendicular
surface at P,
from pr is
plane
to the
constant.
Let the equation to the conicoid be ax* + by* + cz 2 =l. Then at any point of a geodesic,
'-_
p
'
ax
by
cz
VaV + fcy+eV
J ' .....
p
geodesic.
Whence
p'
z'),
by
(1).
Therefore
=X
............................ (2)
368
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
is
[CH.
xvn.
Again, since the tangent to the geodesic ' the conicoid, axx + by y' + czz = 0,
a tangent to
and therefore
ox' 2 + by' 2 + cz'* =
or
r- 2
(3),
and therefore pr
Cor.
1.
is
constant.
ff\
A*2
Since
X=
-, from (3)
P
If the constant value of
we deduce p=
(Cf.
Cor.
2.
pr
3
.
is k,
f>
Tc>
hence along a given geodesic the radius of curvature varies as the cube of the central radius which is parallel to the
tangent
Ex. 1. The radius of curvature at any point P of a geodesic drawn or a conicoid of revolution is in a constant ratio to the radius of curvature at P of the meridian section through P. If <x and /3 are the axes of the meridian section and p l is its radius
of curvature,
og2
Pl- -3
2
>
yfc
250,
p=
-^.
For
all
250
is
Ex. 4. The constant pr has the same value for touch the same line of curvature.
Ex.
5.
all
geodesies that
Two
geodesies that
touch
the
same
line
of
make equal
the tangent to a geodesic through any point P on the c2=1 > and A, fi are the parameters of the ellipsoid PT makes an angle Q with the tangent to oonfocals through P.
Ex.
6.
PT
is
#2 /a 2 -f#2/& 2 +
250,251]
369
the curve of intersection of the ellipsoid and the confocal whose parameter is A. Prove that
A cos 2 04-/xsm 2 =
r^
>
(where pr = k).
The central section parallel to the tangent plane at P, referred to its principal axes, has equation
x*
/A
y* -h4-
= l, whence
,
/x
cos 2 6
sin 2
H
t
-r
We have also p =
2
6 2c 2/A/x,
and the
Ex. 7. The tangents to a given geodesic on an ellipsoid all touch the same confocal. One confocal touches the tangent. Suppose that its parameter If the normals to tho ellipsoid and confocals through P is v. are taken as coordinate axes, the equation to the cone, vertex P, which envelopes the confocal is
-~r
I/
Lt
~r
vr
The tangent at P to the geodesic is a generator of this cone, since its equations are x __ y __z 0* cos 6 sin
v
and
= \ cos2 + /A si n 2 6 = constan t.
of the geodesic touch the confocal.
Ex.
8.
251.
geodesic.
Consider
*.*+*+....
Pi
Pz
^ = cos 6,
2==
6
o,
m= m=
l
sin 6,
0,
hence,
= sin 9,
m =
3
cos
0,
= 7? = 1; 2 9i = 0. 3
;
We
j
have, generally,
__
Whence, differentiating Z2 with respect to a, the arc of the geodesic, and applying Frenet's formulae,
,_
1 B.Q.
d
(1
,v-t
2A
370
COOKDINATE GEOMETRY
gives, at the origin,
[en.
XVIL
which
cos
sin
_cosj9 ""
Pi
,
P
sinfl
Similarly, differentiating ra 2
wo
obtain,
cos0__sin#
<r
P
T?r
'
A'
a-,
we
u have, - =
COS
p
p,
-- -^
2
,
Pz
Shl 2
a result obtained
1,
j.
pl
we have
1 a - = sin 9 cos af
(
1 ---\
l
/> 2
o-
>/
).
Cor.
1.
If
the surface
is
developable, so
that
Pi
= 0,
where
is
constant, and
Cor.
2.
we have
the result of
torsion
Cor.
is
3.
its
Ex.1.
Shewthat
^=^2
j^
Ex. 2. A geodesic is drawn on the ellipsoid #2/a 2 -f#2/62 +22/c2 ==l Find its from an umbilic to the extremity B of the mean axis.
torsion at B.
At
B, PI = -J-) p2
a2
=c
~p
1
an(* therefore
/i
.
/i/ 6
*\
^=cos0sm0(^-^2 J.
Also jtw=ac, and at B,
jo
whence
-=
Geodesic curvature. Let P, O, C, (fig. 69), be consecutive points of a curve traced on a surface. Along the geodesic through P and O measure off an arc OG equal
252.
251,252]
GEODESIC CUEVATUEE
371
to PO,
OT
PO
is
and the geodesic touches the curve at O. Denote the angle GOT by S\fs the angle TOO by tfi/r, the angle GOC by <Je.
,
Then,
if
Lt -^ = curvature of curve = Ss
' ;
Lt
-Hp
= curvature
of geodesic =
and Ltjcurve.
is
Let us denote
it
by
Pg
O
Fig. 69,
points CGT lie on a sphere whose centre is O, and therefore the arcs CT, TG, GC can be taken to measure the
The
angles COT, TOG, GOC. And since the plane OCG is ultimately that of the indicatrix, and OGT a normal section, the angle CGT is a right angle. Hence,
or
Therefore
/>
2
ft,
+
P<?
whence the geodesic curvature is expressed curvatures of the curve and the geodesic.
in terms of the
Again, if the angle CTG is denoted by co, to is ultimately the angle between the planes OCT and OGT, which become and the respectively the osculating planes of the curve
curve geodesic, or the osculating plane of the section of the surface through the tangent to the curve.
From
= S\fs cos
cosft>,
o>,
Se
whence
(i)
/>
/o
(ii) /)r7
= S\}s sin co =
372
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
have thus
(i)
[CH.
xvn.
another proof of Meunier's theorem and (ii) the relation between the geodesic and ordinary curvatures of the curve.
Cor.
l If a curve of curvature p~
We
is
osculating plane, the radius of curvature of the projection Hence the geodesic curvature is p sec a, (204, Ex. 10). of a curve on a surface is the curvature of its projection on the tangent plane to the surface.
Ex. 1. Shew that the geodesic curvatures of the lines of curvature through the origin on the surface
are
Use Ex.
Ex.
.
16,
232.
. 2.
Prove that at the origin the geodesic curvature of the ax2 +by 2 = 2z by the plane lx+my+nz = Q is n (bP + am 2 )
curve is drawn on a right cone, semivertical angle OL> Ex. 3. so as to cut all the generators at the same angle /?. Prove that at from the vertex, the curvature of the geodesic which a distance
in
is
/Ztano.
,^
-,
of the
curve
is
Ex. 4. By means of the results of Ex. 3 and the result of Ex. 7, ~2 2 2= for the curve on the cone. 204, verify the equation /o~ /o/~ 4-/>
Ex.
surface
5.
If u and v are the curvilinear coordinates of a point on a and the parametric curves cut at right angles, shew that the
SN/tf
Consider the curve U=u. Let o> be the angle between the osculating plane and the normal section through the tangent. Then the
Let 2 wi2 n 2 be the P direction-cosines of the principal normal to the curve, then since o> is the complement of the angle between the principal normal to the curve U=u and the tangent to the curve F=y,
geodesic curvature
is
given by
= smfa)
Pg
___
252,253]
GEODESIC TOESION
la _i _^_ dl,
373
*!, Now
Therefore
da
= ?)L ^-i.
Cv
do
ds'
;
^
p
Pe
and
But, since the parametric curves are at right angles, Xru#v=0, and therefore
1
/v,
nx
Therefore
J7
=v,
(This solution
is
Ex. 6. If the parametric curves are at right angles and O is a a function of u alone, the parametric curves function of v alone and are geodesies.
Ex. 7. By means of the expressions given in 241, Ex. 9, shew that the squares of the geodesic curvatures of the curves of interx* z* y* section of the ellipsoid + = 1 and its confocals whose para-
h^
/A,
are
-/*)"'
Shew how
253.
this result
232.
Geodesic torsion. If OT, (fig. 70), is the tangent at O to a curve drawn on a surface, and the osculating plane of the curve makes an angle CD with the normal section through OT, then a) is the angle between the principal normal to the curve and the normal to the surface, and
therefore
_ qm = _p/ v +n2
2
(1)
w with the normal to Let us take as the positive direction of the a> with the normal binormal that which makes an angle 90
The binormal makes an angle 90
the surface.
to the surface,
374
COORDINATE GEOMETEY
[CH. XVIL
normal tangent to the curve, so that the tangent, principal with OX, and binormal can be brought into coincidence
OY,
OZ
respectively.
Then
Fro. 70.
s,
we have, by
(1),
o)
cos
(2)
Now
take
as the origin,
^2 Pi
and
..2
let
surface be
P2
Then at the
= cos w L
or
as
.(3)
Let
OT make an
Then ^ = cos 0,
angle
x
with OX.
;
since
7i == 2
co,
253]
EXAMPLES
XIV.
375
l-^Binflcosef ds
251, the value of
-V
pj* -~ is
the torsion of
\p l
and hence, by
the geodesic that touches the curve at O. It is called the geodesic torsion of the curve, and is evidently the same for
all
OT
at O.
its
geodesic torsion at
Cor.
2.
is zero.
The
torsion of a curve
sin
drawn on a developable
is
cos
idw> ds'
the angle at which the curve crosses the generator, p is the principal radius, and w is the angle that the osculating plane makes with the normal section
where
is
The geodesic torsion of a curve drawn on a surface at a equal to the torsion of any curve which touches it at O and whose osculating plane at O makes a constant angle with the tangent plane at O to the surface.
Ex.
1.
point
O is
Ex. 2. The geodesic torsion of a curve drawn on a cone, semivertical angle a, so as to cut all the generators at an angle /?, is
sii /5COS/5
/Ztanoc
'
w iere
}
ft
is
Ex^ 3. A catenary, constant c, is wrapped round a circular cylinder, radius #, so that its axis is along a generator. Shew that its torsion at any point is equal to its geodesic torsion, and deduce that
cr
where
z is
Examples XIV.
1.
A geodesic is drawn
on the surface
its
torsion
is h.
lines consist
and the curves whose projections on the #y-plane are given by xP~cf\y>\ where c is an arbitrary constant.
of the generators
376
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
(CH.xvu.
3. Prove that any curve is a geodesic on its rectifying developable or on the locus of its binomials, and an asymptotic line on the locus of its principal normals.
4.
geodesic
is
drawn on a right
cone, semivertical
its
where p is the perpendicular from the vertex to the tangent. 5. Prove that the p-r equation of the projection on the ^y-plane of
a geodesic on the surface x2 +y 2
2az
is
where
6.
Jc
Prove that the projections on the ory-plane of the geodesies on the catenoid tt=ccosh- are given by
where k
7.
where u
is
where
8.
at a distance u from the axis. crosses a meridian at an angle that at the point of crossing it makes an angle , cu cos 6 cos" 1
.
Prove
*Ja*-u*(a*-<?)
with the
axis.
9. Prove that the equation to the projections on the #y-plane of the geodesies on the surface of revolution
is
0-a = a
/,
wliere a
and
10. If a geodesic on a surface of revolution cuts the meridians at 8 constant angle, the surface must be a right cylinder
CH. XVIL]
11.
EXAMPLES
XIV.
377
curve
If the principal normals of a curve intersect a fixed line, the a geodesic on a surface of revolution, and the fixed line is the axis of the surface.
is
12.
is
constant
constant
is
a geodesic on a cylinder,
a geodesic on a cone.
and a curve
which
as \<r/
is
is
13. The curvature of each of the branches of the curve of intersection of a surface and its tangent plane is two-thirds the curvature of the asymptotic line which touches the branch.
14. Sj, S 2 , S 3 are the surfaces of a triply orthogonal system that of pass through a point O. Prove that the geodesic curvatures at the curve of intersection of the surfaces S 2 and S 3> regarded first as a curve on the surface S 2 and then as a curve on the surface S 3 are respectively the principal curvature of S 3 in its section by the tangent plane to S 2 and the principal curvature of S 2 in its section by the
Prove that the angles that the osculating planes of the lines of nM ^2 curvature through a point of the ellipsoid -jj+rg + i 555 ! ma^e with
15.
nj2t
d"
tan- 1
abc \
A /M
W ~_W-L\
2
tan- 1
Jabc
(\_jx )3
where A and M are the parameters of the confocals through the point
APPENDIX
Note to
Distance from a point to a plane. : the axes are rectangular, the distance from the point P, (x' 9 y' 9 z') to the plane ax + by + cz + d=Q can be found as follows. Let N, (a, /J, y) be the foot of the perpendicular from P to the plane. Then aoc-hfr/J-f-cy + d=0, and the direction of NP is given by
37
When
or, since
NP
is
by a
c.
ax'
+ by' + cz'
.'.
....................................... (1)
and
Hence
NP=(1),
From
is
given by a.~x'
Note to
43
line.
as follows
to
from which
Arc-f p,y
+ *>2=0,
(2)
The equations (1) represent the planes through the line parallel to the coordinate axes ; the equation (2) represents the plane through the line and the origin. Since ZA-f wjt-i-nv=0, the ratios of any five of the quantities 19 9 n. to the remaining one are equivalent to four independent conA, /LC, i>,
B.O.
11
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
when they
are given, the line is determined. If, for A, /z, v to I are given, the equations
stants, and,
lz-nx=fjL,
mx-ly=v
19
if
the ratios of
m,
n,
/*,
v to
ny-mz=X,
determine fixed planes.
:
Xx+p,y + vz=Q,
coordinates of the (See /u,, v)."
line,
The ratios I m n A p v have been called the and the line is referred to as " the line (Z, m, Miscellaneous Examples I, Ex. 116.)
:
:
:
w, A,
Note to
54
Choosing
-m
(1)
(2)
(3)
m
are to be
filled.
Now
in the
determinant
m
of
3,
53, provided that the orientations of the new and the original axes are the same, each element is equal to its cofactor. Hence in the spaces (1), (2), (3) we may place
I
m,
respectively, or
Note to
Cone with a given curve as base. (a, j3, y) be the given vertex, and/(#, y)=0, z=0 represent the given base. Let P, (#', t/', z') be any point on the cone and let VP cut the base in Q. Then VQ/QP = - y/z', and hence Q is the point
63
:
Let V,
(<*'- yx'
oz'
fa'
yy'
\r
APPENDIX
Therefore, since
iii
z'-y
z'-y
2-y
which, in the case where f(x, y) in the form
is
or
which can then be transformed as in 63. A more general case is that of the cone with vertex V, base the curve in which the plane
(a,
/?,
y)
and
M= to 4- my -f nz +p =
cuts the surface f(x, y, z) =0. f If P, (x , y', z') is any point on the cone, and if VQ/QP=A/1, is the point
if
VP
'
A+
l/*
Since
Whence,
give
if
u'=te'-f my'
+ nz'+p and
(2)
---A -A,
which
is
ana and
*'-"*
equation
f(xu-vx
\
pu-vy
'
u-v
u-v
y^-^\ u-v /
and
iv
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
xa
96
:
Note to
+~ -
yf
zs
= 1.
be written
a2
lines
tions (3),
If
now we put p
we
for -
-k ~r" A/
the
-
equations (2) of
r;,
A/
96.
by putting A
for
1 ~h
of
96.
Thus
different
methods of
of generating
lines.
Note to
104:
(a cos a,
4-
fx I
sin
\a
whose equation
is
cos a
\a
cuts the
- ~ cos
b
1/
a=
Z ,
that
is,
in the
x/a
or
- cos a z/c _ y/b - sin a ~~ _ ~" - cos a sin a sin2 a -f cos2 a x - a cos a v - 6 sin a z a
sin a
'
- b cos a
surfaces represented
by the equations
(1) (2)
APPENDIX
is
shown
is
If we change the origin and rotate the axes, the transformed equation obtained by substituting for expressions of the form 77,
,
Ix
+ my + nz+p,
and therefore
ax*
it is
2
of the form
+ by* + cz + 2fyz + 2gzx + 2hxy + 2ux + 2vy + 2ivz + d=()....... (3) We shall now indicate how the values of A lf A 2 A 3 /u in equations (1) and (2) may be found when equation (3) is given. First we shall prove that if, by a rotation of rectangular axes, ax2 4- 6y8 + cz* 4- 2fyz + 2gzx 4- 2hxy
, ,
transforms into
a -A,
h,
0,
A,
=0,
6 -A,
/,
/ c-A
a
or
A*~A*(a4-64-c)4-A(6c4-ca4-a6~/ -gf*-A
t
)
VI
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
it
This equation is called the Discriminating Cubic, and written in the form
can also be
where
Ds
a,
h,
0,
A,
6,
and
A, B,
/
c
respectively, in D.
/>
is
then
= Zj
and
-f
A 2 Z 22
4-
A 3 Z 32 ,
,
6 = A^! 2 4- A 2m 2 2 4- A 3w32
= Aj^!
6c
4-
A 2 n 22
4-
A 3?i 32 ,
h
,
X 1 ll
1 4-
A2Z2
1
2 4-
A 3 J3
3.
/.
since 27Z 1
= 1,
etc.
Again,
4-A 1 A 2 (/7i 1 7i a
mn
2
2
l)
9
=A 2A 8Z 12 4- AaAA2 4- AjAJa 2
similarly
by
53 (E)
ca
ab
6c
4-
ca
Also
i,
n l9
%n 29
A 3%a
a,
53.
h,
&>
b,
f
c
f>
(C
APPENDIX
The
vii
From
direction-cosines of the new axes can be found as follows the above equations we obtain
1 )9
and
similarly,
W
w
lf
x -f
(6
- Ax
+./% -0,
A 1 )w 1 =0........................... (4)
Whence
Zx ,
the equations
al -f
=Af
(If
'
where A
is
eliminate
the corresponding root of the discriminating cubic. n l from the equations (4), we obtain l^ l
:
we
a -Ax,
A,
g,
h,
g
,
6-A x
/,
is
c-A
4- 3i/
8
-f
5z 2
- 81/2: - 8xy
A=
l
- 3,
3,
we have
Il
=m
=2n l9
or
^=
-~ =
2t
-^ L
7 ta
_o W 2> ^2^2
__
~IT2~~~r~ 2
Z
'
Thus
Of,
Oij,
the lines
= =
l
tJ
I/
Z
=:
3*
1J
i' "r2
2'
^2
Ex.
(i
2.
B.O.
3R
viii
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
32x + y*+2* + 62/2- 162*-
(iii)
^- z n *-' ^'
.
~3-3'
-f
or *
x- y
(iv) 5x*
14z
8xy
1J
Ex.
(i)
3.
7a;
36, to
=1 =l =1
y
(ii)
s-31y + z*-2Qyz~
2a;
1
+ 20xy=
36, to
-o
(iii)
72, to
+^
(iv) 13
+ 1423;-
(v)
= 1.
Ex.
Show
that
(i)
and
2 2 I2yz 6zx 4xy = 1 y - 4z represent an ellipsoid and hyperboloid of revolution, respectively, 2 2 2 = l and (ii) into 5f 2 4-5^ 2 -9{ 2 = l. (i) transforms into 4-77 4-15
(ii)
4#2
-f-
In
Z1
(i)
is
-~~
-^;
A 1 =A 2 = 1 give
i.e. Of and Orj can be any two perpendicular lines 4-2w 1 -f3w 1 =0 x + 2y + 3z = Q as is evident from the nature of the surface. Derive the same results for the axes in the case of (ii).
in the plane
Ex. 5. Show that 13# 2 4- 45y2 4- 40z2 + I2yz + 36zx - 24xy = 49 represents a right circular cylinder whose axis is x/6 y/2 =z/(-3) and radius 1. Consider now the case of
By
direction-cosines l r , into
Ajf
2
mr
we can determine new axes Of, O^, O, with n r r = l, 2, 3, so that this equation transforms
,
4-
A 2 ^ 2 -f A 3 ^ 2 4- 2f (uli
2
or
Axf
-f
A 27^ 2
4-
A3
4-
2U f -f 2 VTJ 4- 2 Wf 4- d = 0.
and
if
the origin
is
changed to
U
'A/
_V
A,'
W\
~A3V'
APPENDIX
this
IX
becomes
A,
where
V*
_U
AI
W*
AS
Aa
If the new origin is (f ', 77', { ') referred to Of, Or}, referred to OX, OY, OZ, we have the scheme
and
(a,
j3,
y)
u
,by(6),
Similarly
(a
(a/3
and
/.
4 Aw 3 4 gnj = - Z3
'
adding,
we have
aa4^j34gy=
Aa4&/J4/y= -v,
.(6)
(?)
.(8)
Again,
-d
/it
u
v
/,
c,
/,
v,
w
d
u,
w,
forms a useful mnemonic for writing down the equations (6), (7), (8) for a, j3, y and the value of /n. The given equation in this case represents a central conicoid (or
cone, if /Lt^O),
and (a, j3, y) is the centre (or The above transformation can still be
quantities A lt A 2 , A 3 is zero, provided that the corresponding U or or is also zero. Thus if A 3 =0, the transformed equation is
=W
which represents an
of planes.
elliptic
if
/i=0, a pair
x
In
this case
'
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
is
B,
indeterminate.
,
If
(7), (8)
by
(5).
by Hence
1 39
wo multiply
the equations
n3
(6),
(a,
j8,
respectively, and add, the sum is identically zero, y) can be any point on the line of intersection of
(6)
and
(7),
ax + hy + gz + u=0,
This is what is to be expected, since any point on the axis of an elliptic or hyperbolic cylinder can be considered a centre. Similarly if A 2 =A 3 =:0 and V=W=0, the transformed equation is A^-f 2Uf + d=Q, which represents a pair of parallel planes; and if A a =A 3 =0, V^O, 0, the transformed equation is
A^ 2 -f 2V?7-0, and
represents a parabolic
degree in the given equation must form a perfect square, and they are by a direct method which is indicated in Ex. 6 below. Lastly, we have the case in which one of the quantities X l9 A 2 , A 3 is zero and the corresponding quantity U or V or is not zero. Suppose A 3 =0, W^O. The transformed equation is
which,
to
and represents an
elliptic or hyperbolic paraboloid. If the final origin is (f ', 7?', {') referred to Of, Orj, referred to OX, OY, OZ, then
O and
,
(a, 0, y)
+ vm l +wn l
^
,
...
by J
(5), ' v
and
.%
(o? t
+&in 1 +
/
fl
TOa)(;
=0, by
(5), since
A 3 =0.
adding,
we have
act,
-Z3 W~w,
and and
similarly
.................................... (60
>
Aa-ffy3+/y
=m W-t;
a
.................................... (7
APPENDIX
since, if
is
xi
respectively
result
or
.'.
W' = -U<y.-vp-Wy-d,
-ua-vfi-wy-d ................. (9)
or
Any two of the equations (6'), (7'), (8'), with equation (9), determine the values of a, /?, y, which are the coordinates of the vertex of the If we multiply the equations (6'), (7'), (8') by a, /3, paraboloid. y, respectively, and add to (9), we obtain
da?
thus verifying that the point (a, j8, y) lies on the surface. Note that in this case the three equations (6), (7), (8), i.e. aa-ffy8 + gy + u-ty Aa-f fy3+/y + v 0, <7a4-/6 + Cy-f-w = 0, give, when multiplied by 1 39 3 n 3 respectively, and added, uls + vm 3 + ion 3 0, since, by (5), a? 3 + Am 3 + ^s=A 3 Z 3 0, etc. But, by hypothesis, W^O, so that the equations (6), (7), (8) give a point at infinity. (Cf. 45.) We may sum up the methods of reduction in the various cases as
,
=W
follows
in
first
(a,
/?,
y)
from
the equations (6), (7), (8), Then 0. g<x -f //? + cy + w 2 2 2 equation is Ajf + A 2 ^ 4- A 3
(3) If
,
- ( UOL +
;
aa + fy3 + 0ry-fM=0,
vf}
hoc
+ bfi+fy + v=Q,
the
+ ivy + d) and
reduced
/x.
one root, A 3 say, is zero attempt to solve the equations (6), If they reduce to two independent equations, assign an arbitrary value to one of the quantities a, )8, y, and solve for the other two; e.g. put y = 0. Then n= -(u<x + vJ3 + u>y + d) and the reduced
(7),
(8).
equation is A^ + A 2 ^ - /*. If the equations lead to a paradoxical result (as in /3 3 n 3 from any two of the equations
2
2
,
alB
-f
gl 3
+fm 3 + cn z = 0.
is
Ex.
6.
(3z (3x
(3x
Equation
(i)
can be written
xii
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
or
and therefore represents a pair of parallel planes. In (ii) we note that 3#-42/ + z=0, x + y + represent perpendicular planes. Taking the first as {Of and the second as ^O{, we have
zQ
jz
8O that
(ii)
3s-4y + z+A=0,
are at right angles.
*(6A-16)-t/(8A-27) + 2Az + A -18= This gives A =3, and the equation becomes
a
which, as in
Ex.
7.
(ii),
reduces to
:
(i)
(ii)
(2x -2y- 3z) + Ite 34y 44z + 50 -0 a 5x* + 7ya + 6z -4yz -4zx - 6x - 10t/ -4z + 7 =0
;
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
+ 2 a + 3 a = l, centre (1, 1, 1). 7xa + y* -f za + 16t/z 4- Szx - 8xy + 2x + 4y - 40z - 14 =0 a + rf - 2 = 1, centre (1,2, 0). 2x* -y*- 10za + 20yz -Szx- 2Sxy + IQx + 26y + 16z - 34 = 2? -V - 2 = 1, centre V, f |). Ilxa 4-6ya -f22a f20yz + 4za;~16xy 1 t -i =0, vertex (1, 1, 1).
a
7?
;
x-1
y-1
z-l
(vii)
^-^ = 1,
;
(viii)
32a? + y2
a
+ za + 6yz a
Ig^-^OC,
(ix) 5o;
16j/ -f
5z2
-f
8yz
14za; -f
2^-3^ + 2^=0,
Ex.
8.
vertex
:
The discriminating cubic is A 8 -6Aa -3A-f-2=0, of which the roots cannot be found by inspection. There are two changes in the sequence of signs in the equation, and hence, by Descartes' Rule, two of the roots are positive and one is negative. (The values to three places are
y=3,
-0-806, 0-387, 6419.) We find in the usual way that a = l, j3=2, = l. The reduced equation is -0-806^ + 0-387^ + 6-419^ = 1, ji and represents a hyperboloid of one sheet.
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES
I.
1. If p is the distance of the origin from a line whose directioncosines are Z, m, n, and p l9 p 29 p 3 are the distances of the origin from
the projections of the line on the planes YOZ, 2OX, XOY, respectively, show that
Pi*
2.
+?2 +2V
P 2 = l*Pi 2 +
W
-3
+ n 2p 3 *.
between the
lines
2
3.
-1
Show
0'
-10
12'
6'
-6
3*
(2, 3,
9
1) lies
2x-y-z=2
and that the
x + 2y-3z = ll,
by
(5, 9, 3)
x-2=y-3=z + l.
4.
theline
The equations of the perpendicular from the point x _i - y _2 - z-3 x-5 - ^ ~ y-9 - z-3 Q
_ __ _
~
~
7rt are
"
_ _ 2"" -2
to
and the
5.
is (3, 5, 7).
If
OZ
is
(1, 1, 1)
given by
_z 1 ~8~~~12""^l3*
1
-
6.
The orthogonal
= ?L_-=-
on the
plane
7.
3x+4y + 5z=Q
Show
V x -= =
z
.
I-~2~-~3~'
are coplanar,
(i)
"^"^~
9
4
respectively.
and
lie
in the planes
(ii)
x + 2y + 3z=2,
x-2y + z + 7==0
8. If a-f&-hc=0, show that the line a; + a=y + 6=z + c intersects the four lines a;=0, y-fz=3a; y=0. 2-fx=36; 2=0.
xiv
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
j/c
z+y+z=3k,
three are
= 0* a* right angles, and that the a ic o fc c shortest distances between the first of these four lines and the other
<s/3(a-6),
9,
--*"j~"i+j:
N/3(a-c),
^(a-i).
lines
x=Q, y + z-b-c;
in the
y=Q,
z+xc-a;
form
Show that it is also at right angles to the line z=0, x + y=a-b, and that the lengths of the shortest distances between the three lines are in the ratios 6-f c-2a c + a-26 a + 6-2c.
:
:
10. If pl + qm
+ rn=Q, show that each of the sets of equations + mzQ; q-lz + nx=Q; r-mx + ly=Q; ......... (i) p-ny l-ry+qz=0; m-pz + rx O; n-qx+py=0; ......... (ii)
;
satisfied at all points of one of two perpendicular lines length and equations of their shortest distance are
is
that the
is
11.
Show
that
ay
- bx=a - 6,
the three planes bz-cy=b-c, cx-az=c-a, pass through one line, L, and that the three planes
(c-a)z-(a-b)y-b + c,
(b
- c)y - (c - a)x
7
(a-b)x-(b-c)z=c+a, a + 6,
pass through a line L' ; that L and L are at right angles and that the shortest distance between them is of length
z=2/=z = l,
- c)x + (c - a)y 4- b)z ~0 ; (a and that the shortest distance meets L and L in the points given by
(6
x
x __ 1 y ~~ _ z _ ~~ ~~ a 2 - be b 2 - ca c 2 - ab a 2 + b 2 + c 2 - be - ca - ab
12.
__
9
'
Show
that the equations of any line which meets the three lines
can be written
x=a, y=0; y=a, z=0; z=a x=0; x~a=ty, z(t + l) + t(y-a)~0, ..................... (i)
lines is
the surface
2 yz + zx + xy-ax-ay-az + a
Q...................... (ii)
Show
that the equations of any line which meets the three lines
z=a, y=Q;
can be written
x=a, 2=0; y=a, x=0; x-a^sz, y(s + l)+ s(z-a)=0, .................. (Hi)
on the surface
(ii).
and that
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES
Show
that the lines
(i)
I.
xv
and
(iii)
and that, if they meet at right angles, either Deduce that, in these cases, P lies on the sphere
st
=l
or
x + y + z=a,
x+y + z=2a.
z
Show
y-6_z-3
is
x_y-6_
3 and that the line of the S.D. cuts OZ. Show also that lines and OZ lie on the surface
all lines
14.
to
Show
that the condition that the line drawn through the origin
lines
-
x-a^
y-b _z-c l
l
n2
x-<
IS
3,
s>
b 39
W
a 19
3,
n2
15.
Show
,y
+ c 3z + d3 =0,
UK
#2>
tt 4 ==a<
4 2; -f rf4
=0
are coplanar
if
b l9
b 29
c l9 c2,
di
da =0,
and that the equation of the plane containing them can be written c l9 u l9 u2 b2 C2 =0, or b c
, ,
B9
3,
i,
c4 ,
64 ,
c4 ,
w4
1 6. If the equal and parallel edges of a triangular prism pass through the points (a 19 b 19 c t ), (a 29 b 29 c 2 ) 9 (0 8 , 6 3 , c 3 ) and the lengths of their projections on OX, OY, OZ are a, , y, respectively, show that the volume of the prism is
y,
b 19
c l9
b 29
c 29
03,
1 1
b&
xvi
17.
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
The plane
x+y+z=l
P
cuts the axes OX, OY, OZ, which are the point (a, /?, y) and the feet of the 7 OA, BC ; OB, CA ; OC, AB, are D, D' ; E, E ; are Show that the equations of DD'
is
x-a_ ~~
2<x
lies
on the
line
18. The lines AB, CD, EF are given by the equations y=6, z = -c ; 2=c, x= -a; =a, t/ = -6. If P is a point such that the planes PAB, PCD intercept a constant length 2k on EF, show that P fies on one of the hyperboloids - 6). + abc = k(x -f + bzx -f
ayz
cxy
a) (y
19. A variable sphere passes through the points (0, 0, c) and cuts 7 If PP in the points P and P'. the lines xsin<x = y cos a, has a constant length 2k, show that the centre of the sphere lies on the
z=c
circle z
= 0,
x*
+ y 2 = (fc a - c 2 )
cosec 2 2a.
c
;
20.
and
and which
surface
a a?=0, y /a2
+ z V> a = l>
y= -mx, z=
-c;
generates the
- m ga a ) a
(yz
~ cms) 2
_ (cy -
21. Find the equations of the line through (a, /?, y) which meets both of the lines y=mx, ; y= -mx, z~ -c; in the forms
zc
m<x
y-mx_ z-c
m<V ~^
(ii)
ft
y + mx_z+c
ft
4-
Wa
y -f C
is
always parallel to
OX and
~~
m'
n'
is
- a,
/,
y-6
a;
- a 7, 2 - c 7
- a,
7
-c
Z ,
/,
Show that the tetrahedron whose vertices are (1, 2, 3), (6, 4, 2), -7/2,8), (-5/8,15/4,35/8) is self-polar with respect to the 2 a 2 sphere o? -f y +2 =20, and verify that each edge is at right angles to the opposite edge and that the planes through the edges at right angles to the opposite edges all pass through the centre of the sphere.
23.
(3,
24. Show that A, (1, 2, 3), B, (0, 11, 7), C, ( -3, 2, 11), D, ( -8, 5, 3) are the vertices of a tetrahedron in which each edge is at right angles to the opposite edge. Show that the perpendiculars from the vertices
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES
I.
xvii
) and that 14 28 J P divides the shortest distances between the pairs of edges AB, CD ; AC, BD ; AD, BC ; in the ratios 31 33, 319 465, 1431 1705, respectively. Verify that the mid-points of the edges lie on the sphere x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + 5x - Wy - 12z + 55 - 0, whose centre is the centroid of the tetrahedron.
(o 14
:
---
a|
, ,
| fi c \
25. If
O
x*
is
the origin and A, B, C are the points (4a, 46, show that the sphere
4c),
OABC.
26. For the tetrahedron whose vertices are
A, (1,
-2,
11),
B,
-4,
2, 4),
D,
(2, 2, 1),
the area of each face being 63/2 The lines joining the mid -points of pairs of opposite edges are mutually perpendicular and the lengths of the S.D. between the opposite edges are 3, 6, 9 : The volume of the tetrahedron is 54 The equation of the circumscribing sphere is
:
faces which meet at any vertex make the same angles with the tangent plane to the sphere at that vertex - 1, V) and its radius is 9/7 ; The centre of the inscribed is
:
(J, sphere the centres of the escribed spheres are (0, 0, 0), (5, -4, - 1, - 4, 10), and their radii are all equal to 18/7. (
7),
-2,
4, 5),
27.
Show
that
0,
is
the
planes
x-y-z-$
0,
faces of
a regular
tetra-
x 2 + y 2 -f z 2 - Qx 4- y - z - 40 =
Show
;-14y + 2z 4-69=0;
Show
which touch
all
xviii
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
x*
+ y 2 + z 2 - 2x -f 222; - 4=0,
all
touch the four sides of the skew quadrilateral given by = 3; z=Q, x2y=^6. =0, */ + 2z
29. If the spheres
St = x* + y
2
+ z 2 + 2^0; -f 26 x y -h 2cjZ
2
-
-f-
dl = 0,
meet
in
a great
circle
a: 4- y -f z on the sphere 2V -f 2V -f 2c x 2 - dj = 2a 1 a 2
S2 =
30.
The
0.
=0,
show that S 3 cuts in a great circle any sphere orthogonal to Sx which has its centre on S 2 and that S 3 cuts orthogonally any sphere which hae its centre on S 2 and is cut by S t in a great circle.
,
32.
Show
lie
33. Lines are drawn through O to meet the circle in which the plane x + y + z = \ cuts the sphere x 2 + y 2 + z 2 -4#-6f/-8z-f 4=0. Show that they lie on the cone x 2 -y 2 - 3z 2 - 6yz - 4zx and meet the at points on the plane, (ii) y-f 2z=2. Show that sphere again
(i)
2xyQ
represents a cone if2=-l orif = 19/25, and deduce that the circles in which the planes (i) and (ii) cut the given sphere lie on a second cone whose vertex is ( - 36/7, - 4/7, 4).
34. Show that two cones can be drawn through the circles in which the planes x-fy-fz = l,t/H-2z = 3 cut the sphere x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = 4, and that
their vertices are (1, 2, 3)
and
- 2,
0, 2).
drawn through points on the circle in which the 2 plane fo + my+nz=k cuts the sphere x* + y* + z =a? parallel to the line x/p=y/qz/r9 show that they meet the sphere again in points on the plane
35. If lines are
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES
I.
xix
36. Of a set of rectangular axes through O, one lies in tne plane ax + by + cz=Q, and one in the plane px + qy + rz=Q. Show that the third lies on the cone
..---"-------ap\b
cj\q
rj
bq\c
a/\r
p)
cr\a
bj\p
37. If OX, OY, OZ, O, Or), O are two sets of rectangular axes through the same origin O, show that the equation of the cone which passes through them can be written in the forms
x
where
l
_j
--- _ n u
2, 3,
-- ----1
r,
mr
referred to
O,
077,
O,
Deduce that
38. A, B, C, D, E are the points (1, 2, 3), (3, 2, 7), Show that the equation (4, 19, 21), respectively.
(llx + y
- 5z)(Qx + 3y -
5z)
represents a cone passing through the lines OA, OB, OC, OD, where O Find the value of t if the cone passes through E and is the origin. deduce that the cone through the five lines is given by
39.
Show
about the
by rotating the line x\l^y\mz\n x/ay/b z/c as axis is given by 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 = (al + bm + en) (x 4- y + z ). (I + m + n*) (ax + by + cz)
line
40. If a is the semi-vertical angle of the right circular cone which passes through the lines OX, OY, x=y~z 9 show that
41. The plane x + y + z=0 cuts the cone 5x*-32y 2 + 27s 2 =0 in perpendicular lines. Show that the cone through these lines and OX, OY, OZ is given by 5yz - 32zx + 27xy=0. Show also that the planes through the origin at right angles to these lines are given by
-y), or
-27x + 32y-5z=
*JS89(x -z).
lines in
42. If I, m, n, and I', m', n' are the direction-cosines of the which the plane px + qy + rz=Q cuts the cone
(c-o)g +y
;
show that
then show, by taking the given plane as a new coordinate plane, and changing the axes, that these lines bisect the angles between the lines in which the given plane cuts the cone a# 2 + 6y 2 -f cz 2 =0.
xx
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
43. An ellipse of semi-axes a and 6 has its centre at the origin and the direction-cosines of its axes are respectively l lt v n t ; and lv tt nt .
Show
is
its
plane of
and that
its
XOY
is
given
by
+ y -2z =0 by the plane a parabola whose equations can be written Z=0,> x+y-2z~l 6X a + 4N/3Y = l, and that the section of the hyperboloid x2 + y*-z 2 = l by the plane x + y-2z~Q is an ellipse whose equations can be written
44.
Show
45.
(2, 1,
What
-2),
(2,
does
the
1)
equation
x*
2, 3)
given by
47.
Show
48. The points common to the two cones t/ 2 - z 2 + 3yz - 2zx + xy=Q, x* -z 2 ~2yz + 3zx + xy= 0, lie in the pairs of planes
(x+y-z)(x+y + 2z)=0. 49. The cone through OX, OY, OZ and the lines in which a(b~c)x + b(c~a)y + c(a- b)z = cuts the cone
(x
is
the plane
mon
given by (6 c) yz + (c a) zx + (a 6) xy = 0, and the other two comof the two cones lie in the plane generators
50.
+ c)(b-c)*x* + (c + a)(c
lie
in the planes
are
two
sets of
and
at angles of 60.
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES
52.
I.
xxi
Show
b-c
c-a a-b
has sets of three mutually perpendicular tangent planes. If one plane of a set IB x + y + z=zQ, show that the other two are given by
line of intersection of these planes is =z. Show also that the lines along which these planes touch the cone lie in the plane
xy
x y V __ c-a __ a-b -c
z
i_
|
i
f-
\jf
53.
Show
t9
the plane
cuts
at*(x-y-z)-2t(bx+ay)-b(x-y + z)=Q the cone ax* + by* = (a + b)z* in perpendicular lines, and deduce
all
that
z*
a
54.
a+b
section has sets of three mutually
55.
its
(0, 0, c)
is (0, 0, 2a) and base z=0, y*=4ax is its The plane cuts it in a circle. By changing the to the vertex, and turning the x- and z-axes through 45, show origin that the cone is right circular and has a semi- vertical angle of 45. Draw a diagram showing the cone and the section by the plane z=x. 57. The cone whose vertex is (0, 0, c) and base 2=0, x 2 -ft/ 2 - 2oa;=0 has a reciprocal cone given by a 2y 2 =c(z - c)(cz - c a - 2ax). Hence show that if the section of a cone by a plane at right angles to a generator is a circle, the section of the reciprocal cone by the same plane is a para-
own
zx
bola.
that the cone whose vertex is (3, 4, 5) and which passes the curve of intersection of the plane ar-fy + z=0 and the through surface yz + zx+ #y-f-l=0 is given by
58.
Show
and that
it
x +y 4-2 = 1,
parallel to the line x/2
3 a +y 2 +z a =4,
is
The
xxii
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
circles lie
+y
is
whose vertex
60. Show that the equations of the two planes which pass through the line 2x = ~y=2z and cut the cone I5x 2 - 14i/ 2 4- 5z 2 =0 in perpendicular generators are 3# -f 2y + z=0, 2x-y-4z=Q.
61. If two planes, each of which cuts the cone ax 2 + by 2 + cz 2 =Q in perpendicular lines, are at right angles, their line of intersection lies on the cone (2a + b + c)x 2 + (26 + c + a)y 2 -f (2c + a + b)z 2 =0.
62. Find the tangent planes to the hyperboloid 3x 2 - 1y 2 + 42z 2 = 126 which pass through the lines
~(i)
= ?!_:=;_
5
1
and
(ii)
63.
to ax 2 -f by 2
-f
cz 2
=1
whose
that, if (p, q, r) is a fixed point and the planes are at right angles, the line of intersection lies on the cone
and deduce
=abc[(ry
64.
that the two tangent planes to ax 2 pass through the line given by
Show
+ by 2 + cz 2 = l which
by the equation
65. The tangent plane at a point P, not in a principal plane, and the normal at P to the ellipsoid x 2 /a 2 + y 2 /b 2 z 2 /c 2 = 1 meet the plane XOY in a line QR and a point G. Show that QR is the polar of G with respect
-f-
to the ellipse
^T2+ 6^72=1
meet a principal plane 7
in
x2
2
'
=0
'
G and
G',
bisects
PP
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES
=l
by the equations
meet at the point
(a,
j3,
I.
xxiii
y),
show that
PQ is given
68. If the feet of three of the normals from (a, 0, y) to the ellipsoid 2 2 2 2 y /b + z lc = l are (x r , y r , z r ), r = l f 2, 3, the equation of the them can be written plane through
4-1=0.
69. Normals are drawn to the ellipsoid x 2 /a* + y*/b z + z z /c* = l at = points on its section by the given plane z y. Show that the normals meet the plane XOY at points on the conic
a*# 2 2 2 (a -c )
6y =
-c 2 ) 2
y*
c2
'
'
(6
and meet the planes YOZ, ZOX at points on the lines x = 0, z = y(l-a 2 /c 2 ); y=0, z = y(l -6 2/c*).
70. If the polar plane of
P with
ay
-f
6^ 2
= 1,
lies
aV
2
surface
(6 -f c) a*x -f (c
-f
a) b*y
-f
(a
-f
s 2 6) c z
= 2a6c.
71. The normal at a point P on the ellipsoid x 2 /a 2 + y 2 /b 2 + z 2 /c 2 = l meets the planes YOZ, ZOX in G and G', and OQ is drawn from the X
origin
ellipsoid
a 2* 2 + b*y 2 + c 2z 2 = (a 2 - 6 2 ) 2
GG
.
Show
is
the
to the ellipsoid x 2 /a 2 + y 2 /b 2 + z 2 /c 2 = l at a point P is produced on its curve of intersection with the plane lx + my + outwards to a point such that PQ p - & 2 , where p is the perpendicular from the centre to the tangent plane at P, and k is a constant. Show lies on the conic that
72.
The normal
nz0
o 2to
1+
b*my
^TP cMT
c*nz
a
_ ~
a*x*
'
(a
!!
2
)
+
(6
6 2y 2
2
c*z 2
"
)fc
+ )b
2 a
)
'
-*
'
_. ""~
'
73. P is a point on the hyperboloid a; 2 /a 2 -hy 2 /6 2 -2 2 /c 2 = l such that the planes through the centre and the generators through P are at right Show that the normal at P intersects the conic angles.
x2
B.O.
c2
c2
xxiv
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
74. If P(f,g,h) 9 is a point on the cone ax2 + by* + cz a =0, three normals, other than the normal at P, pass through P. Show that the equation of the plane through the feet of these normals is
2 - 6)(a - c)fx + (b - c)(b a)gy + (c a)(c b)hz = bcf -f cag* + abh*. 75. P is a point on the ellipsoid x 2 /a 2 + y 2 /b 2 + z 2 /c 2 = 1 and ON is the perpendicular from the centre O to the tangent plane at P. If PN is of constant length K, show that ON lies on the cone 2 2 2 - 2 2 c ) + zV (c 2 - a 2 ) 2 + x*y 2 (a 2 - b 2 ) 2 y 2 (6 = K 2 (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) (a 2* 2 + 6y + c 2* 2 ).
(a
normals to # 2 + 2y 2 + 32 2 =984 which lie in the are the points (12, - 18, 8), ( -6, 18, - 10), and the plane normals intersect at the point ( - 12, 54, - 40).
76.
The
feet of the
x+y +z-2
77. The plane x ~ z = 4 cuts the ellipsoid x 2 -f 2y 2 -f 3z 2 = 50 in a circle and the radii of the circle through the points (6, 1, 2) are the normals
to the ellipsoid at these points.
78. If P, (x l9 y l9 2i), is a point on the curve of intersection of the conicoid ax 2 -f by 2 + cz 2 = I and its director sphere, show that the normal at P meets the conicoid again at the point given by
0^1
cz i
is
22
22
~"
*
79.
The normals
at (x lf
y19
z t ) 9 (x 2 ,
y2
z 2 ),
on the
ellipsoid
will intersect if
|
and
if (a,
)3,
y)
is
^(i-i^a-^-vC-r)X**'!
*v2
jl
f/2
^^1
''ft
normals from (4/3, 2/3, 0) to the ellipsoid x2 + 2y* + 3z* = 24 consist of the normals at (2, 2, 2), (2, 2, -2), the normal at 2 2 = 24, (4, -2, 0) counted twice, and the normals to the ellipse x + 2y at the points where the line x- 2y + 4=0, 2=0 cuts it. 2=0,
80.
The
six
with respect to the surface ax* + by* + C2 = l, and meets the surface in P and Q, show that the normals at P and Q lie in the plane bc(qn rm)(x -p) + ca(rl -pn)(y q) +ab(pm ql)(z r) = 0, and that PQ is a principal axis of the section of the surface by the plane
2
~ = ~ m~ =
is
perpendicular to
its
polar
19
m,
9
n
ab(pm-ql)
=0.
bc(qn-rm)
ca(rl-pn) 9
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES
I.
xxv
82. Show that the points (1, -2, 2), ( -5, 4, 8) are the extremities of a normal chord of the hyperboloid 2x 2 + y 2 -z 2 =2 and that the chord is a principal axis of the section of the surface by the plane
83. P, (xl9 yl9 zj, Q, (z a y29 z 2 ), R, (z8 , y^ z8 ) are the extremities of three conjugate diameters of the ellipsoid x 2 /a 2 + y 2 /b 2 + z 2 /c 2 = 1. Show that (x - #i)(# 2 - #s) + (y- 2/i)(2/2 - 2/3) + (z - Zi)(z2 - 3) =0 represents the plane drawn through the normal at P at right angles to the plane PQR and deduce that the projections on the plane PQR of the normals at P, Q, R are concurrent at the orthocentre of the triangle PQR.
,
84. OP, OQ, OR are three conjugate semi-diameters of the ellipsoid x 2 /a 2 + y 2 lb 2 + z 2 lc 2 = I. OP, OQ are produced to P 7 and Q' so that OP'/OP =OQ'/OQ = k, where k is a constant. Show that the enveloping 7 cones whose vertices are P and Q intersect in two planes, of which one is the plane through OR and the mid-point of PQ, and the other touches t the ellipsoid #2 z* 2
7
85. OP, OQ, OR are conjugate semi-diameters of the ellipsoid x 2 /a 2 + y 2 /b* + z 2 lc* = I. OP 7 OQ 7 OR 7 are drawn at right angles to the 7 7 7 planes QOR, ROP, POQ, and of lengths such that &OP &OQ A)R are equal to the areas of the triangles QOR, ROP, POQ, respectively, k being 7 a certain fixed length. Show that OP 7, OQ OR are conjugate semi,
,
^L+^L+JL=Jb c c a 4& a b
2
'
86. OP, OQ, OR are conjugate semi-diameters of the ellipsoid x 2 /a 2 + y 2 /b 2 + 2 2 /c 2 = 1. Show that the sides of the triangle PQR touch the ellipsoid x 2 /a 2 + y 2 /b 2 + z 2 /c 2 = % at their mid-points. Show also that the necessary and sufficient condition that the line
n
is
2a (my
nj3)
87. The
equations
of
the
axes
of the
conic
3x 2 + y 2 -z 2 = 3,
2x + y + 2z-Q are #/l-2//2=z/-2, a?/2=y/-2=s/-l, and the lengths of the axes are 6 and 6/^/5. The axes are the lines in which the given plane cuts the cone I/a? - 1/y + 1/z =0. The axes of all sections parallel
to the given plane
lie
in the planes
6x-2y+z=0,
88. The lengths of the axes of the conic
are 4, 2 ; the equations of the axes are x/2 = y\ - 3 = z/6, x\ - 6 = y/2 = z/3 ; the equations of the equi-conjugate diameters of the conic are
xxvi
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
+ y 2 /4 + z 2 /l=21, 2x + 3y-6z=0,
are
- 14, 35) ; the lengths of the semi-axes are 18, 36 ; the extremities of the axes are (22, -2, 41), ( -2, -26, 29) ; (22, -38, 59),
91. The
(-2,10,11).
centre
of
the
conic
2x 2 + y* = l2z,
: :
6x-3y-6z = l
is
10/3) ; the lengths of the semi-axes are (39/2)4, (39/4)i, and the (3, -2:2. directions of the axes are given by 2 2 1, 1
:
- 3,
17&f
is
;
70, 170) ; the lengths of the semi-axes are 3(595)^, 9(595)^ ( - 2, 2 2 1. their directions are given by 2 : - 1
: :
- 119,
nx + am
(
xy=az + al __ ny
(n*
lx
+ my + nz-0, n zz-2alm
are given
by
+ w 2 )i
+ P)i
- 1 (m2
94. If the plane lx + my + nz=Q cuts the paraboloid xy=az in a hyperbola of eccentricity 2, the line x\l=y\m z\n lies on the cone
95.
t/1
Show
z2
c^
of the
the
ellipsoid
+TZ + -Z = 1, 3
o
whose
planes
are
parallel
to
fixed
plane
ft
2
)
my -f (a 2 -f 6 2 - c
2
2
)
nz]
2
)
a 2Z 2 (6 2 -f c 2 )
-f
62
(c
+ a 2 ) -f cW(a 2 + 6 2 )\
96. Show that if a 2 -f 6 2 = 2c 2 , the generators through any one of the ends of an equi-conjugate diameter of the principal elliptic section of the hyperboloid x 2 /a 2 + y 2 /b* - z 2 /c 2 = 1 are at right angles. 97.
Show
that x = 1-fA?/
2
- 2yz ~ 1, hyperboloid x
--1 represents a generator of the A and that any point on the surface is given by
A
-,
2z
2
IJL
/it
-,
a\ = -^
p.
Show
on
98.
also that if the generators through P are at right angles, the circle in which the plane y + z =0 cuts the surface.
lies
whose centre
that the section of the hyperboloid 4z 2 -f t/ 2 -2z 2 = 12 - 3, 0, 6) is circular and that its area is twice that of ( the parallel central section. Show that the sphere which has the given circular section as a great circle is
Show
is
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES
I.
xxvii
99. The radius of a real circular cylinder which circumscribes the 2 2 2 2 = 2 2 l is b and the area of its curve of contact ellipsoid x /a + y lb + z lc
is 7r(6
2 2
-c 2a 2 -f a 2b 2 $, (a>b>c).
100. If each of two tangent cones to a conicoid has sets of three mutually perpendicular generators, their common points lie in two
perpendicular planes.
101.
Two
# 2 /a 2 -h j/ 2 /6 2 -f z 2 /c 2 = 1 of
tha* the square of the
opposite systems have the same radius radius of the sphere through them is
2
CL
Show
-r 2
)9
or
b2
+ 55lzf? (b 2 - r 2 ),
(a>b>c).
102. P, Q, R, S are vertices of a skew quadrilateral whose sides lie 2 2 2 2 - 2 z /c 2 = 1. Show that along generators of the hyperboloid x /a + y /b - C2 ) = + ZS) (ZPZR - C 2 ). (ZQ
and
2 2 2 2 2 P, (#', y', z'), is a point on the ellipsoid X la + y lb +z /c = l ON is the perpendicular from the centre to the tangent plane at P. If OP =r and ON =p, show that the bisector of the angle PON is given by b 2y c 2z ax _ ~~
103.
___
x' (pr
+ a 2 )~~y' (pr + b 2 )
z' ( pr 4-
<*
2
)
'
and
that, if a point
OP,
i 3J*
2 ft*
2 2+S
/)
3**
y ri
I
<yZ
1 y&
+ -;
z2
I
(*&
/>
_i_ 2J i
1 = 5*
*J
nzp
_j_
the point
show that a 2 Z 2 =rc 2?i 2 and that the vertex of the parabola _ /p2 ^2^2 ^2 C 2^2\
'
'
2pl
2pn
105. If # + 64-c=0, the section of the cone a# 2 4-fo/ 2 -l-cz 2 =:0 by the plane ax + by + cz = 18o6c is a parabola whose latus rectum is of
length vertex
2
) ;
the axis
c2
4-
is
x=y=z
is
the
(a
4-
56c,
b2
+ 5ca,
Sab)
lies in
the plane
(c -f a b)my + (a -f b - c)nz=0,
given by
-a)l
b(c+a-b)m
c(a + b-c)n
2(
= l, z=cr
= l,
2, 3,
xxviii
as generators
is
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
given by
a 19
=0.
1
9
^3
108. The equation of the hyperboloid which has the coordinate axee and the line x-a y-&=2-casa generator is
<r?
4I
v* y
z2
4.
|
_i_
I
i
-*
r W
(c-a)(a-6)
(a, 6, c)
are
x-a
bc-ca + ab
- a,
z~c bc+ca-ab
(a, -6, -c), generators of
109. The vertices of a tetrahedron are (a, 6, c), - a, - 6, c). Show that the altitudes are 6,
c),
(
the hyperboloid
a*x*(b*
- c 2 ) + b y(c 2 - a 2 ) + C 2z 2 (a 2 - 6 2 )
-f
(6
- c 2 ) (c 2 - a 2 ) (a 2 -6 2 )-0.
1 10.
Show that
Sx z -f 8y 2 - 4z 2 - Syz - Szx
= -2z5.
111. The condition that ax 2 + by 2 + cz* + 2fyz + 2gzx -f 2toy = 1 should have generators at right angles to the planes of its circular sections is a - b - c, 2h, 2g
2h,
2g,
b-c-a,
2f,
2f
=0.
c-a-b
variable circle with its centre on OZ and its plane at right 112. Show that it generates to the line x=a,y z, intersects that line. angles Show that the same surface the hyperboloid 2x* + 3y 2 -z 2 -2yz = 2a 2 is generated by a variable circle with its centre on the line x=Q, 2y=z, which has its plane at right angles to the line x=a, 3y 4-2=0, and
.
113. PP' is a diameter of the principal elliptic section of the hypervariable generator intersects a geneboloid # 2 /a 2 -f y 2 /b 2 2 a /c a = l. rator through P and the generator of the same system through P' in the and Q'. Show that ZQZQ> = - c 2 points
114. Show that the two generators through the point (a, j8, y) on the hyperboloid x 2 /a 2 -f j/ 2 /6 2 - 2 2 /c 2 = 1 are the lines in which the tangent plane at the point meets the planes
a 26 2
c2
Show that the same result holds for the paraboloid # f/a 2 - y*lb*2z/c.
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES
are
I.
xxix
y-a = X(x + a), X(z-a)+y + z=Q; z-a = /*(a;-f a), n(yand that any point on the surface x y
is
given
z
by
a
Show
that
y=a,z=-a;
za,x-a\
are generators of the same system and that, if they meet any generator of the opposite system in P, Q, R, S, respectively, (PR, QS) is a harmonic range.
line (see
116. Establish the following results involving the coordinates of a Appendix, Note to 43).
the line
. ,
(1) If
(I,
al
(2) If
+ bm + cn
(/,
and
m, n
9
bv
I
CIL
m
n' 9
ax + by + cz + d=09
the lines
A,
//,,
v), (V,
-f l'\
m'
intersect,
IX'
+ Kip' -f nv
lines
is
given by
9
by
(3)
l'(ny-mz~- X)+m'(lz-nx~ n)+n'(mx-ly-v)=zQ - A') + m(l'z - n'x - ^') + n(m'x - Z'y - v') 0. l(n'y m'z
The
line
(I,
m,
n, A,
jit,
y)
ax 2 -f &2/2
if
C2 2
=1
.
be A 2
(4)
-f
2 2 2 2 2 ca^ + a&v - aZ 4- 6m + en
The tangent planes to x 2 /a 2 -f i/ 2 /6 2 + 2 2 /c 2 = 1 whose line of inter/, m, n, A, /x, v, are given by 2 2 2 6 (fe - tt# + c 2 (ma: - ly - v) 2 = ( Xx + py 4- vz)*, a?(ny -mz- A)
/it)
and,
if
(6
+ c2
) -I-
(c
+ a2
-f
n 2 (a 2 -f
ft
2
)
= A 2 4- ^ + v*.
line of intersection
(5)
has coordinates
m, n,
2
A,
whose
a(ny
- wz -
A)
(6) The normals at the points where the line (1 9 m, n 9 A, ^, v) meets 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 the ellipsoid /a -hi/ /6 + 2 /c = l intersect if a JA + 6 ra/x + c ni/=0, and the equation of the plane containing them is
The
-f
line
cz 2
-
ax2 + 6y a
= 1 by
(1 9
m, n,
A,
/*, i>)
is
the plane
(ny
xxx
(8)
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
The polar + cz 2 = 1
line
is
of
(Z,
w,
n, A,
a&* + by 2
is
with respect to the surface /x, v) -al, -6ra, -en), and if the line
,
bm
p,
cn
v
/z,
Imn
A
(9) If
the line
(i!,
m,
n, A,
^) is
if it is
a generator of ayz
-f
a
(10)
___
zr:
-
z^.
The
conicoid which has the coordinate axes as conjugate diaa generator is given by (/, m, n, A, ^, v) as
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES
1.
II.
lines
Ans.
2.
(1, 2,3).
Show
#-#+2-4=0, 2x-y- 2 + 4=0, #+#-62 + 14=0 form a triangular prism, and calculate the breadth of each face of the
prism.
V^.
lines
lines intersect,
and
find
line
2x+y -2=5,
- 4,
1)
Find also the coordinates of the point of intersection, and the equation of the plane through the given line and the required line.
Ans.
z.*+i,Lz!>
(i, 2 , 3),
y-3,+7=0.
5.
the line
Prove that the equations of the perpendicular from the origin to ax+by + cz+d=zQ = a'x+b'y + c'z+d' are
x(bc'
6.
6x+y + 52 + 5=0,
intersect the
line joining
the points
-6,1)
in
points
xxxii
7.
of the line
on the plane
An*.
8.
A
te-7y bx-y-4z=3. -2 z
-T3
2
2'
Prove that 4# + 8y 2 + z2 - Qyz + 5zx - 1 %xy = represents a pair of Find also the angle between planes, and find the angle between them. the lines in which the plane 11#- 13y + 22=0 cuts them.
Am
9.
13
-
co *
lines
line perpendicular to
both of
the lines
~
1
~
2
'
~
2
-1
intersection.
11.
For the
lines
find the length and equations of the shortest distance ordinates of the points where it meets the given lines.
3,
and the
co-
^='^=4
)>
Oi 3 ~ 2 )>
square ABCD, of diagonal 2a, is folded along the diagonal so that the planes DAC, are at right angles. Show that the shortest distance between and AB is then 2a/N/3".
12.
AC,
BAG DC
13.
-5 = 0=#+y+2-3, and
of the plane
is
line
Ans.
14.
#+2+32= 1.
Find the equation
2
#=2y=
cylinder Ans.
and radius
4,
by the plane
XOY
of the right circular cylinder whose axis is and prove that the area of the section of the
is 24?r
15. Find the equation of the right circular cone whij& passes through the line 2#=3y= -62, and has the line x=y=z asaxia
Ans.
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES
II.
xxxiii
16. Obtain the formulae for the transformation from a set of rectangular axes OX, OY, OZ, to a second rectangular set, O, O*7, Of, where O lies in the plane XOY and makes an angle with OX and Of makes an angle </> with OZ, viz. #= cos O TI sin 0cos<-f-f sin 5 sin <, cos # sin <, y = sin -f 97 cos # cos
<
by the plane 2#-2y+2=0 is a circle of radius 2. w r nr (/=!, 2, 3) are the direction -cosines 17. If r
,
of
three
mutually perpendicular
lines,
vitfi^m* -
prove that
)
and that
- W3%(w 22 - V) =
^3
m
18. If Or;, Of are a second set of rectangular axes whose direction-cosines referred to OX, OY, are lr r , n r (r=l, 2, 3) and the projections of O^ and Or/ on the plane make angles <f> { and </> 2 with OX, prove that
O,
OZ
XOY
19. Find the surface generated by a variable line which intersects the parabolas x 2&w, 3/=0, 2 aw 2 ; ^r=0, ?/ = 2an, 2= an2 and is parallel to the plane
,
with its extremities on the lines mX) %= c y = w,^, 2 = so as to subtend a right angle at the origin. Prove that the foot of the perpendicular from the origin to PQ lies on the curve of inter20.
A line PQ moves
y
<?,
m =
2
22
-c2
?M 2
and
Lines are drawn parallel to the plane # = 2 and the line y=0, z = c. parabola ?/ = 4a#, 2 2 generate the surface c y
21.
z0
to intersect the
22.
line
the lines
2 and the hyperbola xy + c = 0. z = c2 Ans. z xy 23. Prove that lines drawn from the origin
.
^ = o, z^c z = 0,
# = 0, z= -c
lie
on the cone
24.
circle
B.C.
xxxiv
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
two
is
25. Prove that the locus of the centres of spheres lines =:fcw#
zc
P and
z=c
ZOX
such that
circle
on
PQ PQ
always parallel to the plane ZOX. Prove that the as diameter whose plane is parallel to the plane
mV
whose centre
of the sphere
which has
are
If three mutually perpendicular lines whose direction-cosines nr (r=l, 2, 3) are drawn from the origin to meet the r a 2 2 2 in P, Q, R, prove that the equation of the sphere ,r 4-# 4-2
28.
/r ,
=a
plane
PQR
is
of the circle
PQR
is
J(2/3)a.
29. If A, B, C are the points (a, 0, 0), (0, 6, 0) and (0, 0, c\ and the axes are rectangular, prove that the diameter of the circle ABC is
'
6 2 c 2 4-c 2 a 2 4-a 2 6 2
30.
circle
2,*:
Ans.
31.
Show
7x+4y 4-2=0
in the
of perpendicular lines, and that the equation of the the other two common generators of the cones is plane through
same pair
5# -2y- 3^=0.
ellipse whose axes are of lengths 2a and 26 (a>b) moves major axis parallel to OX and its minor axis parallel to OY, so that three mutually perpendicular lines can be drawn from O to intersect it. Prove that its centre lies on the ellipsoid i \ ^2 ^2 /i n4" To == * 5 4" To 4" 2 2 2 2 a b VI \a
32.
An
with
its
33. Two right circular cones have a common vertex and axis, and their semivertical angles are ?r/4 and ?r/3 respectively. Show that any tangent plane to the first cuts the second in perpendicular generators.
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES
,
II.
XXXV
2, 3),
34. OP, OQ, OR, whose direction-cosines are Zr rj nr (r=l, are three mutually perpendicular generators of the cone
Prove that the three planes through OP, OQ, OR, at right angles respectively to the tangent planes which touch along OP, OQ, OR, pass through the line
(b
c)x _ (c
- a)y
_(a
b)z
*
35.
If
is
P lane
Ans. N/154.
37.
(3, 4,
- 3), and
z.
is
x=y~
Prove that for
all
values of
the plane
is
x*la*+y*/b*-z*/c*=
and that
its
3a
39.
~5c
contact of a
common tangent
aa? + by*+c#=l,
are at right angles.
40.
the line
drawn through
Ans.
41. Find the points of contact of the tangent planes to the conicoid 2 2 2j^-25y +22 =l, which intersect in the line joining the points
(13,
-1
-13).
xxxvi
42.
COOBDINATE GEOMETRY
-J-23
y?
Find the equations of the two plane sections 2 =l, which have their centres on the line
of the surface
-1, -5,
1).
#-2#+6z-15 = 0,
M, the mid-point
2#-f
of the
+2z+ 5 = 0.
normal chord at P, a point on the
2
ellipsoid
?/
$
1
'
3+&+?lies
lie
and
on one of the
lines
=
P 999 = any and
44.
is
ffa
jyjfi
=:
-^-
nnft
-5+ 2
a
the
o2
io
+ -3 <r
nj
f>
li
P meets
plane
XOY
GP.
in G.
From
O
lies
,
parallel to
Prove that Q
OQ
2 2
is
ax + by + cz = c 2
aV + 6 y + c z
2
= c4
cone is described whose vertex is A, and whose base is the 45. It meets section of the conicoid ax2 + bi/ 2 + cz" = l by the plane 2 = 0. the given couicoid at points in the plane XOY, and at points in a plane Q. Prove that if A lies in a fixed plane P, the pole of Q, with respect to the given conicoid, lies on a conicoid which touches the given conicoid at all points of its intersection with the plane P.
with respect to a central coni46. If the polar planes of P and coid meet in a line AB, and the plane through parallel to the polar of P meets the plane through P parallel to the polar plane of plane in a line CD, show that the plane through AB and passes through the centre of the conicoid.
CD
47. Prove that the equation of the cone whose vertex is (OL, /?, y) and base the conic ax1 + by* -f CZ L = 1, P=Z# + my + nz~pQ is obtained by eliminating A from the equations
i
P 2 (aa
-f fyt? -f
cy
- 1) - 2PP'(aauc +
b/3y + cyz
Deduce (i) the equation of the cone whose vertex is (a, /?, y) and base a.^2 4-fcy2 =l, s = 0, and (ii) the equation of the other plane section of the conicoid and the cone.
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES
48.
II.
xxxvii
Prove that the locus of centres of sections of ax*+by2 +cz*=l _ 7 i s a conic whose centre =2 which pass through the line
-=
is
given by
49.
^^^L^^^L^
+
If the axes are rectangular and P, (#j, y,, 2,), Q, (#2 , y<& z%\ y3 , zs) are the extremities of three conjugate diameters of the y& ly2 Z2 ellipsoid -2+ Y2 -2=l) prove that the planes through the centre and
R, (#3,
the normals at P, Q,
50.
If
OP, OQ,
OR
x2
is
-2 + j$ +
y2
2
s
-%
=l and the
9
QOR>
ROP,
POQ
51.
If
P(^n yu
2i)>
Q(#_>
.^21
0*2
2*
1>
prove
given
OR
is
by '
Xl
a^+~^^ a^ 6y
2
-1
POQ
^^
by
.Vyyiygys -f,
/v<2
52.
If
in the plane
lies
2
on the cone
C (a 2
-b 2 )w
=()
53.
2
/a
-l'y /b
If the radius of the director circle of the conic 2 2 2 l is of constant length r, prove that the plane of +z*/c
Ix+my+nzQ,
54. Prove that the equal conjugate diameters of the conic in which the plane x+y -f 0=0 cuts the conicoid 2,r2 + 3# 2 + 4e; 2 = 1 are the lines in which the plane cuts the cone 8x?-y 2 - 1002 =0.
55.
+ 6y 2 +c^ 2 =l
has one of
its
axes along
the line
(
T ==3A /x v
15
II
its
equation must be n
xxxviii
56.
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
surface
Prove that the lengths of the semi-axes of the section of the 2 2yz+2zx+2xy+ a =0 by the plane lx+ my+nz=Q are
and
a(l
+m
+nrf(2mn + 2nl+2lm-l
-m
--n 2 )-b.
By considering the cases (i) l+m+n=Q, (ii) l=m=n, surface is a hyperboloid of revolution whose axis is 2 2 22 2 = a 2 equation referred to its principal axes is # -t-?/
57.
in
lx+ my+nz0 ax2 +by2 =2z are the lines in which the plane cuts a -b)n2 m (
anx+l
58.
bny+m
=()
The
fixed plane
2
2
+ -rH
n2
cone axP+by +cz =Q in a parabola. Prove that the axes of the plane parallel parabolic sections lie
a?(b-c)x
I
and the
vertices
on the
line
Ix
___
ri
b 2 (c-a)y
c2 + (a-b)z_ n
'
my
__
nz
59. If the axes are rectangular and a line moves so as to intersect #= a, y=mz and the circle #2 -f#2 =a 2 z=0, the lines #=a, ; prove that its locus is a hyperboloid of one sheet whose circular sections are perpendicular to the given lines.
yQ
60.
origin
Prove that the centre of any sphere which passes through the and through a circular section of the ellipsoid
lies
on the hyperbola
2
2
=&
,
61*
4#,
62. Prove that any enveloping cone of the conicoid #2 + 4yz 2^ 2 = a 2 whose vertex lies on the ^-axis, touches the conicoid at all points of a
circle.
63. O is an umbilic of an ellipsoid and OP is the normal chord through O. The tangent planes at O and P intersect in a line AB. Prove that any cone whose vertex is O and whose base is the section of the ellipsoid by a plane through AB is right circular.
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES
64.
II.
xxxix
If the generators
meet the principal elliptic section in A and B, and if the eccentric angle of A is three times the eccentric an^le of B, prove that P lies on the curve of intersection of the hyperboloid and the cylinder
65. If P is an extremity of an equiconjugate diameter of the ellipse #2/a 2 -t-y2/& 2 ==l, z=0 and 2c 2 = a 2 -f 6 2 the two generators through P of L the hyperboloid o;2/a 2 -f y*\H z*l<?\ are at right angles.
,
66.
P and D
o<2
*2
of the
hyperboloid
-jj"*"A2"""2 CL O C
=: ^
anc*
^e
If
generators through P and D form a skew quadrilateral the angles QPR, QDR are 20 and 2</>, prove that
PQDR.
of #2 -f-y2 -22 2 = a 2 through the point (a COBOL, intersects a generator through the point (a cos /3, a sin /J, 0) 0) at an angle 0. Prove that 3 cos 2 0/2 2 cos 2 (a. -/J)/2, and show that if A 2 , A 3 , A 4 , A 6 , A 6 are the vertices of a regular hexagon inscribed Aj, in the principal circular section, the generators of the one system through Aj, 3 , A 6 and the generators of the other system through
67.
generator
a sin OL,
A 2 A 4 A6
,
,
is
2\/2a 3
a?>bc show that the points of intersection of perpendicular % 2?/ generators of the hyperboloid ~-~^-=:i lie on the real central
68.
If
circular sections.
69.
'
meet the plane lx+my + nz l in the points P and Q. The other generators through P and Q intersect in R. Find the equation of the = plane PQR, and prove that if R always lies on the plane z 0, S lies on the plane 2 2 + c2 /! 2 - 1 ) + 2wc'2 (te + my - 1 ) = 0. z(aH* + ft
70.
If a hyperboloid passes of a
71. Prove that any hyperboloid which passes through the 2-axis and the circle .r2 -f y2 =a#, 2 = is given by x(x+gz-a) + t/(i/+fz) 0. If the two planes that pass through the origin and cut the hyperboloid in circles are inclined at a constant angle OL, show that the generator which passes through (a, 0, 0) and does not intersect OZ lies on the
cone (x
72.
a)
-f-y
=z
tan 2 a.
The
a*+z*-a* y=:0, and the parabola #2 = 4oy-f a 2 0=0 lie on the parabola
,
#=<),
B.Q.
s2
2D
xl
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
zc\
=
73. Prove that the equation of the conicoid which passes through the # 0, 2= -c, and has a centre at (OL, /3, y) is, if y =0, lines y=0,
State
74.
what
in
which y = 0.
;
= = Hyperboloids are drawn through the lines # 0, 2= -e y 0, with their centres at the origin. Prove that the lines of interwith respect to them of two fixed points section of the polar planes (a, /3, y), (a', p', y') lie on the paraboloid
= c,
75.
variable line
is
planes
c in P,
OZ
drawn through the origin to meet the fixed Q, R, and through P, Q, R parallels are
respectively.
abc
x a
y b
z
u.
76. If a cone intersects a conicoid in plane curves, their planes and the plane of contact of the enveloping cone which has the same vertex pass through one line.
77. A variable cone is drawn through the conic 2 0, and one of its principal axes passes through the fixed point Prove that the vertex must lie on the circle
(p,
<j,
0).
78. Prove that the coordinate axes and the three lines of intersection of the three pairs of planes that pass through the four common generators of the cones ax 2 + by 2 + cz 2 = lie on the cone
Q,yz+zx + hxQ
79. If lrj m r * Kr (r = l, 2, 3) are the direction-cosines of the principal axes of the conicoid a#2 -f by* + cz2 + %fyz+2gzx + 2A#y = l, prove that
(ii)
Flil z l3 -f G??i 1
m m3 -f Hn^n^i^ = 0.
2
Hence or otherwise show that the cone through the coordinate axes and the principal axes is given by
and the cone which touches the coordinate planes and the principal planes by
80.
Show
1
that
if
into
c^ + ^ 2 +c 8 + 2^+2<77+2Aa?y = l
of
transforms
are
O&
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES.
II
xli
81. Show that the necessary and sufficient condition that a conicoid should be of revolution is that its two systems of real circular sections should coincide, and hence prove that (abcfghxyzf=-\ represents a
conicoid of revolution
(a
is
if
a perfect square.
82.
that, for all values of 6, the equation 2 sin 6) a2 (x sin0-y cos 0) + 2z (x cos a hyperboloid of revolution, and that the axis lies in represents
Prove
+y
one of
#2 +y2 = s 2
83. Prove that the general equation of conicoids of revolution that 2 pass through the fixed point (0, 0, c\ and the parabola y --=4a#, 2=0, is
y=0,
Prove
(#-2a)
= c(2z-c).
represents a hyperboloid of revolution which passes through the given arid show that the axes of all such lines y=0, z~c] x = 2 2 hyperboloids lie on the paraboloid y -x' = 4.cz.
Q^z-c\
85.
origin,
The only conicoid of revolution which has its centre and passes through the parabola z = b # 2 = 4cu; + 4a 2 y
at the 6 2 is a
is
tan" 1 2a/b.
prove that
87.
p=<r = 3a(l-f
2 2 ) .
Show
of the cylinders
line
that the tangent at any point to the curve of intersection 2 y = 4o#, y=2ae*/ a makes a constant angle with the
(2.r
+ a) 2
88.
x^Zabt,
y=a2 log, *=
is
prove that
given by
- 2abt
r)-y
89. Prove that the locus of the feet of the perpendiculars from the origin to the tangents to the helix ,r = aco8#, ^/ = asin 0, z aQ is the curve 2# = a (2 cos 6+6 sin 6), 2y = a(2sin 6- #cos0), 2z~ad. Show that this curve lies on the hyperboloid ^2 -f^ 2 -2:2 =a 2 , and that it crosses the generator x a cos a._y-asincL_z
sin OL
It
cos
OL
T
also that
__
where
6= a.
Prove
an(j
___
2
20(1 + 0")*
BO.
8P2
xlu
90.
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
A semicircle A'BA is
as diameter
and
as
as diameter, is described on centre, and a second semicircle so as to lie within the first. The semicircle A'BA is then cut out of the and OA' and folded so as to form a right cone with
OCA
OA
coinciding along a generator. Show that the curve on the cone which the semicircle assumes can be represented by the equations
paper
OA
OCA
2,r=a(cos30-hco3 0), 2# = a(sin30 + sin 0), z V3acos 0, and obtain for it the results (i) the length of the arc measured from the point (a, 0. \/3a) is 2a0, (ii) 4a 2 =p 2 (4 + 3cos 2 0), and (iii)
:
2a(4 + 3cos
0)
curve is drawn on a sphere of centre O, so that the tangent at 91. a variable a fixed line. A is a point P makes a constant angle with on tne curve where the osculating plane passes through O. point Show that the length of the arc AP of the curve is proportional to the perpendicular from O to the osculating plane at P.
92. P is a variable point on a curve C t and the arc AP, measured from a fixed point A, is of length s. A distance PT equal to s is measured backwards along the tangent at P, and the locus of T is a curve C 2 If the radii of curvature and torsion of Cj at P are p and <r, and the radius of curvature of C 2 at T is p prove that
,
.
2 ,
ft)
<r~
93. Prove that the tangent to the locus of the centres of circular curvature of a curve makes an angle with the corresponding principal normal to the curve such that sin 0=
94. If 80 is the angle between the radii of spherical curvature at the ends of an infinitesimal arc Ss, prove that
95. P is a variable point on a given curve and PQ a line through P which makes fixed angles, whose cosines are a, 6, o, with the tangent, and binomial at P respectively. Show that if the principal normal, locus of PQ, as P moves along the curve, is a developable surface, 2 2 1 1 (6 +c )/> + accr=0, where p" and cr" are the curvature and torsion
at P.
96. Show that the edge of regression of the developable surface which passes through the two curves,
lies
are the principal semiaxes of an ellipsoid, and are 97. OA, OB, of lengths a, 6, c respectively. Prove that the curvature at A of the is section of the ellipsoid by the plane
OC
ABC
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES.
98.
II
xliii
z2 (#2 -f-y 2
4 )=c show
99.
-fy = a 2=0 in is equal to the angle OQP. #=14 cos 0, y=wsin #, z=(a ture of the surface at P is -
A surface is generated
,r 2
the circle
P,
by a variable straight line which meets and OZ in Q, so that the angle POX Prove that at any point of the surface, u)cot 0, and that the measure of curva.
a~ 2
~L
The curve in the plane XOY, for which x=ae a is rotated about OY. Show that the measure of curvature of the surface of a~ 2 and that the whole curvature of the revolution so formed is of the surface intercepted between the plane ZOX and the part parallel plane through (or, y z) is 27r(#/a- 1).
100.
, ,
INDEX
The numbers
refer to pages.
with given direction -ratios, 30. in which plane cuts cone, 90. Angle between two planes, 17, 34.
ratio of four planes, 38. Anticlastic surface, 271. Area of plane section, 135. Asymptotic lines, 358. Axes of plane sections, 131. of central conicoid, 131, 134 of paraboloid, 137.
hyperboloid, 139. general central conicoid, 140 paraboloid, 142. Circumscribing cone, 109, 202.
conicoids, 249. cylinder, 110, 203. Condition for developable surface, 318. tangency of plane and conicoid,
92, 103, 120, 124, 199.
of of of of
ellipsoid, 138.
Anharmonio
Basset,
Geometry
Bianchi,
Geometria
Differenziale,
352, 373. Bifocal chords, 186. Binode, 264. Binormal, 282, 289. Bisectors of angles
lines, 29.
equation homogeneous, 88. equation when base given, 93. with three mutually perpendicular generators, 92.
between two
37.
114.
condition for, 219. enveloping conicoid, 109, 202. conjugate diameters of, 120. lines of curvature on, 334.
geodesies on, 365.
Catenoid, 336. Central planes, 216. Central point, 168. Centre of conicoid, 215.
Confocal conicoids, 176. Conic node or conical point, 264. Conicoid through three given lines,
163.
touching skew surface, 320. Conicoids of revolution, 228. with double contact, 246*
xlv
xlvi
INDEX
The numbers refer
to pages.
Coniooids
251.
through
eight
points,
Differential equations, of asymptotic lines, 358. of geodesies, 363. of lines of curvature, 338, 352. of spherical curves, 293.
the straight line, 42. the conicoid, 196. the surface of degree n, 259.
Direction-cosines, 19, 25. of three perpendicular lines, 69. of normal to ellipsoid, 111. of tangent to curve, 277. of principal normal and binormal, 283, 289. of normal to surface, 272, 349. Direction-ratios, 28, 40. relation between direction-cosines
6, 20,
terms of
8,
26.
301. Cross-ratio of four planes, 38. Curvature, of curve, 284. of surfaces, 326. of normal sections, 326. of oblique sections, 330.
specific, 346.
of a point from a plane, 35. of a point from a line, 24. Double contact, of conicoids, 246. Double tangent planes, 266. Dupin's theorem, 344.
Edge
of
spherical, 293, 299. geodesic, 371. of line of curvature, 336, 341. of geodesic, 369. sign of, 288. lines of, 333, 352. on conicoid, 333. on developable, 333. on surface of revolution, 335. Curve, equations to, 12, 275. Curves, cubic, 113, 239, 245. quartic, 238. Curvilinear coordinates, 348. Cuspidal edge, 309. Cylinder, enveloping, 110, 203, 229. Cylindroid, 258.
Element,
Ellipsoid, equation to, 99. principal radii of, 332. lines of curvature on, 333.
Elliptic 326.
point
on
surface,
270,
Envelope of plane
316.
one parameter,
Envelopes
two parameters,
Equation, to surface,
to to to to to
8.
conicoid when origin is at a centre, 217. to conoid, 257. Equations, to curve, 12. parametric, 271.
Factors of
2 (abcfgh) (xyz)* \(x* + y* + z ), 209. 177, 190. ellipse, hyperbola, parabolas, 192. lines, of cone, 193. Foci of conicoids, 187. Frenet's formulae, 286.
Diameters, of paraboloid, 124. Diametral planes, of central eonicoids, 101, 114. of cone, 120. of paraboloid, 123, 125. of general conicoid, 204.
Focal
INDEX
Gauss, measure of curvature, 346. Generating lines of hyperboloid, 148. of paraboloid, 149. systems of, 154, 161. Generator, properties of a, 167, 320. Generators of cone, 88. condition that cone has three
xlvii
of
parallel
chords, 108, 125, 204. of tangents from a point, 108. of parallel tangents, 108, 203. of intersection of mutually per-
pendicular
tangent
planes^
mutually perpendicular,
92.
with respect to
of conicoid, equations to, 153. 197. conicoids with common, 239, 241. of developable, 316. Geodesies, definition, 362. differential equations, 363. on developable, 363. on surface of revolution, 365. on cone, 365. on coniooid, 367. Geodesic curvature, 371. Geodesic torsion, 373.
Measure
of curvature, 346.
Meunier's theorem, 330, 331, 371. Mid-point of given line, 7. Mid-points of system of parallel
chords, 108, 125, 204.
Minimal surfaces,
Helicoid, 258, 339. Helix, 258, 290. Horograph, 346.
336.
Hudson,
face, 266.
Nodal line, 265. Node, conic, 264. Normal plane, 277. Normal, principal, to curve, 282. Normal sections, curvature of, 326.
Normals, to ellipsoid, equations, 111. six from a given point, 113.
to paraboloid, 126. to confocals, 182. to surface along a line of curvature, 334.
generators
6.
Lagrange's identity, 22. Linear element, 350. Line, equations to straight, 38, 40.
parallel to plane, 43. normal to plane, 43. of striction, 321. Lines, coplanar, 56.
Parameter of distribution, 169, 321. Parameters of confocals through a point on a conicoid, 181. Parametric equations, 271.
Perpendicular, condition that lines should be, 22, 30.
Plane, equation to, 32, 33. through three points, 34.
ratio,
intersecting intersecting
54.
two given
three
lines, 53.
given
lines,
Polar developable, 300. Polar lines, 105, 202. Power of point with
%
respect to
84.
xlviii
The,
INDEX
numbers refer
to pages.
Quartic
curve of
intersection
of
conic-olds, 238.
Tangency
of given plane
and
coni-
Radical plane of two spheres, 83. Radii, principal, 327, 337, 350. Radius of curvature, 284, 288. of torsion, 284, 289. of spherical curvature, 293, 299. Reciprocal cone, 92. Rectifying plane, 282. Reduction of general equation of second degree, 219, 227. Regression, edge of, 309. Revolution, surface of, equation, 13. conditions that conicoid is, 228. lines of curvature on, 335.
geodesies on, 365.
Ruled surfaces,
148, 313.
coid, 92, 103, 120, 124, 199. Tangent plane to sphere, 82. to conicoid, 102, 124, 198. to surface, 261, 262, 272. to ruled surface, 315. singular, 265. Tangent, to curve, 275. Tangents, inflexional, 261. Tetrahedron, volume of, 64. Torsion, radius of, 284. sign of, 288. of asymptotic lines, 359. of geodesies, 369. of curve on developable, 375. geodesic, 373. Transformation of coordinates, 68, 75. of (abcfgh)(xyz)\ 214. Triply-orthogonal systems, 344.
Trope, 266.
Umbilics, of ellipsoid, 143. conditions for, 342, 352.
Unode, 264.
Vertex of paraboloid, 124, 221.
Segments,
1.
Shortest distance of two lines, 57. Signs of coordinates, 2. of directions of rotation, 3. of curvature and torsion, 288. of volume of tetrahedron, 65.
Volume
of tetrahedron, 64.
Wave
Whole
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