THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

IS
RESPONSIBLE FOR OXYGENATING THE BLOOD
AND
REMOVING CARBON DIOXIDE
(also plays a role in social communication through the production oI sounds )

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
consists oI
UPPER RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
( NOSE, NASAL CAVITY, PARANASAL CAVITIES AND PHARYNX )
and
LOWER RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
( LARYNX, TRACHEA, BRONCHI AND LUNGS )

FUNCTION OF R.S.
1. Structures in upper respiratory system FILTER, WARM, and MOISTEN air beIore it enters the
lower respiratory system.
2. LARYNX regulates the opening into the lower respiratory system and produces speech sounds.
3. TRACHEA and BRONCHI maintain an open airway to the lungs
4. In LUNGS, exchange oI gases occurs between alveolar sacs and the blood in pulmonary
capillaries

MOST
OF
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
IS LINED WITH
PSEUDOSTRATIFIED CLILIATED COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM containing many GOBLET
CELLS.


THE NOSE
Air enters through two openings, THE EXTERNAL NARES or NOSTRILS.
Just inside each nostril is an expanded VESTIBULE containing coarse hairs.
A midsagittal NASAL SEPTUM divides the NASAL CAVITY.
The maxillary, nasal, Irontal, ethmoid and sphenoid bones Iorm the lateral and superior walls oI
the nasal cavity.
The HARD and SOFT PALATES Iorm the Iloor oI the cavity. ( the posterior part oI the soIt
palate is the UVULA )
The external portion oI the nose is composed oI cartilage that Iorms the BRIDGE and the TIP oI
the nose.
The SUPERIOR, MIDDLE and INFERIOR NASAL CONCHAE are bony shelves that project
Irom the lateral walls oI the nasal cavity.
The spaces between the conchae are the MEATUSES.
Posteriorly the INTERNAL NARES open into the nasopharynx.

THE PHARYNX
Is a chamber shared by the digestive and respiratory systems.
It extends between the internal nares and the entrances to the larynx and esophagus.
A stratiIied squamous epithelium lines the pharynx.

THE THROAT OR PHARYNX IS DIVIDED IN THREE REGIONS
1. Upper NASO-PHARYNX
2. Middle OROPHARYNX
3. Lower LARYNGOPHARYNX

THE NASOPHARYNX
LIES SUPERIOR TO THE SOFT PALATE
SERVES A PASSAGEWAY FOR AIRFLOW FROM NASAL CAVITY
IT CONTAINS THE PHARYNGEAL TONSILS ( adenoids ) IN POSTERIOR WALL, AND
THE OPENNINGS OF THE EUSTAQUIAN TUBES ( auditory tubes )

THE OROPHARYNX
EXTENDS FROM THE SOFT PALATE DOWNT TO THE EPIGLOTTIS ( base oI the tongue
)
IT CONTAINS THE PALATINE AND LINGUAL TONSILS.

THE LARYNGOPHARYNX
INCLUDES
THE NARROW ZONE BETWEEN THE HYOID BONE AND THE ENTRANCE TO THE
ESOPHAGUS.

THE LARYNX
JOINS THE LARYNGOPHARYNX WITH THE TRACHEA.
IT CONSISTS OF CARTILAGES
IT IS ALSO CALLED THE VOICE BOX.
THE THREE MAIN CARTILAGES ARE: THROID CARTILAGE ( Adamss apple ),
EPIGLOTTIS, AND CRICOID CARTILAGE.
OTHER CARTILAGES ARE: ARYTENOID CARTILAGES, CORNICULATE CARTILAGES
AND CUNEIFORM CARTILAGES.
THE EPIGLOTTIS IS A PIECE OF ELASTIC CARTILAGE THAT FALLS OVER THE
OPENING ( GLOTTIS ) DURING SWALLOWING TO PREVENT INGESTED FOOD FROM
ENTERING THE RESPIRATORY TRACT.
THE CORNICULATE CARTILAGES ARE INVOLVED IN THE OPENING AND CLOSING
OF THE GLOTTIS, AND IN THE PRODUCTION OF SOUND
TWO PAIRS OF FOLDS SPAN THE GLOTTAL OPENING. THE VENTRICULAR FOLDS (
FALSE VOCAL CORDS )ARE INELASTIC BUT THE TENSION IN THE VOCAL CORDS
CAN BE ADJUSTED BY VOLUNTARY MUSCULAR MOVEMENTS.
DURING EXPIRATION AIR FLOWING THROUGH THE LARYNX VIBRATES THE
VOCAL CORDS ( TRUE VOCAL CORDS ) AND PRODUCES SOUND WAVES.
COUGHING AND LARYNGEAL SPASMS ARE PROTECTIVE REFLEXES THAT
PROTECT THE GLOTTIS AND TRACHEA FROM FOREIGN OBJECTS AND IRRITANTS.

THE TRACHEA
EXTENDS FROM THE LEVEL OF THE SIXTH CERVICAL VERTEBRA, AT THE BASE
OF THE LARYNX, TO THE LEVEL OF THE FIFTH THORACIC CERTEBRA
IS A TUBULAR STRUCTURE WITH 4.25 in. IN LENGTH AND 1 in. IN DIAMETER.
AT ITS CAUDAL LIMIT THE TRACHEA DIVIDES TO FORM THE PRIMARY BRONCHI.
LIES ANTERIOR TO THE ESOPHAGUS
ALONG THE LENGTH OF THE TRACHEA ARE 15-20 C-SHAPED PIECES OF HYALINE
CRTILAGE (TRACHEAL CARTILAGES)
THE TRACHEAL MUSCLE HOLDS THE TWO SIDES OF THE C-SHAPED CARTILAGE
TOGETHER POSTERIORLY
TRACHEA IS LINED WITH PSEUDOSTRATIFIED CILIATED COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM

THE TRACHEA BRANCHES WITHIN THE MEDIASTINUM, FORMING THE

LEFT AND RIGHT PRIMARY BRONCHI
( extrapulmonary bronchi )
EACH BRONCHUS ENTERS A LUNG AT A GROOVE, THE HILUS.

EACH BRONCHUS BRANCHES INTO INCREASINGLY SMALLER PASSAGEWAYS TO
CONDUCT AIR INTO THE LUNGS

THE PRIMARY BRONCHI BRANCH INTO AS MANY
SECONDARY BRONCHI
( intrapulmonary bronchi )
AS THERE ARE LOBES OF EACH LUNG

THE SMALLEST PASSAGEWAYS ARE THE BRONCHIOLES

THE LUNGS
ARE A PAIR OF CONE SHAPED ORGANS LYNING IN THE PLEURAL CAVITIES.
THE APEX IS THE CONICAL TOP OF EACH LUNG, AND THE BROAD INFERIOR
PORTION IS THE BASE.
EACH LUNG HAS A HILUS, A MEDIAL SLIT WHERE THE BRONCHIAL TUBES,
VASCULARIZATION, LYMPHATICS, AND NERVES REACH THE LUNG.
EACH LUNG IS DIVIDED INTO LOBES BY DEEP FISURES

RIGHT LUNG HAS THREE LOBES AND LEFT LUNG HAS TWO LOBES

LEFT LUNG IS DIVIDE BY AN OBLIQUE FISSURE INTO SUPERIOR AND INFERIOR LOBES

RIGHT LUNG IS DIVIDED IN THREE LOBES ( SUPERIOR, MIDDLE and INFERIOR )

Superior and Middle lobes are separated by a HORIZONTAL FISSURE, And

The OBLIQUE FISSURE separates InIerior and Middle lobs

THE PLEURAL CAVITIES
The thoracic cavity is bounded by the ribcage and the muscular diaphragm.
The mediastinum divides the region into TWO PLEURAL CAVITIES.
The pleural cavity is lined with a serous membrane, THE PLEURA.
PARIETAL PLEURA lines the thoracic wall, diaphragm, and mediastinum.
VISCERAL PLEURA covers the surIaces oI the lungs.

THE ALVEOLAR WALLS ARE MADE OF SIMPLE SQUAMOUS PULMONARY EPITHELIUM

SCATTERED AMONG EPITHELIUM ARE
SURFACTANT CELLS
THAT SECRETE AN OIL COATING TO PREVENT THE ALVEOLI FROM STICKING TOGETHER
AFTER EXHALATION.

ALSO IN THE ALVEOLAR WALL ARE MACROPHAGES THAT PHAGOCYTIZE DEBRIS OR
POTENTIAL PATHOGENS

PULMONARY CAPILLARIES COVER THE EXTERIOR OF THE ALVEOLI
The Human Respiratory System
The human respiratory system is divided into two parts, viz., the upper respiratory tract and the
lower respiratory tract. The Iollowing are the organs oI the upper and the lower respiratory tract.

The Upper Respiratory Tract:
O Nose (nostrils) - It is the entrance oI the respiratory tract.
O Pharynx - It is situated behind the mouth and is the passage to the stomach and the lungs.
O Larynx - It is present at the top oI trachea and contains vocal cords. It is also known as
the voice box.
O Trachea (windpipe) - It is a tube like structure that helps in passage oI air Irom larynx to
the bronchi.
The Lower Respiratory Tract:
O Bronchi (bronchioles) - These are the branches oI the bronchi that conduct air into the
lungs.
O Alveoli (air sacs) - The sacs in the lungs where gas exchange occurs.
O Lungs - The two inverted-cone shaped organs present in the chest oI human beings
Read more on:
O Organs oI the Respiratory System
O Structure oI the Human Respiratory System
Human Respiratory System Functions
The Iollowing are the diIIerent Iunctions oI the respiratory system.

Respiration
The most important Iunction oI the respiratory system is the process oI respiration. How does the
respiratory system Iunction? Let us have a look at it in detail.

Inhalation
When a person breathes air (which contains oxygen), it passes through the nasal passages
containing mucous. This mucous helps in Iiltering out contaminants like dust, pollen and smoke.
The nasal epithelium naturally adds moisture and heat to the air. The larynx prevents Iood or
liquid entering the respiratory tract. The air then passes through the larynx and enters the trachea
or the windpipe. Here it gets divided into the two bronchi that connect the trachea to the lungs.
The bronchi again gets split into many smaller tubes known as bronchioles. These bronchi end in
air sacs, also known as alveoli, which contain blood capillaries. These blood capillaries carry
blood which comes through veins Irom all other parts oI the body. Here the carbon-di-oxide Irom
the blood is exchanged Ior the oxygen in the alveoli. The blood containing oxygen then goes to
the heart where it is later pumped to other parts oI the body.

Exhalation
Exhalation in human beings is the process oI expelling out oI air containing carbon-d-oxide. The
movement oI the air while exhalation is through the bronchi, then through the airways and then it
passes out through the nose. The exhaled air is completely depleted oI oxygen.

The lungs are the most important organs oI the human respiratory system. There is a muscle
located below the lungs known as the diaphragm which also plays an important role in the
process oI respiration. During inhalation, the diaphragm contracts, creating a vacuum that helps
in pulling air into the lungs. On the other hand, during exhalation, the diaphragm relaxes which
helps in Iorcing the air out oI the lungs.

Vocalization
Vocalization is also one oI the major respiratory system Iunctions. Vocalization is the process
which enables humans to speak and also to make sound. When the air passes through the
pharynx and larynx, it makes the vocal cords in larynx to vibrate which helps in production oI
sound and speech in humans.

Coughing
When any Ioreign particles enter the nasal passages, it can result into irritation. ThereIore,
expelling out these Ioreign bodies or irritants is one oI the Iunctions oI the respiratory system.
These irritants are Iorced out oI the respiratory tract through cough or even sneeze.

Read more on respiratory system Iacts.

The respiratory system Iunctions are very important Ior our body, and hence the respiratory
system is considered as one oI the Iive major human body systems.

Organs of the Respiratory System
The diIIerent organs oI the respiratory system and their Iunctions are described in the Iollowing
paragraphs.

Nose: It is the organ through which air is inhaled and exhaled. The nostrils / external nares
Iacilitate the process oI inhalation and exhalation. Vestibule is a part inside the nostrils which is
lined by coarse hair. The cavity oI the nose is divided into two parts by the nasal septum. The
superior and lateral walls oI the nasal cavity are Iormed oI the nasal, maxillary, ethmoid, Irontal
and sphenoid bones. The Iloor oI the nasal cavity is composed oI the hard and soIt palates.
Cartilage which is the external part oI nose, Iorms its tip and the bridge. The bony shelves which
project Irom the lateral walls oI the nose are known as inIerior, middle and superior nasal
conchae. Meatuses are the spaces present between these conchae. Read more on anatomy oI the
nose.

Larynx: It is the part oI the respiratory system which connects the trachea with the
laryngopharynx. The larynx which is Iormed oI cartilages is also known as sound box. Epiglottis,
throid and cricoid are the three important cartilages oI the larynx. The other cartilages present in
the larynx are the corniculate, aryteoid and cuneiIorm cartilages. The epiglottis, an important part
oI the larynx is actually a cartilage which prevents the Iood Irom entering the respiratory tract.
The Ilap-like action oI the epiglottis is Iacilitated by the corniculate cartilage.

Trachea: The trachea, which lies to the anterior side oI the esophagus is a tubular structure with
1 inch diameter and a length oI 4.25 inches. Length oI the trachea spans between the 6th cervical
and 5th thoracic vertebrae. The trachea is composed oI around 15 - 20 'C' - shaped pieces oI
hyaline cartilage. These pieces are held together by the tracheal muscles.

Bronchi: The tracheal tube when divided into two at the caudal end, gives rise to the leIt and
right bronchi. The bronchus is a passage that allows air Ilow into the lungs. The leIt bronchus
which is shorter than the right one, Iurther divides into 2 lobar bronchi while the right bronchus
is divided into 3 lobar bronchi.

Lungs: The lungs are a pair oI conical organs present in the pleural cavities. The leIt lung is
divided into 2 lobes (superior and inIerior) while the right one is composed oI 3 lobes (superior,
inIerior and middle). Each lung has a median slit and a hilus.

Respiration
In terms oI animal physiology, respiration is simply deIined as the process in which oxygen Irom
the environment enters the body and the carbon dioxide leaves it. The process oI respiration
takes place in Iour stages, i.e. ventilation, pulmonary gas exchange, gas transport and peripheral
gas exchange. In the ventilation stage, the air moves in and out oI the alveoli present in the lungs.
The gas exchange that takes place between pulmonary capillaries and alveoli is termed as
pulmonary gas exchange. Gas transport is the process in which the gas moves within pulmonary
capillaries, towards the peripheral capillaries present in the organs and then back to the lungs.
The process in which the gases are exchanged between the organs / tissues and tissue capillaries
is known as peripheral gas exchange. Read more on:
O Aerobic Cellular Respiration
O Aerobic and Anerobic Respiration
The inIormation about organs oI the respiratory system and their Iunctions is described in short
in the above article. It provides a rough idea about the anatomy and Iunctioning oI the respiratory
system.
Structure of the numan kesp|ratory System

1he resplraLory sysLem ln human belngs can be dlvlded lnLo Lhe upper resplraLory LracL LhaL conslsLs of
Lhe nasal passages pharynx and Lhe larynx and Lhe lower resplraLory LracL LhaL ls composed of Lhe
Lrachea Lhe prlmary bronchl and Lhe lungs

Nasa| passages Alr enLerlng from Lhe nosLrlls ls led Lo Lhe nasal passages 1he nasal cavlLy LhaL ls
locaLed behlnd Lhe nose comprlses Lhe nasal passages LhaL form an lmporLanL parL of Lhe resplraLory
sysLem ln human belngs 1he nasal cavlLy ls responslble for condlLlonlng Lhe alr LhaL ls recelved by Lhe
nose 1he process of condlLlonlng lnvolves warmlng or coollng Lhe alr recelved by Lhe nose removlng
dusL parLlcles from lL and also molsLenlng lL before lL enLers Lhe pharynx

harynx lL ls locaLed behlnd Lhe nasal cavlLy and above Lhe larynx lL ls also a parL of Lhe dlgesLlve
sysLem of Lhe human body lood as well as alr passes Lhrough Lhe pharynx

Larynx lL ls assoclaLed wlLh Lhe producLlon of sound lL conslsLs of Lwo palrs of membranes Alr causes
Lhe vocal cords Lo vlbraLe Lhus produclng sound 1he larynx ls slLuaLed ln Lhe neck of mammals and
plays a vlLal role ln Lhe proLecLlon of Lhe Lrachea

@rachea 1he Lerm refers Lo Lhe alrway Lhrough whlch resplraLory alr Lravels 1he rlngs of carLllage
wlLhln lLs walls keep Lhe Lrachea open

8ronch| 1he Lrachea dlvlded lnLo Lwo maln bronchl 1he bronchl exLend lnLo Lhe lungs spreadlng ln a
Lreellke manner as bronchlal Lubes 1he bronchlal Lubes subdlvlde and wlLh each subdlvlslon Lhelr walls
geL Lhlnner 1hls dlvldlng of Lhe bronchl lnLo Lhlnwalled Lubes resulLs ln Lhe formaLlon of bronchloles
1he bronchloles LermlnaLe ln small alr chambers each of whlch conLalns cavlLles known as alveoll
Alveoll have Lhln walls whlch form Lhe resplraLory surface 1he exchange of gases beLween Lhe blood
and Lhe alr Lakes place Lhrough Lhese walls

Lungs Lungs form Lhe mosL vlLal componenL of Lhe human resplraLory sysLem 1hey are locaLed on Lhe
Lwo sldes of Lhe hearL 1hey are responslble for LransporLlng oxygen from Lhe aLmosphere lnLo blood
and releaslng carbon dloxlde from blood Lo Lhe aLmosphere

1hls was a brlef descrlpLlon of Lhe sLrucLure of Lhe human resplraLory sysLem lL ls LhaL vlLal sysLem ln
our body whlch enables us Lo llLerally 'breaLhe new llfe' aL every lnsLanL of Llme
The Iollowing organs are a part oI the respiratory system, as they work in a coordinated manner
to bring about the process oI respiration in the human body:-
Heading
Nose

O The hairs in the nostrils prevent the entry oI particles oI dust into the nasal chamber.
O The inner lining oI the nasal chamber contains a Iluid called the 2:.:8 spread over it.
This liquid traps disease causing microorganisms.
O The air going inside is moistened as it Ilows through the nasal chambers on coming in
contact with mucus.
O The air going inside is warmed in the nasal chamber, as the nasal chamber contains blood
vessels through which the temperature oI the air can be regulated.
O The nose has an additional Iunction oI smell. Sensory cells that have the ability to smell
are present in the nasal chamber. When we sniII, little waIts oI air go high up in the nasal
chamber into a special pocket where these sensory cells are located.



Pharynx
O The pharynx is a common passageway Ior Iood and air, because on one hand the nasal
chambers open into it Irom above, and on the other hand the mouth opens into it Irom
below the nasal chambers. It leads into two tubes, the windpipe, also called as the
tra.ea, and the food pipe, also called as the e8opag:8.
O To prevent Iood Irom entering the wind pipe, there is a cartilaginous Ilap present over the
wind pipe, called the epiglotti8. The epiglottis acts as a lid Ior the wind pipe, and keeps it
covered while swallowing Iood. Thus, it prevents the entry oI Iood into the wind pipe.


Larynx
O The larynx is a hollow, cartilaginous structure located at the point oI meeting oI the
pharynx and the trachea (wind pipe).
O It can be Ielt with the hands at the Iront part oI the neck. It is not a passageway Ior air like
the pharynx, nasal chamber and the trachea, but it is an essential part oI the respiratory
system, as we are able to speak only when we respire air in and out oI the body.
O It is made up oI two Iolds oI cartilage, hollow in the middle, through which air passes as
it Ilows in and out oI the wind pipe. This is the organ by which gives us the ability to
speak: As air passes through the opening in between its two chords, the two chords
vibrate producing sound. There are a set oI muscles located near the chords, which help
us in changing the tension oI the two chords. By changing the tension oI the two chords
and passing air through it, one is able to produce diIIerent sounds Irom the larynx. Thus it
is called the ;oi.e box oI the human body.


Trachea
O It is the wind pipe. It is partly covered by the troid gland in the neck. The Iood pipe
(esophagus) is present along with the trachea in the neck, but its walls remain collapsed
when not eating or drinking Iood, thus providing space Ior the trachea to take in and
expel out air.
O The walls oI the trachea are made up oI 8aped ring8 oI cartilage. These rings provide
strength to the trachea and keep it distended (expanded) permanently.







Bronchi
O Close to the lungs, the trachea divides into two tubes, called the bronchi. Each oI these
tubes enters one lung. The bronchi also have C shaped rings in their walls like the
trachea, to keep the air passage permanently and Iully distended.
O As the two bronchi enter the two lungs respectively, they divide into Iiner tubes called the
8e.ondar bron.i. In the lungs, the secondary bronchi divide Iurther into still Iiner tubes
called tertiar bron.i, which Iurther divide into still Iiner tubes called the bron.iole8.
The bronchioles are very Iine tubes and their diameter is 1 mm. Each bronchiole divides
and subdivides until it produces groups oI many tiny air sacs, called al;eoli.


Lungs
O The pair oI lungs are two organs in the thoracic cavity. They provide an interIace Ior the
exchange oI respiratory gases in and out oI the blood stream.
O The lungs contain thousands oI air sacs (the alveoli) which provide a huge surIace area
Ior the diIIusion oI respiratory gases into the blood stream and out oI the blood stream.
O The lungs are continuously expanded and contracted by the combined work oI the
diaprag2 and the muscles in between ribs (inter.o8tal 2:8.le8.
The Human Respiratory System
Oxygen is vital Ior the Iunctioning and survival oI all body cells. As the cells utilize oxygen in
their activities, carbon dioxide is produced as a waste product. In large amounts, this by-product
can be lethal. ThereIore it is important to have an eIIicient means to supply oxygen to the cells
and remove carbon dioxide. The respiratory system works with the circulatory system to meet
this demand. The respiratory system also regulates the pH oI tissues as well as protects the body
against the invasion oI toxic materials and disease causing agents by acting as a Iilter. Finally,
this multi-task system houses the cells that detect smell and help in the production oI sounds
necessary Ior speech. II the respiratory system does not Iunction properly, then the entire body is
at risk oI shutting down.
The delivery oI oxygen to and the removal oI carbon dioxide Irom the cells is a two-phase
process called respiration. This operation involves the respiratory and circulatory system
working together. Inhalation, or the breathing in oI air is the Iirst step. As air is taken Irom the
outside environment, oxygen is brought into the lungs. Through the process oI diIIusion, this
oxygen is able to reach the blood vessels which carries it to the heart. The heart pumps the
oxygen rich blood to the cells oI the body where it is utilized in cellular metabolic activities. This
is called cellular respiration and produces carbon dioxide as a waste product. The second phase
oI respiration begins with the movement oI carbon dioxide Irom the cells to the bloodstream. The
oxygen-poor blood is directed back to the heart which pumps it to the lungs. The carbon dioxide
is removed Irom the lungs through exhalation, or breathing out. This completes the respiratory
cycle.
The respiratory system includes organs other than the lungs. The system can be divided into the
upper and lower respiratory tracts. The upper respiratory tract is made up oI the nose and the
pharynx or throat. The lower respiratory tract consists oI the larynx (voice box), the trachea
(commonly known as the windpipe), bronchi (two main pathways branching Irom the trachea to
each lung), bronchioles (smaller branches oI the bronchi extending into the lungs) and the lungs
(moist, spongy saclike organs) The nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles
conduct air to and Irom the lungs. The lungs interact with the circulatory system to deliver
oxygen and remove carbon dioxide.
To see a video that demonstrates the Larynx as it really exists Click Here.

Nasal Cavity
The outside air enters the respiratory system via the nose. This structure plays two key roles in
respiration.
Firstly, the nasal passage is composed oI epithelial cells that are lined with tiny hair-like cells
called cilia. Among the epithelial cells are also goblet cells that are responsible Ior producing
mucus, a sticky, thick, moist Iluid that coats the epithelial cells and the cilia. As air is taken in
Irom the outside, any Ioreign material that could be potentially dangerous iI ingested is Iiltered
out by the course hairs that line the nasal passageway. The objects are trapped in the mucus and
propelled down to the pharynx by the continuous swaying motion oI the cilia. The pharynx leads
to the stomach where the materials are destroyed by the stomach acid. II the amount oI pollutants
entering the nasal cavity is more than cilia can handle, than s sneeze response is initiated to rid
the body oI the material.
Secondly, the nasal passage acts in moistening and warming the outside air beIore it reaches the
lungs. The lungs are very delicate and cold, dry air may cause damage to its membranes. The
mucus produced by the goblet cells aid in providing moisture to the air by releasing water vapor
as the air travels through the nasal cavity. The nose is also lined with tiny capillaries. As the
blood Ilows through these vessels, it also warms the air beIore it reaches the lungs. Breathing
through the nose is important in protecting the lungs Irom cold dry air that may contain harmIul
agents. When a person experiences a cold or Ilu where the nasal passage is obstructed or
becomes 'stuIIy, they are putting their lungs at risk by breathing through their mouth. The
mouth does not carry out the same respiratory Iunctions as the nose.
In addition to their role in the respiratory system, the nasal passages house cells called olIactory
receptors, which are involved in the sense oI smell. When chemicals enter the nasal passages,
they contact the olIactory receptors. This triggers the receptors to send a signal to the brain,
which creates the perception oI smell.
The pharynx is a short, Iunnel-shaped tube about 13 cm that connects the nasal passage to the
larynx. Mucus and cilia in the pharynx removes impurities Irom the air. The pharynx also
contains the tonsils (lymphatic tissues that contain white blood cells). The white blood cells Iight
oII any disease causing agents that may have made its way into the throat.
The larynx is a structure about 5 cm long and is made up oI cartilage. This structure Iilters the air
with its mucus membranes and ciliated cells and transports it to the trachea. In doing so, sound is
produced as the air Ilows over the vocal cords. When air is inhaled, a small Ilap-like structure
called the epiglottis covers the esophagus to prevent air Irom travel down into the stomach. In
addition the epiglottis closes oII the larynx when eating to prevent Iood Irom entering the
respiratory system.

Trachea, Bronchi, and Bronchioles
The trachea is also known as the windpipe and is positioned slightly below the base oI the neck.
It is a tube that is about 15 cm long and composed oI 15 to 20 C-shaped rings oI cartilage
connected by muscle tissue. This composition enables air to Ireely Ilow through the trachea by
holding it open.
The trachea branches into two tubes, one leading to the right lung and another leading to the leIt
lung. The tubes are known as the right and leIt bronchi, respectively. They too aid in Iiltering the
air with their mucus membranes and ciliated cells. The bronchi branch into smaller tributaries
called bronchioles. The bronchioles extend into the lungs and terminate with small grape-like
clusters called alveoli.

Alveoli
Branched into the lungs are tiny structures clustered together. There is estimated to be
approximately 150 million oI these structures in each lung with some are no larger than 0.5mm
in diameter. These grape-like components are air sacs called alveoli. The alveoli are the point oI
gaseous exchange between the lungs and the circulatory system. Their thin membranes allow
oxygen to easily diIIuse into the capillaries that surround them. Since the oxygen concentration
is greater in the lungs than in the blood, the oxygen, moving along the concentration gradient, is
able to travel into the blood. The blood vessels carry carbon dioxide back to these same vessels
and diIIusion occurs in the reverse direction to rid the body oI the waste material. The alveoli
also contain macrophages (large white blood cells). These cells are the last line oI deIense and
Iilters any material that have made its way into the respiratory system.


There are two lungs located in the chest (thoracic cavity). The pleura is a thin sheet consisting oI
epithelial cells that separates the lungs Irom the chest cavity. The diaphragm is large dome
shaped muscle that is the bottom oI the chest cavity.

For a Video Illustration oI the Breathing Process Click Here
Respiration is the process oI breathing in and out. Inhalation is possible as the muscles in the
chest wall contract, causing the ribs to liIt and be Iorced outward. The chest cavity enlarges as
the diaphragm moves downward or Ilattens. The pressure in the lungs is decreased as the volume
oI the lungs increased. This relationship allows air to enter the lungs as air will move an area oI
high pressure to an area oI low pressure. In many ways it is analogous to the movement oI solute
particles during diIIusion. Exhalation involves the reverse steps.

Regulation
Respiration is controlled by the nervous system. The respiratory center in the brain permits the
unconscious control oI breathing rate. These cells stimulate the diaphragm and rib muscles to
initiate inhalation. This stimulation is brieI. When stopped, the diaphragm and rib muscles relax
and exhalation occurs. Under normal conditions, a person experiences 12 -20 breaths a minute,
with newborns taking about 30-50 breaths a minute.
Respiration can also be under conscious control. When a person sings, whistles or holds one`s
breath they are altering their breathing pattern. In these circumstances, the cerebral cortex
overrides the signals Irom the respiratory center.
Although holding your breath is a survival tactic (ex. Ior escaping Iumes) you cannot hold your
breath Ior long periods oI time. By preventing exhalation, the levels oI carbon dioxide in the
blood rises and the pH balance is disrupted as the blood becomes acidic. Chemoreceptors in the
brainstem and the blood vessels in the neck monitor the blood pH levels. As the pH decreases,
the chemoreceptors signal the respiratory center to begin exhalation to rid the body oI the excess
carbon dioxide.
The amount oI oxygen that enters the lungs is regulated by specialized cells called stretch
receptors. These cells prevent over inhalation and possible bursting oI the lungs by signaling the
respiratory center when unsaIe levels are reached. Inhalation is then ceased.