8.

Project Area Ethnographic Profile: Punjab, Bahawalpur Bahawalpur Division (defunct) is the largest Division of the Punjab Province of Pakistan. With a total surface area of 45588 sq. km (11.3 million acres), it houses 7.64 million people. Over 78 percent of the total population (7.636 million) of Bahawalpur Division (defunct) lives in the rural areas and depends directly or indirectly on agriculture for livelihood. Despite their substantial contribution to both the provincial and the national economy, the rural masses of this area have a relatively low per capita income, suffer under employment and have highly inadequate access to basic infrastructure and social services. This has, over the years, tended to create a weak human resource base. The eventual result is poverty, the most pernicious of social evils. The rural poor largely comprise small farmers, tenants, and the landless laborers. The Bahawalpur city, is the divisional headquarter, lies in 29 22 North and 71' 41 East. In 1748, Nawab Bahwal Khan I raised a wall around the village of Muhammad Panah Khan and within it built a town which he called Bahawalpur after his own name. For its irrigation, he dug a canal which ran until early twentieth century. The traditional walled city grew with time spreading over 3 miles with six gates, with narrow streets lined with shops into a big bustling city thriving outside the city boundaries. When the Nawab of Bahawalpur shifted the capital of the state from desert city of Drawar Fort to Bahawalpur emerged as the nerve center of the Bahawalpur state: a status that it still enjoys as the divisional headquarter of the Punjab province. Police Stations/Posts, Mauzas, Urban/Rural Union Councils, and Cantonment Boards By District, The Punjab: As on 31st December, 2007

District

Police Stations

Police Posts

Mauzas Total

Union Urban (UC) 29

Rural (UC)

Cantt Boards 78 1

Council (UC)

Bahawalpur 22 6 916 107 Source: Bahawalpur Commissioner Office Record. 8.1.1. District Profile, Bahawalpur, Cholistan.

A large part of Bahawalpur district comprise of parts of Baluchistan, which is spread over 6655360 acres in the districts of Rahim Yar Khan, Bahawal Nagar and Bahawalpur. Cholistan is an extension of the Great Indian Desert, which includes the Thar Desert in Sindh province of Pakistan and the

Rajasthan Desert in India, covering an area of 26,330 km. It lies with in the southeast quadrant of Punjab province between 2742' and 2945' north latitude and 6952' and 7305' east longitude (FAO/ADB, 1993).In terms of general topography, the Cholistan desert consists of sand dune, sandy soil, loamy soil, and saline-sodic clayey soil Cholistan desert has a length of about 480 km while the width varies from 32 km to 192 km. (Khan, 1987). Based on the topography, soil and vegetation, the whole of Cholistan comprises of two topographic regions. The northern region or Lesser Cholistan borders the canal irrigated areas and covers about within area of 8081 Sq. km or southern region or Greater Cholistan which comprise of an area of 18852 Sq.kms. The Lesser Cholistan consist of saline alluvial flats (locally called Dahars) alternating with low sandy ridges. The clayey flats of Lesser Cholistan are generally homogeneous to at depth ranging from 30 to 90 cm. These soils are saline with pH ranging from 8.2 to 8.4, but serve as the main source of catchments area for rainwater. The Greater Cholistan is a wind resorted sandy desert and comprised of river terraces, large sand dunes, ridges and depressions. (Baig et al. 1980; Khan, 1987). The word Cholistan has multiple derivation, all of which may equally be true. According to one source, the word has come from Turkish word, Chol, which means a desert, while others consider it a KurdishIraqi word Cholistan, meaning waterless wasteland. The local word for Cholistan Desert is Rohi, which has been derived from Pushtu word Roh, meaning a sandy desert. The people of Cholistan in turn are called Rohiala. (Auj, 1987, 1991). According to the last census, the human population in the desert is about 1.2 million and livestock population is nearly 2.0 million. The population is scattered at different places on the availability of drinking water. Low and sporadic rainfall (166 mm average annual), high temperatures (up to 550 C in summer), low humidity, high rate of evaporation and strong summer winds are the main characteristics of the climate. The groundwater is mostly saline and unfit for human and livestock drinking (PCRWR, 2004a). The irrigation facilities are available during flood season only for 75 days i.e. from 1st to 15th September. For rest of the period, the irrigation is dependent on agriculture. Total number of notified Chaks in Cholistan is 407 out of which 205 Nos. Chaks are under irrigation boundary. For parts of lesser Cholistan and whole of Greater Cholistan, rainfall is the primary source of water, especially sweet drinking water. Rainwater is harvested by collecting in natural depression or man made ponds locally called tobas. At present, there are 598 tobas in Cholistan where desert dwellers collect and store rainwater from natural catchment. Dahars act as good catchment for rainwater harvesting. Water loss through evaporation from such ponded water was estimated as the highest as

compared to seepage losses (Khan etal, 1990). The average rainfall in Cholistan is 199-200 mm. Most of the rainfall is received during monsoon seas from July to September; however, some of it may fall during winter as well. A large amount of water is harvested and if stored properly, can serve human and livestock as well as can be used for raising nurseries and forage. The secondary source of water is underground water, which is saline and partially fit for drinking and agricultural purposes. It is tapped through ground water wells, which are sunk near settlements. At times, however, the brackish water from wells is used for agricultural as well as domestic purposes. The absence of active canal system has led to deep acquiafiers in Cholistan with neglible corresponding recharge through rainwater. The changes in the water quality of wells depends on the amount and type of salts present in the soil. The groundwater located at the depths from 30 to 90 meters is mostly saline, and two major qualifiers in Cholistan have sweet water, but they are surrounded by saline water. (FAO/ADB, 1993). Besides, the sweet water is also present along the abondoned Hakra River bed. Low and spatially erratic rainfall, water scarcity is Cholistan is endemic in the region. Low rainfall and high filtration in sandy soil and rapid evaporation preclude the establishment of permanent sources of surface water in the desert. However, shallow ephemeral lakes are formed in dahars, which have highly impervious loam or clay soils bottom, often of a saline or saline-sodic nature. The dahar is surrounded by sand dunes so that drainage ends blindly with the dahars. Traditional methods of water storage and delivery include soil erosion, prevention, rainwater harvesting, irrigation and drinking water-delivery structures, some which have survived for many centuries. These structures being long lasting prove that advance procedures had been followed in their design and construction. This indigenous knowledge has neither been well documented nor scientifically analyzed in order to utilize it for supporting the sustainable development of rain fed, runoff and spate-irrigated framing. Around 4000 B.C. the Cholistan was a cradle of civilization commonly known as the Hakra valley civilization. This was when the river Hakra flowed through the region. The river supplied permanent water until 1200 B.C. About 600 B.C. it became irregular in flow and consequently vanished within a century or so. The Hakra civilization that flourished here was one of the longest in the course of world history. It was also the earliest civilization of the Indian subcontinent. In cultural advancement it can be compared with the Mesopotamian, Anatolian, Egyptian, and Babylonian civilizations (FAO 1993). No one is sure how this great Aryan civilization ended. Probably a variety of problems such as

hostile invading tribes, changes in the course of the river and depletion of irrigation facilities contributed to the ultimate disappearance of this great civilization (Khan 1987; FAO 1993). It is significant to note that until the late nineteenth century under the princely state of Bahawalpur, the system of water resource management was so effective that the State chronicles did not report any cases of famine at the times of drought within the state boundaries. In contrast, thousands of refugees from the neighboring Rajputana states swarmed the Bahawalpur state. Food and grains were generously supplied from the State granaries to the refugees and a large number of them were employed on public works. The Gazetteer of Bahawalpur State reports a famine in 1896 in Rajputana and the State was inundated by Bikaner, Jaisalmer and Marwar refugees, who found ample labor on the canals. Three years later in 1899, again famine broke out due to continuous crop failure due to inadequate rainfall and 40,000 refugees flooded from the neighboring states. Nawab of Bahawalpur also set up poor houses (lanagars) at Bahawalpur, Ahamadpur and Dera Nawab where hundreds of women and children were fed by the State officials and no deaths by starvation were reported despite sever drought. Sadly, hundred years later, the situation in present day Bahawalpur - Cholistan has reversed in favor of former Rajputana States, where the customary methods of rain water harvesting, sometimes helped by canal irrigation have regenerated the desertified regions.

Illustration 2: Cholistan Desert Before the Rain

Illustration 1: Cholistan Desert After the Rain

Illustration 3: Camel Illustration 4: A Rohilla Family in the Desert Settlement

Illustration 6: A Rohilla Boy Collecting Water from a Toba

Illustration 5: A Rohilla Boy Carrying Drinking Water from Toba to Village

Climate Cholistan falls within the arid subtropical continental monsoonal zone. Its low rainfall is highly variable both in time and space.The mean annual rainfall varies less than 12.5 mm in the west, and 200 mm in the east. Monsoonal rain in the form of heavy showers usually fall between July to September, turning the desert into lush green. During the monsoons, vegetation growth, plant composition, biomass and plantability is better than rest of the years. A small amount of runoff is accumulated in temporary water holes (tobas) while a large amount evaporates due to high temperature. According to the table below, the estimated amount of 350 million cubic meter (Mm) runoff potential is available for storage in the desert, if the rain water is harvested serving the desert population and livestock in the times of drought. Potential Runoff in the Cholistan Desert Year Rainfall (mm) 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 84.2 144.1 173.0 231.0 155.9 299.2 213.0 152.0 201.0 172.1 20.0 126.4 148.6 2.0 240.0 146.1 177.1 169.9 Potential Runoff Runoff for Storage in (mm) Cholistan (Mm3) 38 42 87 115 89 152 131 81 74 65 3 62 50 106 44 70 62 168 187 385 506 392 672 582 359 327 287 14 273 222 467 189 292 583 284

Average 160 79 Source: Pakistan Meteorological Department, Bahawalpur

Vegetation Cover: At the conclusion of monsoon, the range remains green for a short period. Aridity intensifies with gradual decrease in temperature, from 36 C to 14 C and vegetation cover considerably decreases grasses and some shrubs dry out partially while forbs dry out completely. During the winter, a period between December and January, the temperature falls from 27 C to 3 C. In this season, some plans remain partially green are Calligonm, Haloxylon, Crotalaria and Leptotene, providing forage for camels and goats. The most common plants used as supplement of cereals are Cenchrus, Ciliaris, Cenchrus, and Cenchras. These grasses are very widely distributed in Cholistan. During the famine and drought years the seeds of these grasses ground in flour and used as supplement (Arshad, etal, 1999).The grains of Panieum antidote are also consumed as good during the famine years. Panicam are very drought resistant and found on high sand dunes and perpeutate by their hardy rhizomes and seeds. Thet also protect themselves from overgrazing because of their hard and unpalatable stubble. The seeds of both species are ground and mixed with other cereals. Indigofera argentea is wild legume and mostly found during the monsoon on the monsoon on the top of very high sand dunes of Greater Cholistan. During the drought years, the seeds of this herbage are also ground and mixed with other cereals. In addition, many indigenous species of plants contain high percentage of oils. Citrulus Coloocynthis is a perennial trailing herb, with fruit of sandy tract,which is used in soap industry. It also have high medical value for joint pains in human and stomach ailment in animals (Sen, 1982). An important specie of plant used as wind breaker and shelter belt are Prosopis Juliflora, (Valyati Kiker) Tamarosx Aphylla (Frash), Prosopis Cineraria (Jandi) and Asccia Nilotica (Kiker). Cholistan is rich in vegetation resources that can be exploited on commercial basis. The areas was once green and prosperous, where cultivation was practiced. The source of irrigation was Hakra River and with the drying of river the area was deserted through desertification processes and only few grazing lands were left. Socioeconomic Organization of Cholistan Cholistan desert is home to over 1.2 million pastoral herders who are part of a large Seraki speaking ethno-linguistic group, practicing nomadic life style for centuries. The pastoral system is characterized by mass migrations of animal and people throughout the year in search of water and forage. The cycle of monsoon rainfall dictate the pattern of nomadic movement of men and livestock. A supporting structures of temporary employment with the irrigated farming communities, opportunities for

livestock grazing on wheat stubbles, drinking water for human and livestock and steady markets for selling selective livestock, and their dairy byproducts. To take maximum advantage of available resources, the livestock is mixed in a way that milking cows (and buffaloes) are kept near the urban centers where there is potential market for their milk, while camels, goats and sheep are sent out to desert for grazing in the pastures. In nomadic culture, livestock is the primary source of wealth and well being and a person's socioeconomic status is determined by the number of livestock that he may own. The population of Cholistan is largely Muslims, divided into exogamous social groups (quoms), which is extended into matrlineal descent groups (biradaris). Each quoms has a customary leader, Wadda, who mediates social conflicts over grazing and distribution of water, in addition to making critical decisions about migrations. In case of negotiations with town farmers and government officials, Wadda, role is significant in social cohesion of community and protecting its rights, although he is not invested with judicial authority. Numberdar, is a leader of the quom/community, who used to be the official representative of the Bahawalpur state under Mughal administration since 1869, now selected by the Forest Development as a grade 7 officer, and approved by the CDA. He carries the judicial authority to collect grazing tax (Tarni) for which he is compensated with 3 percent of the annual cattle head tax. (Jowkar, 1996). Most critically, a Numberdar of a quom, oversees the water resource management of tobas and authorizes its use, which comes critical in case of drought. In case of failure of conflict resolution, the cases are taken to civil courts for decisions, with CDA and Forest Department pursuing the case on behalf of the government. A copy of one such cases is attached as Annex X. Livestock: Nomads attach high values to their herds. Livestock are the main source of their survival and a number of cultural norms are linked with the animals. Livestock are frequently used for meat, milk and, gifts. Communal ceremonies like weddings, funerals, and tribal celebrations include slaughtering and exchange of animals. A person's status in the desert nomadic life style is chiefly represented by the size of the herd he owns. All livestock are indigenous breeds well suited to the environment. Herd reproductive performance is naturally poor with low birth rates and high mortality. The number of livestock are in many cases under reported and discrepancies exist between figures provided by relevant departments. The Livestock Services Department in Bahawalpur, which is directly concerned with the desert livestock provides figures which do not match with the ones collected by

Forestry Department, which indirectly deals with the livestock, however, the latter's census based on returns of livestock from the Namdaras is considered most reliable. However to Forest Department officials, they have no means to verify the statistics provided by the Nambardar, and they in complicity with herders continue to under report the figures. Livestock Population: Specie Camel Cows Sheep Goat Number 2,126 6,300 69,177 39,395

Total 1,62,883 Source: Forestry Department Census, 2006. The Forest Department imposes grazing tax on livestock head. It is Rs 18 for Camel, Rs 8 for a cow and Rs 2 for a sheep or goat. Although the grazing tax receipt serves as the official domicile of residence in Cholistan, which can draw agricultural land entitlements, a large number of herder chose not to report their cattle to the Namdar to save even a small amount of grazing tax which has not been revised in the decades. Civic Infrastructure Draft animals and carts are extensively used for transport in Cholistan, whole motorcycles and tractors are being increasingly used as the means for human travel and transport of agricultural goods and services. However, the sparse road infrastructure and the availability of expensive motor vehicle fuel (@ Rs 100 per liter) in the desert make their use restricted and work related. Greater Cholistan has no means of electrification at all. The villages on the fringes of lesser Cholistan are electrified in the recent years by the CDA under WAPDA. The department of Public Health Engineering (PHED) provides water and sewerage facilities in some rural areas of Cholistan. As a matter of policy, the PHED supplies water to those villages where the sweet ground water is either not available or can hand pumped from 15 meters depth. In areas of its operations, the PHED hands over the water supply scheme to the community after two years of running.

Fig. 2: Calfs resting in cattle shed Fig. 1: Cattle being herded back to Village after Grazing

Fig. 3: Cows being herded back to village

Illustration 7: Cows being herded back to the village

Fig. 4: Long Shot of a Village Fig. 5: Village Profile

Fig. 6: Rohilla Boys

Fig. 7: Rohilla Women in the Desert

Fig. 8: Rohilla Man grazing the cattle herd

8.1.2. Intervention Mapping: Cholistan The presence of NGOs in Cholistan is limited to ad hoc relief in case of sever drought. However there are large number of registered NGOS, which are working for infrastructural development and rangeland management of Cholistan for effective drought preparedness... Cholistan Development Authority (CDA) In the past few decades, the Government of Pakistan has made substantial inputs in drought mitigation and preparedness in Cholistan, however, the success of some projects is rather limited. One of the principal ways in which the Government has intervened in the development of the area is by setting up Cholistan Development Authority in 1976 with the objectives to improve the socio-economic condition of the people of Cholistan and to tap the development potential of the region. It has made substantial impact in two areas: colonization of government land and development of physical infrastructure. Some of its main functions include: forestation, plantation, cultivation and reclamation of land; colonization and allotment of government land; to provide means of irrigation, and provision of drinking water in the desert. Over the years, it has extensively surveyed with international collaborations the sweet ground water resources in the desert and sunk numerous tube wells for drinking and irrigation. It also undertakes to layout or construct chaks, mandi (market) town and human settlements, in addition to provision of communication and educational facilities to the community. The management and encouragement of rural trades, crafts and industries, arrangements for marketing of produce and preservation and multiplication of forests, vegetation and wildlife is also included in its diverse portfolios. As a result, CDA works in conjunction with several other departments, which are involved in the irrigation and rangeland management of Cholistan, such as Irrigation, Forestry and Wildlife. CDA has also emerged as the focal point of development activities in the region. Drought Emergency Relief Program, worked through CDA and since 2005 four pipelines have come up and the drinking water has been made available round the year to some extent on the fringes of Cholistan desert area of District Bahawalnagar and Bahawalpur. A Physical Development wing, which was created in CDA in the year 1988-89 executes development schemes concerning farm to market Roads, water supply schemes, BHUs, veterinary dispensaries and

schools buildings etc. under the supervisions of VC/MD through an XEN who is assisted by SDOs and field staff. The CDA despite financial constraints has constructed about 61 rainwater-harvesting reservoirs 108 Kunds, 131 Diggies, 32 Wells, 23 Turbines, 155.20 Kms Link Road, 19-Nos. Village Road Bridges, 81 Primary School Buildings, 09 Middle School Buildings, 01 High School, 07 Veterinary Dispensaries, 03 Basic Health Unit, One Rest House, 03 Residences and Electrification of 34 Villages. Besides we have laid 4 water pipelines measuring 243 Kms in the desert in the year 2003-04 at a cost of Rs.404.71 millions under Drought Emergency Relief Assistance Programme to mitigate drought on permanent footings. 03 water pipeline schemes in District Rahim Yar Khan, Cholistan measuring 177 kms will be taken up for execution shortly under ADP. The CDA has allocation of about Rs. 684.519 millions under ADP 2006-07. With the help of ADP loan, 300 kms. farm to market road are being executed. Besides water supply for 16 Chaks, electricity for 35 Chaks would be provided. In addition, 10 veterinary dispensaries would be constructed. Pakistan Council of Research on Water Resources (PCRWR) Water harvesting through traditional methods as a new paradigm in water resources development and management has led to several successful examples of water harvesting for drought proofing can be easily seen in operation in arid regions of South Asia and Central Asia. The water resources generated locally help in meeting domestic and livestock needs, provide water for supplementary/deficit irrigation, enhance groundwater recharge; reduce storm water discharges, urban flood and seawater intrusion in coastal areas. Participatory management of water resources ensures effective utilization, maintenance and sustainable operation of these systems. Among the key advocates of this policy is the Pakistan Council of Research in Water Resources (PCRWR) which was established in 1964 within the Ministry of Natural Resources. It was brought under the control of Ministry of Science and Technology in 1970. The Council was renamed as Pakistan Council of Research in Water Resources (PCRWR) in 1985. The PCRWR is an apex autonomous body established with the objective to conduct, organize, coordinate and promote research in all aspects of water resources. Since its inception, PCRWR has played its role as a national research organization by undertaking and promoting applied as well as basic research in various disciplines of water sector, more specifically, irrigation, drainage, surface and groundwater management, groundwater recharge, watershed management, desertification control, rainwater harvesting, , water

quality assessment and monitoring, and development of innovative water resource management, conservation and quality improvement technologies, etc. As a result of field research on rainwater harvesting techniques, PCRWR initiated a 4-year Research and Development (R&D) Programme in 2001 to make water available in the desert for drinking. The activities were undertaken including reconnaissance survey to identify the suitable catchments, demographic survey to assess water demands, hydrological studies to assess the runoff potential of the catchment, topographic survey to determine the slope for runoff; development of catchments to establish a network of ditches, soil profile investigations to determine physical and chemical properties of the catchment/pond, design analysis of rainwater harvesting system to estimate the quantity of civil works. One of mega R&D project sponsored by the government titled Mitigation of Drought Disasters in Cholistan Desert by Management of Water Resources was initiated at a cost of $ 2.5 m Under the project, to mitigate the drought in the area, 92 rainwater-harvesting systems and 20 deep tube- wells were installed to extract sweet water for human and livestock use have been developed on pilot scale. Each system contains the components like storage reservoir, energy dissipater (stair), boundary wall, silting basin, lined channel, and ditches network in the catchment. The storage pond is designed to collect about 15000 m3 (4.0 US million gallon) of water. The depth of the pond is 6 m. Polyethylene sheet (0.127 mm) on bed and plastering of slag mortar (3.81 cm) mixture of clay, quick lime, wheat straw and cement on sides of the pond have been provided to minimize seepage losses. The quantity of the mortar for one pond includes 6 m3 clay, 100 kg lime, 970 kg wheat straw, and 0.06 m3 cement. The energy dissipater having dimensions of 1 m wide and 23 cm each length and height along one side of the pond protects the sides and the bed of the pond from severe erosion expected from gushy water. Boundary wall does not only restrict the wild animals and livestock but also provides barrier against movement of sand by strong summer winds. A small silting basin controls the entrance of heavy sediments and debris in the pond. Each pond has been connected with the catchment through a lined channel, which has a network of ditches. It has been observed that all the constructed ponds got fill up to their full design capacity during the rainy seasons (winter or monsoon). Water quality analysis of the selected ponds illustrated that the water quality was within the permissible limits excluding turbidity level. In general practice, the livestock drink water from the pond directly. However, the dwellers keep this water in mud pot for few hours by adding alum treatment before drinking.

Another project entitled Mitigation of desertification for poverty alleviation (MDPA) has been completed for stabilizing moving sand dunes through forestry practices. The future plan of PCRWR among other activities include establishment of Desertification Control Research Institute, primarily to expand its desertification control programme in collaboration with international partners and funding mechanisms. All these pilot activities have initiated a process of social change by creating awareness among the desert people and the concerned development agencies working in the area. This project has harvested about 368 million gallons of freshwater annually to meet drinking water requirements of human and livestock population. Moreover, this project has saved 6000 million rupees per drought in the form of livestock production due to reduction in livestock migration, mortality, diseases and damage of crops. Increase in production of livestock has also been observed in the form of meat, milk and other utilities besides reduction of migration of human and livestock from desert towards irrigated area. Successful models and practices in Cholistan are being replicated in Thar desert of Sindh and Kharan desert of Baluchistan under two different projects named Combating drought and desertification in Thar desert by management of water resources and Rainwater harvesting and desertification control in Kharan-Chagai desert of Baluchistan. However, given the substantial input of millions of dollars of international development aid and the accompanying human and physical infrastructure has enabled the CDA to build a model agriculture farm through rainwater harvesting, which may not be replicated by the target communities in the desert for which it is intended to serve as a model given their socioeconomic capacities.

Illustration 9: DERA funded CDA Drinking Water Supply at Drewar Fort

Illustration 8: Drinking Water Supply Drewar by DERA-P

Illustration 10: Information Plate of PCRWR project at Dingarh

Illustration 11: Diesl Engine Turbine at Dingarh

Illustration 13: PCRWR built Toba for livestock drinking

Illustration 12: PCRWR built Toba to raise fish

Illustration 14: Sign Post of PCRWR model farm and Wildlife Department

Illustration 15: Treated Water Tank built by PCRWR at Dingarh Model Farm

Illustration 16: Broken Water Taps in the PCRWR Plant Farm

Illustration 17: A Closed View of Water Gaughe

9. Drought Mitigation through Ground Water Resource Harvesting in Cholistan Cholistan desert is described as one of the most inhospitable regions of the world, and yet it has been one of the most populated deserts in the world. It has been continuously habited for over 1200 years, despite the fact that a large tract of Cholistan comprise of desertification areas which have never been irrigated ever since the drying up of Hakra river that flowed through it hundreds of years ago. Therefore, a number of urban centers developed, but always in locations that had easy access to water. The people of Cholistan, made sagacious use of natural resources, particularly water to sustain human and livestock population. As a result, ever since, it has emerged as the rangeland, which offers rich potentials for livestock production. The normal rainfall pattern is 150 to 200 mm per year, which keeps the desert wild plants and vegetations alive as well as water reservoirs. In the desert towns of Cholistan, such as Drewar Fort, large catchments supplied water to tanks. The catchments and the canals were regularly maintained and kept clean. Roof top harvesting was common in cities and towns of Cholistan and Rajasthan. With scanty rainfall, the agriculture largely depends on the irrigation from wells, inundation canals, river floods, Jhalars, on the banks of rivers and canals. Even well irrigation unless supplemented by canals or river floods is a precarious means of cultivation, except in rare seasons of good rainfall. There were hundreds of water structures of diverse technologies existed all over Cholistan with diverse management systems to ensure equitable and sustainable water supply to all. Structures built to trap and manage rainwater were specific to the terrain and meteorological conditions. Technologies were usually simple and harnessed local material and labor. Over time, the rainwater harvesting structures were woven into the region's cultural and religious milieu. 9.1. Indigenous Copying Strategies. Many indigenous water harvesting strategies that we discuss in this report have a cross cultural resonance and are practiced in neighboring Tharparker in Sind and Rajasthan desert in India as well as in similar arid ecological zones in China. At the same time, they are also strengthened through technical and financial input by the local and international development agencies for effective rainwater harvesting. 1. Village ponds ( Tobas) The rainwater which is collected in natural depressions or man made ponds called Tobas forms the principal source of fresh water, to be used for drinking and agriculture purposes. Toba is one of central

features of the agro-pastoral economy. The estimated number of Tobas in Cholistan is around 1500. Tobas comprise of are small to medium sized excavated or embanked village ponds, for harvesting meager precipitation to mitigate the scarcity of drinking water and domestic needs in water scarcity regions of Cholistan. A flat, highly impervious loam or clay soils bottom, locally called dahars provides the micro catchment area for the rainwater, where shallow ephemeral lakes are formed have, often of a saline or saline-sodic nature.

Pond water is available for periods from two months to a year after rain, depending upon the catchment characteristics and amount and intensity of rainfall. The nadis range from 1.5 to 12 m in depth, 400 to 700,000 m in capacity and have drainage basins of various shapes and sizes (8 to 2,000 ha). These Tobas can also be used for recharging the groundwater through construction of infiltration wells and recharge pits in the bed of the storage area. These traditional structures are however not scientifically designed and constructed and suffer from high seepage and evaporation losses. Pakistan government has constructed more than 1500 tobas in Cholistan area for domestic and livestock water supplies. The optimized characteristics of the village ponds for minimizing the storage losses are given by Sharma and Joshi (1983,Table x). They show that water may still be available in such structures during drought lasting up to 1 year. Some of the findings of the research in neighboring Rajasthan desert have been incorporated into the rain water harvesting policies in Pakistan. PCRWR in Bahawalpur has utilized the research to improve the village pond characteristics to maximize storage capacity and safeguard against rapid evaporation. Table X. Optimized village pond characteristics to minimize the storage losses Physiography Dune complex Sandy plain Younger alluvial plain Older alluvial plain Rocky/ gravel pediment Optimized depth (m) 2.5 2.0 5.0 3.0 6.0 Optimized surface Water availability (months) 4.8 8.3 12.0 12.0 12.0 area (m2 x 103) 29.1 27.1 161.0 96.0 126.5

However, apart from improved structural changes, there is a pressing need to revive the customary social organization for natural resource management.

Illustration 18: A Toba Constructed by Forest Department

Illustration 19: A Toba in the Desert

Illu stration21: A Dried Up Toba

Illustration 20: A CDA built Toba with Cattle Drinking Water

Illustration 23: A CDA built Toba

Illustration 22: A PCRWR built Toba for Cattle Drinking Water

Wells (khuh) In order to recharge ground water and also use it for irrigation and drinking purposes, the rain water is harvested directly to the wells. This served several inter-related functions: First to improve the water quality when the ground water is saline and not drinkable. Secondly, to improve the water table that has been reduced by the continuous discharge. The only form of well traditionally used in Cholistan was the Persian wheel. The ordinary well is either lined with baked brick masonry and known as Pakka Khuh or with logs in which case it was known as khachacha or Ghat da Kharaora. A well lined with wattles is called Lei (or pilchhi) da Kharoram wattles made from the Lei bus. Without a linning kachcha wells cannot be built except in Lesser Cholistan, where narrow wells, usually friom 2 to 3 feet in circumference, are sunk for obtaining drinking water only. In the Greater Cholistan, this is not possible due to fineness of the sand in the lower substrata of the soil. The traditional methods of identify the sources of sweet ground water is the spot over which Suchcha kana is grown as it us understood that under that plant sweet water is supposed to exist. In comparison, in arid zones of Baluchstan, a water diviner is employed the source of ground water. The site having been selected, a hole larger than the brick cycliner proposed is excavated down to the Sach or the stratum of water giving sand. This hole is called par. The wooden base of the brick word called the chak is then laid down in the par, and the cyclinder of brick work is built upon it till it reaches a few feet above the surface of ground. The sand or han at the bottom of the past and the under chak is then dug out. The removal of mud is called tobhi and is performed by tobhas, a class of professional well sinkers, generally called out from neighbouring settled districts of Punjab. The wells generally dry in the drought or offer limited hours of water. The wells that are situated near the rivers are subject to much influx of sand and have therefore to be cleaned out by tobhas every third or fourth year. Before the construction of perennial canals on the Punjab rivers, the river floods were more than sufficient for the purposes of irrigation and the farmers constructed very few wells. When subsequently rivers failed to supply the usual amount of water, inspite of the construction of new canals in the State, irrigation was reduced to an unsatisfactory conduction, the State encouraged the farmers and pastorals to sink wells and various encouragements were held out to them. Taqavi grants were freely made, and under the rules repayment was to be made by installments within 12 years. Moreover, the wells so constructed were exempted from parta or water rate for 12 years, and wood for the well gear and

apparatus was given at the half the usual price. In seasons of drought some the wells ratain their water through at a lower level but most of them give water only for 12 hours in the day while others got quite dry. Each clan enjoys the sole ownership of wells and tobas and its use is authorized by customary and civil law. The leading members of clan monitor its use and were responsible for its maintenance. The regular maintenance of tobas and wells and their sustainable use is critical to the existence of tobas. With increasing reliance on alternate means of getting water either through canals or water supply schemes, the community management of Tobas and wells is falling apart. Percolation tanks Percolation Tanks (Kach Khu) were traditionally used to improve ground recharge. In this method, the rainwater is harvested into unlined dug wells through which the water seeps in the ground, improving the water table. Percolation tanks are generally constructed on the small streams or rivulets with adequate catchment for impounding surface runoff. These tanks are used entirely for recharging the aquifer through percolation. In comparison to ponds, percolation tanks conserve water to a greater extent because the filling and recharge occur mostly during the monsoon when the evaporation rate is about the half of potential rate in summer through which ponds contain water. Selection of suitable site for the construction of percolation tanks and subsequent maintenance is crucial for its effective functioning. Rooftop Harvesting through Kund Underground storage cisterns or locally called kund is the most common rainwater harvesting system in the Pakistani arid zone, which it shares with India, Sri Lanka, China and several other countries, generally constructed for storage of surface runoff. Almost every household, school, religious center in rural areas constructed kund for meeting drinking water needs. The tanks were sometimes as large as a room. Kund is constructed by digging a circular hole of 3.00 to 4.25 m diameters and plastering the base and sides with 6-mm thick lime mortar or 3mm thick cement mortar. The catchment of Kunds are made in a variety of ways using locally available sealing materials like pond silt, murram, wood, coal ash, gravel etc. Improved designs of Kunds have been developed and adopted under Drinking Water Missions in drought prone developing countries. It is estimated that more than 200 kunds in Cholistan desert of

Pakistan. Nomadic Movement as a Indigenous Drought Copying Strategies As part of transhumant system, the population of Cholistan moves from Lesser Cholistan to Greater Cholistan throughout the year, according to the availability of water for drinking and fodder for livestock. However, the cultural patterns of movement of human and livestock are location specific and determined by a customary system of land tenure. The onset of monsoon in July and August starts off the movement of human and livestock, from irrigated, semi urban and riverine areas at the fringes of Lesser Cholistan towards community/quom owned tobas in Greater Cholistan. Spreading out from a area of 10 km radius, they continue to traverse from Lesser to Greater Cholistan, in the following months, sometimes traveling within the range of 100 km. By October and November, the water at the tobas begins to deplete and a reverse movement towards fringes begins, breaking frequent journeys at semi permanent settlements having wells and kunds...By March and April, the movement of the nomads have come to a full circle, and the livestock and people are back to the fringes of deserts in irrigated areas and after wheat harvesting is over, to the Sutlej River for those with customary riverine rights. The canal water supplies drinking water to the livestock and are fed on dried forage on vegetation along canal banks ..... The transhumant system of Cholistan depends critically on the timings and quantity of rainfall, which in case of drought could be seriously disrupted..For examples during a prolong drought over the last 4 to 6 years most of the herders moved south and some staying only a few days or for few months before being compeled to return. A rupture in the cycle of nomadic movement of people and livestock causes infrastructural damage to Tobas in the desert, which become silted in the absence of herders, as the constant repair and maintenance is necessary for their existence.. According to estimates by Forest Department, which inspects Tobas in the course of rangeland surveying, out of 43 tobas in Greater Cholistan, 25 has been reported to have filled with sediment . The quality and quantity of water also varies dramatically in the region. In the eastern arid region of Cholistan, Toba water is of good quality but limited in quantity. In semi permanent settlements well water is adequate but of saline quality and wells being unlined needs constant repair. In the western hyper arid region the quantaties of both water and feed is inadequate.

The patterns of cattle grazing in the desert are also potent indigenous strategies that help cope with the scarcity of water and become critical to the very survival of animals in case of drought. In the events of drought, since the feed depletes first, sheep whose walking range is 4 km mist be keep ahead of the rest of the animals to other tobas. All herds are kept as long as possible in the semi permanent settlements near wells or on the Sutlej river plains. A major constraint on the pastoral system is the scarcity of free grazing land during their sojourn on the irrigated fringe or the floodplain even through fresh water is abundant. In the events of no rainfall, the herder desert the Greater Cholistan as the water stored in Tobas is not recharged and tonks and other smaller water reservoirs are also dried up. They take refuge on the fringes of the desert near canal irrigated areas and buy fodder for their livestock from the mandi town markets. With the consolidation of British rule in India, the traditional water harvesting systems began to decline. Under the princely rule, there was no water bureaucracy to regulate the water use. The communities were expected to build rain water harvesting structures for themselves. But the princely state offered fiscal incentives to the communities who were encouraged to build water harvesting structures such as wells and Tobas. The centralized bureaucracy under the British neither understood the technological rationale of these systems nor could manage the diverse and decentralized systems. Moreover, the British water bureaucracy and the independent Pakistan's officialdom favored structures that were built entirely for surface water and did not sink well with India's monsoonal spells. The communities on the fringes of Cholistan desert were provided irrigation water from Sutlej river and drinking water supply through underground pipes. One of the unintended consequences of the modern facilities is that communities who had lived within the confines of the natural water sources for centuries, no longer wish to maintain the existing ones, given the fact that water comes at the turn of a tap. In a similar manner, the people of Bahawalpur are clamoring for an increased share of canal water, although the tanks and wells that harvested rainwater had served them well for centuries. Over the decades, the rainwater harvesting systems that needed communities to work together, disappeared and is increasingly being replaced by state (and now increasingly privately) sourced water. The deep bore technology of the 1970s only exacerbated the situation. Ground water is being ruthlessly mined, even as systems to recharge the same ground water are destroyed. As we shall see, in case of Baluchistan, similar process of decline of traditional water systems which were based on ecologically sustainable use of underground water resources is being

replaced by modern technologies which are depleting water at a much higher rate than then what could be recharged. 9.2. Modern Macro Management. Canal Irrigation. The first colonization of Cholistan Desert for large scale irrigation dates to early 1949s when under the Sutlej Valley Project, Cholistan was brought into the network of Sutlej river network for increasing agricultural production. Soon after, first round of land allotments was made irrespective of ethnic origin, which consequently brought peasants from Punjab on the 5,758 acres of land which was allocated in 50 acres parcels. The next round allocated even bigger parcels of land ranging up to 31,041 acres. The pastoral community of Cholistan preferred livestock grazing over settling down for farming, thereby settling the basis for their present subordinate status in region's ethnic hierarchy...After the independence of Pakistan, another round of land colonization began, in 1970s, which allocated 25,475 acre however restricting the eligibility to the local Cholistan population total number of 6500 holders of Cholistan ID card were for the first time successful in gaining land. As canal irrigated agriculture expanded on the fringes of the desert, the settler population grew in great number, market towns mushroomed in the area, providing services to the town residents and to the wider nomadic population. Existing towns like Bahawalpur and Yazman became important centers for settler activity,,, (Bakhsh... 1993). Supported by strong systems of baradarii linking them with Punjabi dominated bureaucracy, the settler began to occupy high status in the local power hierarchy. In the years of land reforms under Z A B regime, and dissolution of princely state of Bahawalpur, an estimated 22,375 acres of land belong to the deposed Nawab was distributed (CDA, 2006). In 1983, Cholistan Development Authority the agency now responsible for land allocation made a round of land allocations, and henceforth has concentrated its attention to shifted its development agenda to providing services Series of check dams on natural streams In this system the artificial recharge is made to restrict the surface run off through streams and by making additional water available for percolation. The surface water is impounded during monsoon behind the structure and spread over the entire stream bed and thereby increasing the whetted area. The impounded water helps in replenishment of groundwater. A series of check dams can be constructed on a stream to recharge the depleted groundwater aquifers.

Pitcher Irrigation A small number of economically viable water harvesting techniques have been developed after a long term research in arid zones agriculture. Among these, pitcher irrigation is the most successful in Cholistan. In this technique, the plants and vegetable crops are planted along side earthen pitchers which utilizes seepage of water through pitchers to get nourishment. Plants like Jojoba, the specie which are used for reseeding, planting and sand dunes stabilization, and vegetable crops like Gourd and Water Melon are preferred, of which latter provides maximum utilization of seepage water and its harvest offers immediate cash returns. The vegetable crops not only provide immediate produce for a household use but also serve as a mulch for the jojoba plant to save it from hot desiccating desert winds. Recharge tube wells Excess rainwater collected behind check dams, surface ponds or percolation tanks can be efficiently utilized for recharging groundwater through recharge tube wells. The floodwater, which has to be mixed with groundwater occurring at a deeper depth, should be potable and free from suspended solids. To achieve this, filter bed should be provided on top of the recharge tube well. Recharge tube well may be drilled in the area of the dam or percolation tank down to the prevalent depth of exploitation. Diameter of the bore hole may be around 50 cm and PVC pipe of 6-kg/m2 strength having a diameter of 20 cm be used. The annular space between the bore hole and the pipe is filled with gravel and developed with compressor till it gives clear water. On top a 6m x 6m x 6m dimension pit should be dug out keeping the tube well at the center and the section is filled with rounded boulders, chips and sand. This recharge tube well can also be used for pumping ground water in case of emergency. Hundreds of such recharge tube wells have been constructed in Kutchh and Saurashtra (Gujarat, India) for harvesting groundwater.

9.3 Conclusions Potential of water harvesting in arid zones of Cholistan is not yet fully understood, quantified and implemented. Indigenous and modern technologies in the form of micro-catchments, storage cisterns, run-off water harvesting based farming, embankment ponds, check dams on natural streams, percolation tanks, recharge tube wells, sub-surface barriers, integrated watershed development and rain water harvesting in urban areas offer a large potential even under water scarce regions. Several village

level success stories especially in neighboring Indian Rajasthan have demonstrated that water harvesting based development paradigms were able to mitigate drought and positively impact household economy. Indications are that rainwater-harvesting measures when adopted on a large scale may minimize the risk of water scarcity even during severe drought years like PCRWR in Cholistan but such case studies are few, scattered and under-studied. Further research is needed to ascertain to what extent these interventions help to withstand droughts and to what extent shall cover the deficit. Potential of water harvesting as a strategic tool for drought mitigation can be realized through a policy framework to develop institutional mechanism to water harvesting at different levels such as user, watershed, urban locality, district, state and federal level by having representatives from local level peoples institutions, NGOs and concerned government departments. Small and micro-water harvesting systems should be made integral part of basin-wise planning and water resource development at the regional and national levels.