(1) Flip-flop

In digital circuits, a flip-flop is a term referring to an electronic circuit that has two stable states and thereby is capable of serving as one bit of memory.A flip-flop is usually controlled by one or two control signals and/or a gate or clock signal. The output often includes the complement as well as the normal output. Uses :

A single flip-flop can be used to store one bit, or binary digit, of data. Any one of the flip-flop type can be used to build any of the others. Many logic synthesis tools will not use any other type than D flip-flop and D latch. Level sensitive latches cause problems with Static Timing Analysis (STA) tools and Design For Test (DFT). Therefore, their usage is often discouraged. Many FPGA devices contain only edge-triggered D flip-flops

(2) Adder
In electronics, an adder or summer is a digital circuit that performs addition of numbers. In modern computers adders reside in the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) where other operations are performed. Although adders can be constructed for many numerical representations, such as Binary-coded decimal or excess-3, the most common adders operate on binary numbers. In cases where two's complement or one's complement is being used to represent negative numbers, it is trivial to modify an adder into an adder-subtractor. Other signed number representations require a more complex adder.

Types:(a) Half adder

Inputs Outputs

A B C S
0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0

A half adder is a logical circuit that performs an addition operation on two one-bit binary numbers often written as A and B. The half adder output is a sum of the two inputs usually represented with the signals Cout and S where .

Example half adder circuit diagramAs an example, a Half Adder can be built with an XOR gate
and an AND gate.
___________ A ------| | | Half |----| Adder | | |----B ------|___________|

(b) Full adder

Inputs Outputs

A B Ci Co S
Schematic symbol for a 1-bit full adder with Cin and Cout drawn on sides of block to emphasize their use in a multi-bit adder. 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1

A full adder is a logical circuit that performs an addition operation on three one-bit binary numbers often written as A, B, and Cin. The full adder produces a two-bit output sum typically represented with the signals Cout and S where .

(3) Subtractor
In electronics, a subtractor can be designed using the same approach as that of an adder. The binary subtraction process is summarized below. As with an adder, in the general case of calculations on multi-bit numbers, three bits are involved in performing the subtraction for each bit of the difference: the minuend (Xi), subtrahend (Yi), and a borrow in from the previous (less significant) bit order position (Bi). The outputs are the difference bit (Di) and borrow bit Bi + 1. K-map Bi(1,2,3,7) Subtractors are usually implemented within a binary adder for only a small cost when using the standard two's complement notation, by providing an addition/subtraction selector to the carry-in and to invert the second operand. (definition of two's complement negation)

(a)

Half Subtractor

The half-subtractor is a combinational circuit which is used to perform subtraction of two bits. It has two inputs, X (minuend) and Y (subtrahend) and two outputs D (difference) and B (borrow). From the above table one can draw the Karnaugh map for "difference" and "borrow".

X 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1

Y 0 1 1 0

D 0 1 0 0

So, Logic equations are:

(b) Full Subtractor

The Full_subtractor is a combinational circuit which is used to perform subtraction of three bits. It has three inputs, X (minuend) and Y (subtrahend) and Z (subtrahend) and two outputs D (difference) and B (borrow). Easy way to write truth table D=X-Y-Z (don't bother about sign) B = 1 If X<(Y+Z)

Truth table & Logic Circuit:-The truth table & logic circuit for the full subtractor is given
below. XYZDB 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1

So, Logic equations are:

(4) Opcode
In computer technology, an opcode (operation code) is the portion of a machine language instruction that specifies the operation to be performed. Their specification and format are laid out in the instruction set architecture of the processor in question (which may be a general CPU or a more specialized processing unit). Apart from the opcode itself, an instruction normally also has one or more specifiers for operands (i.e. data) on which the operation should act, although some operations may have implicit operands, or none at all. There are instruction sets with nearly uniform fields for opcode and operand specifiers, as well as others (the x86 architecture for instance) with a more complicated, varied length structure. Depending on architecture, the operands may be register values, values in the stack, other memory values, I/O ports, etc, specified and accessed using more or less complex addressing modes. The types of operations include arithmetics, data copying, logical operations, and program control, as well as special instructions (such as CPUID and others).

(5) Instruction Code

In digital computers, a set of instructions that assigns algorithms for solving problems in a digital computer; the principal part of the machine language. Problem-solving programs are compiled according to definite rules with the aid of an instruction code. An instruction code is usually presented in the form of tables that give mnemonic designations of the instructions according to their structure, as well as declarations of format, restrictions on usage, and all the computer operations controlled by the instructions. An instruction code is not the same as an operations system. Two computers that have the same operations systems may differ in their instruction codesfor example, in their instruction address or instruction content (the complex of operations that are combined by each operation code). The efficiency in solving different problems depends to a considerable extent on the instruction codes capability of producing the necessary algorithms. Consequently, this is one of the fundamental parameters determining the structure of a digital computer. An instruction code is selected by simulation of the structural scheme of the planned computer, by experimental programming using the chosen code, and by evaluation and comparison of the results. In general-purpose digital computers of low and medium capacity, the number of different operations in the instruction code varies from 32 to 64, and in high-performance computers it is in the range of 100 or more. In modern digital computers the instruction code can be replaced or reorganized within certain limits by using micro programmed control and extended by connecting to the computer additional hardware, needed, for example, to process data in decimal notation when solving problems in economics. An instruction code is an intermediate step between the programmers language and the computers performance in executing a problem-solving program. Therefore, the program for the solution is executed in two stages: translation into the instruction language and conversion of the instructions into a control sequence of signals. The two-stage process simplifies the structure of the computer.

(6) Reduced Instruction Set Computing

Reduced instruction set computing, or RISC (pronounced /rsk/), is a CPU design strategy based on the insight that simplified (as opposed to complex) instructions can provide higher performance if this simplicity enables much faster execution of each instruction. A computer based on this strategy is a reduced instruction set computer (also RISC). There are many proposals for precise definitions[1], but the term is slowly being replaced by the more descriptive load-store architecture. Well known RISC families include DEC Alpha, AMD 29k, ARC, ARM, Atmel AVR, MIPS, PARISC, Power (including PowerPC), SuperH, and SPARC. Some aspects attributed to the first RISC-labeled designs around 1975 include the observations that the memory-restricted compilers of the time were often unable to take advantage of features intended to facilitate manual assembly coding, and that complex addressing modes take many cycles to perform due to the required additional memory accesses. It was argued that such functions would be better performed by sequences of simpler instructions if this could yield implementations small enough to leave room for many registers,[2] reducing the number of slow memory accesses. In these simple designs, most instructions are of uniform length and similar structure, arithmetic operations are restricted to CPU registers and only separate load and store instructions access memory. These properties enable a better balancing of pipeline stages than before, making RISC pipelines significantly more efficient and allowing higher clock frequencies.

(7) Associative Memory

Associative memory (content-addressable memory, CAM) A memory that is capable of determining whether a given datum the search word is contained in one of its addresses or locations. This may be accomplished by a number of mechanisms. In some cases parallel combinational logic is applied at each word in the memory and a test is made simultaneously for coincidence with the search word. In other cases the search word and all of the words in the memory are shifted serially in synchronism; a single bit of the search word is then compared to the same bit of all of the memory words using as many single-bit coincidence circuits as there are words in the memory. Amplifications of the associative memory technique allow for masking the search word or requiring only a close match as opposed to an exact match. Small parallel associative memories are used in cache memory and virtual memory mapping applications. Since parallel operations on many words are expensive (in hardware), a variety of stratagems are used to approximate associative memory operation without actually carrying out the full test described here. One of these uses hashing to generate a best guess for a conventional address followed by a test of the contents of that address. a storage unit of digital computers in which selection (entry) is performed not according to concrete address but rather according to a preset combination (association) of attributes characteristic of the desired information. Such attributes can be part of a word (number), attached to it for detection 5

among other words, certain features of the word itself (for example, the presence of specific codes in its digits), the absolute value of a word, its presence in a preset range, and so on. The operation of an associative memory is based on the representation of all information in the form of a sequence of zones according to properties and characteristic attributes. In this case the retrieval of information is reduced to the determination of the zone according to the preset attributes by means of scanning and comparison of those attributes with the attributes that are stored in the associative memory. There are two basic methods of realizing the associative memory. The first is the construction of a memory with storage cells that have the capability of performing simultaneously the functions of storage, nondestructive reading, and comparison. Such a method of realizing an associative memory is called network parallel-associativethat is, the required sets of attributes are preserved in all the memory cells, and the information that possesses a given set of attributes is searched for simultaneously and independently over the entire storage capacity. Card indexes for edge-punched cards are prototypes of such an associative memory. Thin-film kryotrons, transfluxors, biaxes, magnetic thin films, and so on are used as storage elements of network-realized associative memories. The second method of realizing an associative memory is the programmed organization (modeling) of the memory. It consists of the establishment of associative connections between the information contained in the memory by means of ordered arrangement of the information in the form of sequential chains or groups (lists) connected by linkage addresses whose codes are stored in the same memory cells. This procedure is the more suitable for practical realization in dealing with large volumes of information because it provides for the use of conventional accumulators with address reference. The use of an associative memory considerably facilitates the programming and solution of informational-logical problems and accelerates by hundreds (thousands) of times the speed of retrieval, analysis, classification, and processing of data.

(8) Direct Memory Access

Direct memory access (DMA) is a feature of modern computers and microprocessors that allows certain hardware subsystems within the computer to access system memory for reading and/or writing independently of the central processing unit. Many hardware systems use DMA including disk drive controllers, graphics cards, network cards and sound cards. DMA is also used for intrachip data transfer in multi-core processors, especially in multiprocessor system-on-chips, where its processing element is equipped with a local memory (often called scratchpad memory) and DMA is used for transferring data between the local memory and the main memory. Computers that have DMA channels can transfer data to and from devices with much less CPU overhead than computers without a DMA channel. Similarly a processing element inside a multi-core processor can transfer data to and from its local memory without occupying its processor time and allowing computation and data transfer concurrency. Without DMA, using programmed input/output (PIO) mode for communication with peripheral devices, or load/store instructions in the case of multicore chips, the CPU is typically fully occupied for the entire duration of the read or write operation, and is thus unavailable to perform other work. With DMA, the CPU would initiate the transfer, do other operations while the transfer is in progress, and receive an interrupt from the DMA controller once the operation has been done. This is especially useful in real-time computing applications where not stalling behind concurrent operations 6

is critical. Another and related application area is various forms of stream processing where it is essential to have data processing and transfer in parallel, in order to achieve sufficient throughput.

Principle DMA is an essential feature of all modern computers, as it allows devices to transfer data without subjecting the CPU to a heavy overhead. Otherwise, the CPU would have to copy each piece of data from the source to the destination, making itself unavailable for other tasks. This situation is aggravated because access to I/O devices over a peripheral bus is generally slower than normal system RAM. With DMA, the CPU gets freed from this overhead and can do useful tasks during data transfer (though the CPU bus would be partly blocked by DMA). In the same way, a DMA engine in an embedded processor allows its processing element to issue a data transfer and carries on its own task while the data transfer is being performed. A DMA transfer copies a block of memory from one device to another. While the CPU initiates the transfer by issuing a DMA command, it does not execute it. For so-called "third party" DMA, as is normally used with the ISA bus, the transfer is performed by a DMA controller which is typically part of the motherboard chipset. More advanced bus designs such as PCI typically use bus mastering DMA, where the device takes control of the bus and performs the transfer itself. In an embedded processor or multiprocessor system-on-chip, it is a DMA engine connected to the on-chip bus that actually administers the transfer of the data, in coordination with the flow control mechanisms of the on-chip bus. A typical usage of DMA is copying a block of memory from system RAM to or from a buffer on the device. Such an operation usually does not stall the processor, which as a result can be scheduled to perform other tasks unless those tasks include a read from or write to memory. DMA is essential to high performance embedded systems. It is also essential in providing so-called zero-copy implementations of peripheral device drivers as well as functionalities such as network packet routing, audio playback and streaming video. Multicore embedded processors (in the form of multiprocessor system-on-chip) often use one or more DMA engines in combination with scratchpad memories for both increased efficiency and lower power consumption. In computer clusters for highperformance computing, DMA among multiple computing nodes is often used under the name of remote DMA. There are two control signal used to request and acknowledge a DMA transfer in microprocess-based system.The HOLD pin is used to request a DMA action and the HLDA pin is an output acknowledges the DMA action. A coprocessor is a computer processor used to supplement the functions of the primary processor (the CPU). Operations performed by the coprocessor may be floating point arithmetic, graphics, signal processing, string processing, or encryption. By offloading processor-intensive tasks from the main processor, coprocessors can accelerate system performance. Coprocessors allow a line of computers to be customized, so that customers who do not need the extra performance need not pay for it.

(9) Coprocessors
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Coprocessors were first seen on mainframe computers, where they added "optional" functionality such as floating point math support. A more common use was to control input/output channels, where they were more often called channel controllers.

Intel coprocessors

i8087 and i80287 microarchitecture.

i80387 microarchitecture. The original IBM PC included a socket for the Intel 8087 floating-point coprocessor (aka FPU) which was a popular option for people using the PC for CAD or mathematics-intensive calculations. In that architecture, the coprocessor sped up floating-point arithmetic on the order of fiftyfold. Users that only used the PC for word processing, for example, saved the high cost of the coprocessor, which would not have accelerated performance of text manipulation operations. The 8087 was tightly integrated with the 8086/8088 and responded to floating-point machine code operation codes inserted in the 8088 instruction stream. An 8088 processor without an 8087 would interpret these instructions as an internal interrupt, which could be directed to trap an error or to trigger emulation of the 8087 instructions in software.

Intel 80386 CPU w/ 80387 Math Coprocessor Another coprocessor for the 8086/8088 central processor was the 8089 input/output coprocessor. It used the same programming technique as 8087 for input/output operations, such as transfer of data 8

from memory to a peripheral device, and so reducing the load on the CPU. But IBM didn't use it in IBM PC design and Intel stopped development of this type of coprocessor. During the era of 8- and 16-bit desktop computers another common source of floating-point coprocessors was Weitek. The Intel 80386 microprocessor used an optional "math" coprocessor (the 80387) to perform floating point operations directly in hardware. The Intel 80486DX processor included floating-point hardware on the chip. Intel released a costreduced processor, the 80486SX, that had no FP hardware, and also sold an 80487SX co-processor that essentially disabled the main processor when installed, since the 80487SX was a complete 80486DX with a different set of pin connections. Intel processors later than the 80486 integrated floating-point hardware on the main processor chip; the advances in integration eliminated the cost advantage of selling the floating point processor as an optional element. It would be very difficult to adapt circuit-board techniques adequate at 75 MHz processor speed to meet the time-delay, power consumption, and radio-frequency interference standards required at gigahertz-range clock speeds. These on-chip floating point processors are still referred to as coprocessors because they operate in parallel with the main CPU.

Motorola coprocessors
The Motorola 68000 family had the 68881/68882 coprocessors which provided similar floating-point speed acceleration as for the Intel processors. Computers using the 68000 family but not equipped with the hardware floating point processor could trap and emulate the floating-point instructions in software, which, although slower, allowed one binary version of the program to be distributed for both cases

(10)

Universal set

For "universal set" in the sense of a universe of discourse with respect to which the absolute set complement is taken.
In set theory, a universal set is a set which contains all objects, including itself.[1] In set theory as usually formulated, the conception of a set of all sets leads to a paradox. The reason for this lies with the parameters of Zermelo's axiom of separation: for any formula universal set V existed, then Russell's paradox could be resolved by considering . More generally, for any set A we can prove that is not an element of A. and set A, the set exists. If the which contains exactly those elements x of A that satisfy

A second issue is that the power set of the set of all sets would be a subset of the set of all sets, providing that both exist. This conflicts with Cantor's theorem that the power set of any set (whether infinite or not) always has strictly higher cardinality than the set itself. The idea of a universal set seems intuitively desirable in the ZermeloFraenkel set theory, particularly because most versions of this theory do allow the use of quantifiers over all sets (see universal quantifier). This is handled by allowing carefully circumscribed mention of V and similar large collections as proper classes. In theories with proper classes the statement is not true because proper classes cannot be elements.

Set theories with a universal set

There are set theories known to be consistent (if the usual set theory is consistent) in which the universal set V does exist (and is true). In these theories, Zermelo's axiom of separation does not hold in general, and the axiom of comprehension of naive set theory is restricted in a different way. The most widely studied set theory with a universal set is Willard Van Orman Quines New Foundations. Alonzo Church and Arnold Oberschelp also published work on such set theories. Church speculated that his theory might be extended in a manner consistent with Quines,[2] but this is not possible for Oberschelps, since in it the singleton function is provably a set,[3] which leads immediately to paradox in New Foundations.[4] ZermeloFraenkel set theory and related set theories, which are based on the idea of the cumulative hierarchy, do not allow for the existence of a universal set.

(11) Complex Instruction Set Computing

A complex instruction set computer (CISC) (pronounced /ssk/), is a computer where single instructions can execute several low-level operations (such as a load from memory, an arithmetic operation, and a memory store) and/or are capable of multi-step operations or addressing modes within single instructions. The term was retroactively coined in contrast to reduced instruction set computer (RISC). Examples of CISC instruction set architectures are System/360 through z/Architecture, PDP-11, VAX, Motorola 68k, and x86.

(12) Paging
In computer operating systems, paging is one of the memory-management schemes by which a computer can store and retrieve data from secondary storage for use in main memory. In the paging memory-management scheme, the operating system retrieves data from secondary storage in samesize blocks called pages. The main advantage of paging is that it allows the physical address space of a process to be noncontiguous. Before paging, systems had to fit whole programs into storage contiguously, which caused various storage and fragmentation problems.[1] 10

Paging is an important part of virtual memory implementation in most contemporary general-purpose operating systems, allowing them to use disk storage for data that does not fit into physical Randomaccess memory (RAM). Paging is usually implemented as architecture-specific code built into the kernel of the operating system. The main functions of paging are performed when a program tries to access pages that are not currently mapped to physical memory (RAM). This situation is known as a page fault. The operating system must then take control and handle the page fault, in a manner invisible to the program. Therefore, the operating system must: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Determine the location of the data in auxiliary storage. Obtain an empty page frame in RAM to use as a container for the data. Load the requested data into the available page frame. Update the page table to show the new data. Return control to the program, transparently retrying the instruction that caused the page fault.

Because RAM is faster than auxiliary storage, paging is avoided until there is not enough RAM to store all the data needed. When this occurs, a page in RAM is moved to auxiliary storage, freeing up space in RAM for use. Thereafter, whenever the page in secondary storage is needed, a page in RAM is saved to auxiliary storage so that the requested page can then be loaded into the space left behind by the old page. Efficient paging systems must determine the page to swap by choosing one that is least likely to be needed within a short time. There are various page replacement algorithms that try to do this.

(13) Validation & Verification

Validation:1. The process of determining whether a value in a table's data cell its within the allowable range or is a member of a set of acceptable values. 2. The process of evaluating software to ensure compliance with established requirements and design criteria.

Verification:The process of evaluating an application to determine whether or not the work products of a stage of a software development lifecycle fulfill the requirements established during the previous stage.

(14) Spiral Model

An iterative version of the waterfall software development model. Rather than producing the entire software product in one linear series of steps, the spiral development model implies that specific components or sets of components of the software product are brought through each of the stages in the software development lifecycle before development begins on the next set. Once one component is completed, the next component in order of applicability is developed. Often, a 11

dependency tree is used where components that have other components dependent upon them are developed first.

(15) Distributed database

A distributed database is a database that is under the control of a central database management system (DBMS) in which storage devices are not all attached to a common CPU. It may be stored in multiple computers located in the same physical location, or may be dispersed over a network of interconnected computers. Collections of data (e.g. in a database) can be distributed across multiple physical locations. A distributed database can reside on network servers on the Internet, on corporate intranets or extranets, or on other company networks. Replication and distribution of databases improve database performance at end-user worksites. To ensure that the distributive databases are up to date and current, there are two processes: replication and duplication. Replication involves using specialized software that looks for changes in the distributive database. Once the changes have been identified, the replication process makes all the databases look the same. The replication process can be very complex and time consuming depending on the size and number of the distributive databases. This process can also require a lot of time and computer resources. Duplication on the other hand is not as complicated. It basically identifies one database as a master and then duplicates that database. The duplication process is normally done at a set time after hours. This is to ensure that each distributed location has the same data. In the duplication process, changes to the master database only are allowed. This is to ensure that local data will not be overwritten. Both of the processes can keep the data current in all distributive locations. Besides distributed database replication and fragmentation, there are many other distributed database design technologies. For example, local autonomy, synchronous and asynchronous distributed database technologies. These technologies' implementation can and does depend on the needs of the business and the sensitivity/confidentiality of the data to be stored in the database, and hence the price the business is willing to spend on ensuring data security, consistency and integr

(16) Demoralization
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demoralization is the process of attempting to optimize the read performance of a database by adding redundant data or by grouping data. In some cases, demoralization helps cover up the inefficiencies inherent in relational database software. A relational normalized database imposes a heavy access load over physical storage of data even if it is well tuned for high performance. A normalized design will often store different but related pieces of information in separate logical tables (called relations). If these relations are stored physically as separate disk files, completing a database query that draws information from several relations (a join operation) can be slow. If many relations are joined, it may be prohibitively slow. There are two strategies for dealing with this. The preferred method is to keep the logical design normalized, but allow the database management system (DBMS) to store additional redundant information on disk to optimize query response. In this case it is the DBMS software's responsibility to ensure that any redundant copies are kept consistent. This method is often implemented in SQL as indexed views (Microsoft SQL Server) or materialized views (Oracle). A view represents information in a format convenient for querying, and the index ensures that queries against the view are optimized. The more usual approach is to deformalize the logical data design. With care this can achieve a similar improvement in query response, but at a costit is now the database designer's responsibility to ensure that the deformalized database does not become inconsistent. This is done by creating rules in the database called constraints, that specify how the redundant copies of information must be kept synchronized. It is the increase in logical complexity of the database design and the added complexity of the additional constraints that make this approach hazardous. Moreover, constraints introduce a trade-off, speeding up reads (SELECT in SQL) while slowing down writes (INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE). This means a deformalized database under heavy write load may actually offer worse performance than its functionally equivalent normalized counterpart. A deformalized data model is not the same as a data model that has not been normalized, and renormalization should only take place after a satisfactory level of normalization has taken place and that any required constraints and/or rules have been created to deal with the inherent anomalies in the design. For example, all the relations are in third normal form and any relations with join and multivalued dependencies are handled appropriately.

(17)ADSL (Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line)

ADSL Stands for "Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line." ADSL is a type of DSL, which is a method of transferring data over copper telephone lines. While symmetrical DSL (SDSL) uploads and downloads data at the same speed, ADSL has different maximum data transfer rates for uploading and downloading data. For example, an ADSL connection may allow download rates of 1.5Mbps, while upload speeds may only reach 256Kbps. Since most users download much more data than they upload, this difference usually does not make a noticeable impact on Internet access speeds. However, for Web servers or other computers that send a lot of data upstream, ADSL would be an inefficient choice.

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(18) Natural language processing

ASIMO uses sensors and intelligent algorithms to avoid obstacles and navigate stairs.
Main article: Natural language processing Natural language processing gives machines the ability to read and understand the languages that humans speak. Many researchers hope that a sufficiently powerful natural language processing system would be able to acquire knowledge on its own, by reading the existing text available over the internet. Some straightforward applications of natural language processing include information retrieval (or text mining) and machine translation.

Perception
Main articles: Machine perception, Computer vision, and Speech recognition Machine perception is the ability to use input from sensors (such as cameras, microphones, sonar and others more exotic) to deduce aspects of the world. Computer vision is the ability to analyze visual input. A few selected sub problems are speech recognition,[facial recognition and object recognition.

(19) Domain
While the term "domain" is often used synonymously with "domain name," it also has a definition specific to local networks. A domain contains a group of computers that can be accessed and administered with a common set of rules. For example, a company may require all local computers to be networked within the same domain so that each computer can be seen from other computers within the domain or located from a central server. Setting up a domain may also block outside traffic from accessing computers within the network, which adds an extra level of security While domains can be setup using a variety of networking software, including applications from Novell and Oracle, Windows users are most likely familiar with Windows Network Domains. This networking option is built into Windows and allows users to create or join a domain. The domain may or may not be password-protected. Once connected to the domain, a user may view other computers within the domain and can browse the shared files and folders available on the connected systems. 14

Windows XP users can browse Windows Network Domains by selecting the "My Network Places" option on the left side of an open window. You can create a new domain by using the Network Setup Wixard. Mac users using Mac OS X 10.2 or later can also connect to a Windows Network by clicking the "Network" icon on the left side of an open window. This will allow you to browse local Macintosh and Windows networks using the SMB protocol

(20) Applet
This a Java program that can be embedded in a Web page. The difference between a standard Java application and a Java applet is that an applet can't access system resources on the local computer. System files and serial devices (modems, printers, scanners, etc.) cannot be called or used by the applet. This is for security reasons -- nobody wants their system wiped out by a malicious applet on some wacko's Web site. Applets have helped make the Web more dynamic and entertaining and have given a helpful boost to the Java programming language.

(21) Primary key

Primary key means main key Def.:- A primary key is one which uniquely identifies a row of a table. this key does not allow null values and also does not allow duplicate values.

for example: empno empname salary 1 firoz 35000 2 basha 34000 3 chintoo 40000
it will not the values as follows:

1 1

firoz 35000 basha 34000 chintoo 35000

Definition : A primary key, also called a primary keyword, is a key in a relational database
that is unique for each record. It is a unique identifier, such as a driver license number, telephone number (including area code), or vehicle identification number (VIN). A relational database must always have one and only one primary key. Primary keys typically appear as columns in relational database tables.

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The choice of a primary key in a relational database often depends on the preference of the administrator. It is possible to change the primary key for a given database when the specific needs of the users changes. For example, the people in a town might be uniquely identified according to their driver license numbers in one application, but in another situation it might be more convenient to identify them according to their telephone numbers.

(22) Encryption
Encryption is the coding or scrambling of information so that it can only be decoded and read by someone who has the correct decoding key. Encryption is used in secure Web sites as well as other mediums of data transfer. If a third party were to intercept the information you sent via an encrypted connection, they would not be able to read it. So if you are sending a message over the office network to your co-worker about how much you hate your job, your boss, and the whole dang company, it would be a good idea to make sure that you send it over an encrypted line.

(23)Two-phase locking
In databases and transaction processing (transaction management), Two-phase locking, (2PL) is a concurrency control locking protocol, or mechanism, which guarantees Serializability (e.g., see Bernstein et al. 1987, Weikum and Vossen 2001). It is also the name of the resulting class (set) of transaction schedules. Using locks that block processes, 2PL may be subject to deadlocks that result from the mutual blocking of two transactions or more. 2PL is a super-class of Strong strict two-phase locking (SS2PL), also called Rigorousness, which has been widely utilized for concurrency control in general-purpose database systems since their early days in the 1970s. SS2PL implementation has many variants. SS2PL was called in the past Strict 2PL, and confusingly it is still called so by some. SS2PL is also a special case (subclass) of Commitment ordering (Commit ordering; CO), and inherits many of CO's useful properties. 2PL in its general form, as well as when combined with Strictness, i.e., Strict 2PL (S2PL), are not known to be utilized in practice. Two-phase locking According to the two-phase locking protocol, a transaction handles its locks in two distinct, consecutive phases during the transaction's execution: 1. Expanding phase (number of locks can only increase): locks are acquired and no locks are released. 2. Shrinking phase: locks are released and no locks are acquired.

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The serializability property is guaranteed for a schedule with transactions that obey the protocol. The 2PL schedule class is defined as the class of all the schedules comprising transactions with data access orders that could be generated by the 2PL protocol. Typically, without explicit knowledge in a transaction on end of phase-1, it is safely determined only when a transaction has entered its ready state in all its processes (processing has ended, and it is ready to be committed; no additional locking is possible). In this case phase-2 can end immediately (no additional processing is needed), and actually no phase-2 is needed. Also, if several processes (two or more) are involved, then a synchronization point (similar to atomic commitment) among them is needed to determine end of phase-1 for all of them (i.e., in the entire distributed transaction), to start releasing locks in phase-2 (otherwise it is very likely that both 2PL and Serializability are quickly violated). Such synchronization point is usually too costly (involving a distributed protocol similar to atomic commitment), and end of phase-1 is usually postponed to be merged with transaction end (atomic commitment protocol for a multi-process transaction), and again phase-2 is not needed. This turns 2PL to SS2PL (see below). All known implementations of 2PL in products are SS2PL based.

(24) ATA (Advanced Technology Attachment)

ATA Stands for "Advanced Technology Attachment." It is a type of disk drive that integrates the drive controller directly on the drive itself. Computers can use ATA hard drives without a specific controller to support the drive. The motherboard must still support an ATA connection, but a separate card (such as a SCSI card for a SCSI hard drive) is not needed. Some different types of ATA standards include ATA-1, ATA-2 (a.k.a. Fast ATA), ATA-3, Ultra ATA (33 MBps maximum transfer rate), ATA/66 (66 MBps), and ATA/100 (100MBps). The term IDE, or "Integrated Drive Electronics," is also used to refer to ATA drives.Sometimes (to add extra confusion to people buying hard drives), ATA drives are labeled as "IDE/ATA." Technically, ATA uses IDE technology, but the important thing to know is that they refer to the same thing.

(25) Exception Handling

An exception is a problem that arises during the execution of a program. An exception can occur for many different reasons, including the following:

A user has entered invalid data. A file that needs to be opened cannot be found. A network connection has been lost in the middle of communications, or the JVM has run out of memory.

Some of these exceptions are caused by user error, others by programmer error, and others by physical resources that have failed in some manner. To understand how exception handling works in Java, you need to understand the three categories of exceptions: 17

Checked exceptions: Achecked exception is an exception that is typically a user error or a problem that cannot be foreseen by the programmer. For example, if a file is to be opened, but the file cannot be found, an exception occurs. These exceptions cannot simply be ignored at the time of compilation. Runtime exceptions: A runtime exception is an exception that occurs that probably could have been avoided by the programmer. As opposed to checked exceptions, runtime exceptions are ignored at the time of compliation. Errors: These are not exceptions at all, but problems that arise beyond the control of the user or the programmer. Errors are typically ignored in your code because you can rarely do anything about an error. For example, if a stack overflow occurs, an error will arise. They are also ignored at the time of compilation.

(26) Cluster
A group of sectors on a disk. While a sector is the smallest unit that can be accessed on your hard disk, a cluster is a slightly larger unit that is used to organize and identify files on the disk. Most files take up several clusters of disk space. Each cluster has a unique ID, which enables the hard drive to locate all the clusters on the disk. After reading and writing many files to a disk, some clusters may remain labeled as being used even though they do not contain any data. These are called "lost clusters" and can be fixed using ScanDisk on Windows or the Disk Utility program on the Mac. This is why running a disk utility or defragmentation program may free up space on your hard disk.

(27) OSI
Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is a reference model developed by ISO (International Organization for Standardization) in 1984, as a conceptual framework of standards for communication in the network across different equipment and applications by different vendors. It is now considered the primary architectural model for inter-computing and internetworking communications. Most of the network communication protocols used today have a structure based on the OSI model. The OSI model defines the communications process into 7 layers, which divides the tasks involved with moving information between networked computers into seven smaller, more manageable task groups. A task or group of tasks is then assigned to each of the seven OSI layers. Each layer is reasonably self-contained so that the tasks assigned to each layer can be implemented independently. This enables the solutions offered by one layer to be updated without adversely affecting the other layers.
OSI 7 Layers Reference Model For Network Communication

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OSI model with comparison of TCP/IP Layer 7:Application Layer Defines interface to user processes for communication and data transfer in network Provides standardized services such as virtual terminal, file and job transfer and operations Layer 6:Presentation Layer Masks the differences of data formats between dissimilar systems Specifies architecture-independent data transfer format Encodes and decodes data; Encrypts and decrypts data; Compresses and decompresses data Layer 5:Session Layer Manages user sessions and dialogues Controls establishment and termination of logic links between users Reports upper layer errors Layer 4:Transport Layer Manages end-to-end message delivery in network Provides reliable and sequential packet delivery through error recovery and flow control mechanisms Provides connectionless oriented packet delivery Layer 3:Network Layer 19

Determines how data are transferred between network devices Routes packets according to unique network device addresses Provides flow and congestion control to prevent network resource depletion Layer 2:Data Link Layer Defines procedures for operating the communication links Frames packets Detects and corrects packets transmit errors Layer 1:Physical Layer Defines physical means of sending data over network devices Interfaces between network medium and devices Defines optical, electrical and mechanical characteristics

(28) Extranet
If you know the difference between the Internet and an intranet, you have an above average understanding of computer terminology. If you know what an extranet is, you may be in the top echelon. An extranet actually combines both the Internet and an intranet. It extends an intranet, or internal network, to other users over the Internet. Most extranets can be accessed via a Web interface using a Web browser. Since secure or confidential information is often accessible within an intranet, extranets typically require authentication for users to access them. Extranets are often used by companies that need to share selective information with other businesses or individuals. For example, a supplier may use an extranet to provide inventory data to certain clients, while not making the information available to the general public. The extranet may also include a secure means of communication for the company and its clients, such as a support ticket system or Web-based forum.

(29) COCOMO MODEL

Overview of COCOMO The COCOMO cost estimation model is used by thousands of software project managers, and is based on a study of hundreds of software projects. Unlike other cost estimation models, COCOMO is an open model, so all of the details are published, including:

The underlying cost estimation equations Every assumption made in the model (e.g. "the project will enjoy good management") Every definition (e.g. the precise definition of the Product Design phase of a project) 20

The costs included in an estimate are explicitly stated (e.g. project managers are included, secretaries aren't)

Because COCOMO is well defined, and because it doesn't rely upon proprietary estimation algorithms, Costar offers these advantages to its users:

COCOMO estimates are more objective and repeatable than estimates made by methods relying on proprietary models COCOMO can be calibrated to reflect your software development environment, and to produce more accurate estimates

Costar is a faithful implementation of the COCOMO model that is easy to use on small projects, and yet powerful enough to plan and control large projects. Typically, you'll start with only a rough description of the software system that you'll be developing, and you'll use Costar to give you early estimates about the proper schedule and staffing levels. As you refine your knowledge of the problem, and as you design more of the system, you can use Costar to produce more and more refined estimates. Costar allows you to define a software structure to meet your needs. Your initial estimate might be made on the basis of a system containing 3,000 lines of code. Your second estimate might be more refined so that you now understand that your system will consist of two subsystems (and you'll have a more accurate idea about how many lines of code will be in each of the subsystems). Your next estimate will continue the process -- you can use Costar to define the components of each subsystem. Costar permits you to continue this process until you arrive at the level of detail that suits your needs. One word of warning: It is so easy to use Costar to make software cost estimates, that it's possible to misuse it -- every Costar user should spend the time to learn the underlying COCOMO assumptions and definitions from Software Engineering Economics and Software Cost Estimation with COCOMO II. Introduction to the COCOMO Model The most fundamental calculation in the COCOMO model is the use of the Effort Equation to estimate the number of Person-Months required to develop a project. Most of the other COCOMO results, including the estimates for Requirements and Maintenance, are derived from this quantity. Source Lines of Code The COCOMO calculations are based on your estimates of a project's size in Source Lines of Code (SLOC). SLOC is defined such that:

Only Source lines that are DELIVERED as part of the product are included -- test drivers and other support software is excluded SOURCE lines are created by the project staff -- code created by applications generators is excluded One SLOC is one logical line of code Declarations are counted as SLOC Comments are not counted as SLOC 21

The original COCOMO 81 model was defined in terms of Delivered Source Instructions, which are very similar to SLOC. The major difference between DSI and SLOC is that a single Source Line of Code may be several physical lines. For example, an "if-then-else" statement would be counted as one SLOC, but might be counted as several DSI. The Scale Drivers In the COCOMO II model, some of the most important factors contributing to a project's duration and cost are the Scale Drivers. You set each Scale Driver to describe your project; these Scale Drivers determine the exponent used in the Effort Equation. The 5 Scale Drivers are:

Precedentedness Development Flexibility Architecture / Risk Resolution Team Cohesion Process Maturity

Cost Drivers COCOMO II has 17 cost drivers you assess your project, development environment, and team to set each cost driver. The cost drivers are multiplicative factors that determine the effort required to complete your software project. For example, if your project will develop software that controls an airplane's flight, you would set the Required Software Reliability (RELY) cost driver to Very High. That rating corresponds to an effort multiplier of 1.26, meaning that your project will require 26% more effort than a typical software project. COCOMO II defines each of the cost drivers, and the Effort Multiplier associated with each rating. Check the Costar help for details about the definitions and how to set the cost drivers. COCOMO II Effort Equation The COCOMO II model makes its estimates of required effort (measured in Person-Months PM) based primarily on your estimate of the software project's size (as measured in thousands of SLOC, KSLOC)): Effort = 2.94 * EAF * (KSLOC)E Where EAF Is the Effort Adjustment Factor derived from the Cost Drivers E Is an exponent derived from the five Scale Drivers As an example, a project with all Nominal Cost Drivers and Scale Drivers would have an EAF of 1.00 and exponent, E, of 1.0997. Assuming that the project is projected to consist of 8,000 source lines of code, COCOMO II estimates that 28.9 Person-Months of effort is required to complete it: Effort = 2.94 * (1.0) * (8)1.0997 = 28.9 Person-Months Effort Adjustment Factor 22

The Effort Adjustment Factor in the effort equation is simply the product of the effort multipliers corresponding to each of the cost drivers for your project. For example, if your project is rated Very High for Complexity (effort multiplier of 1.34), and Low for Language & Tools Experience (effort multiplier of 1.09), and all of the other cost drivers are rated to be Nominal (effort multiplier of 1.00), the EAF is the product of 1.34 and 1.09. Effort Adjustment Factor = EAF = 1.34 * 1.09 = 1.46 Effort = 2.94 * (1.46) * (8)1.0997 = 42.3 Person-Months COCOMO II Schedule Equation The COCOMO II schedule equation predicts the number of months required to complete your software project. The duration of a project is based on the effort predicted by the effort equation: Duration = 3.67 * (Effort)SE Where Effort Is the effort from the COCOMO II effort equation SE Is the schedule equation exponent derived from the five Scale Drivers Continuing the example, and substituting the exponent of 0.3179 that is calculated from the scale drivers, yields an estimate of just over a year, and an average staffing of between 3 and 4 people: Duration = 3.67 * (42.3)0.3179 = 12.1 months Average staffing = (42.3 Person-Months) / (12.1 Months) = 3.5 people The SCED Cost Driver The COCOMO cost driver for Required Development Schedule (SCED) is unique, and requires a special explanation. The SCED cost driver is used to account for the observation that a project developed on an accelerated schedule will require more effort than a project developed on its optimum schedule. A SCED rating of Very Low corresponds to an Effort Multiplier of 1.43 (in the COCOMO II.2000 model) and means that you intend to finish your project in 75% of the optimum schedule (as determined by a previous COCOMO estimate). Continuing the example used earlier, but assuming that SCED has a rating of Very Low, COCOMO produces these estimates: Duration = 75% * 12.1 Months = 9.1 Months Effort Adjustment Factor = EAF = 1.34 * 1.09 * 1.43 = 2.09 Effort = 2.94 * (2.09) * (8)1.0997 = 60.4 Person-Months Average staffing = (60.4 Person-Months) / (9.1 Months) = 6.7 people Notice that the calculation of duration isn't based directly on the effort (number of Person-Months) instead it's based on the schedule that would have been required for the project assuming it had 23

been developed on the nominal schedule. Remember that the SCED cost driver means "accelerated from the nominal schedule". The Costar command Constraints | Constrain Project displays a dialog box that lets you trade off duration vs. effort (SCED is set for you automatically). You can use the dialog box to constrain your project to have a fixed duration, or a fixed cost.

(30) Firmware
Firmware is a software program or set of instructions programmed on a hardware device. It provides the necessary instructions for how the device communicates with the other computer hardware. But how can software be programmed onto hardware? Good question. Firmware is typically stored in the flash ROM of a hardware device. While ROM is "read-only memory," flash ROM can be erased and rewritten because it is actually a type of flash memory. Firmware can be thought of as "semi-permanent" since it remains the same unless it is updated by a firmware updater. You may need to update the firmware of certain devices, such as hard drives and video cards in order for them to work with a new operating system. CD and DVD drive manufacturers often make firmware updates available that allow the drives to read faster media. Sometimes manufacturers release firmware updates that simply make their devices work more efficiently

(31) Computer Graphics

A graphic is an image or visual representation of an object. Therefore, computer graphics are simply images displayed on a computer screen. Graphics are often contrasted with text, which is comprised of characters, such as numbers and letters, rather than images. Computer graphics can be either two or three-dimensional. Early computers only supported 2D monochrome graphics, meaning they were black and white (or black and green, depending on the monitor). Eventually, computers began to support color images. While the first machines only supported 16 or 256 colors, most computers can now display graphics in millions of colors. 2D graphics come in two flavors raster and vector. Raster graphics are the most common and are used for digital photos, Web graphics, icons, and other types of images. They are composed of a simple grid of pixels, which can each be a different color. Vector graphics, on the other hand are made up of paths, which may be lines, shapes, letters, or other scalable objects. They are often used for creating logos, signs, and other types of drawings. Unlike raster graphics, vector graphics can be scaled to a larger size without losing quality. 3D graphics started to become popular in the 1990s, along with 3D rendering software such as CAD and 3D animation programs. By the year 2000, many video games had begun incorporating 3D graphics, since computers had enough processing power to support them. Now most computers now come with a 3D video card that handles all the 3D processing. This allows even basic home systems to support advanced 3D games and applications. 24

(32) Software Testing

Software testing is any activity aimed at evaluating an attribute or capability of a program or system and determining that it meets its required results. Although crucial to software quality and widely deployed by programmers and testers, software testing still remains an art, due to limited understanding of the principles of software. The difficulty in software testing stems from the complexity of software: we cannot completely test a program with moderate complexity. Testing is more than just debugging. The purpose of testing can be quality assurance, verification and validation, or reliability estimation. Testing can be used as a generic metric as well. Correctness testing and reliability testing are two major areas of testing. Software testing is a trade-off between budget, time and quality. Software Testing Types: Black box testing Internal system design is not considered in this type of testing. Tests are based on requirements and functionality. White box testing This testing is based on knowledge of the internal logic of an applications code. Also known as Glass box Testing. Internal software and code working should be known for this type of testing. Tests are based on coverage of code statements, branches, paths, conditions. Unit testing Testing of individual software components or modules. Typically done by the programmer and not by testers, as it requires detailed knowledge of the internal program design and code. may require developing test driver modules or test harnesses. Incremental integration testing Bottom up approach for testing i.e continuous testing of an application as new functionality is added; Application functionality and modules should be independent enough to test separately. done by programmers or by testers. Integration testing Testing of integrated modules to verify combined functionality after integration. Modules are typically code modules, individual applications, client and server applications on a network, etc. This type of testing is especially relevant to client/server and distributed systems. Functional testing This type of testing ignores the internal parts and focus on the output is as per requirement or not. Black-box type testing geared to functional requirements of an application. System testing Entire system is tested as per the requirements. Black-box type testing that is based on overall requirements specifications, covers all combined parts of a system. End-to-end testing Similar to system testing, involves testing of a complete application environment in a situation that mimics real-world use, such as interacting with a database, using network communications, or interacting with other hardware, applications, or systems if appropriate. Sanity testing - Testing to determine if a new software version is performing well enough to accept it for a major testing effort. If application is crashing for initial use then system is not stable enough for further testing and build or application is assigned to fix.

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Regression testing Testing the application as a whole for the modification in any module or functionality. Difficult to cover all the system in regression testing so typically automation tools are used for these testing types. Acceptance testing -Normally this type of testing is done to verify if system meets the customer specified requirements. User or customer do this testing to determine whether to accept application. Load testing Its a performance testing to check system behavior under load. Testing an application under heavy loads, such as testing of a web site under a range of loads to determine at what point the systems response time degrades or fails. Stress testing System is stressed beyond its specifications to check how and when it fails. Performed under heavy load like putting large number beyond storage capacity, complex database queries, continuous input to system or database load. Performance testing Term often used interchangeably with stress and load testing. To check whether system meets performance requirements. Used different performance and load tools to do this. Usability testing User-friendliness check. Application flow is tested, Can new user understand the application easily, Proper help documented whenever user stuck at any point. Basically system navigation is checked in this testing. Install/uninstall testing - Tested for full, partial, or upgrade install/uninstall processes on different operating systems under different hardware, software environment. Recovery testing Testing how well a system recovers from crashes, hardware failures, or other catastrophic problems. Security testing Can system be penetrated by any hacking way. Testing how well the system protects against unauthorized internal or external access. Checked if system, database is safe from external attacks. Comparison testing Comparison of product strengths and weaknesses with previous versions or other similar products. Alpha testing In house virtual user environment can be created for this type of testing. Testing is done at the end of development. Still minor design changes may be made as a result of such testing. Beta testing Testing typically done by end-users or others. Final testing before releasing application for commercial purpose.

(33) Intranet
Contrary to popular belief, this is not simply a misspelling of "Internet." "Intra" means "internal" or "within," so an Intranet is an internal or private network that can only be accessed within the confines of a company, university, or organization. "Inter" means "between or among," hence the difference between the Internet and an Intranet. 26

Up until the last few years, most corporations used local networks composed of expensive proprietary hardware and software for their internal communications.

(34) Sockets and Socket Programming

A socket is one of the most fundamental technologies of computer networking. Sockets allow applications to communicate using standard mechanisms built into network hardware and operating systems. Although network software may seem to be a relatively new "Web" phenomenon, socket technology actually has been employed for roughly two decades. Software applications that rely on the Internet and other computer networks continue to grow in popularity. Many of today's most popular software packages -- including Web browsers, instant messaging applications and peer to peer file sharing systems -- rely on sockets.

Point-to-Point Communication
In a nutshell, a socket represents a single connection between exactly two pieces of software. More than two pieces of software can communicate in client/server or distributed systems (for example, many Web browsers can simultaneously communicate with a single Web server) but multiple sockets are required to do this. Socket-based software usually runs on two separate computers on the network, but sockets can also be used to communicate locally (interprocess) on a single computer. Sockets are bidirectional, meaning that either side of the connection is capable of both sending and receiving data. Sometimes the one application that initiates communication is termed the client and the other application the server, but this terminology leads to confusion in non-client/server systems and should generally be avoided. Libraries : Programmers access sockets using code libraries packaged with the operating system. Several libraries that implement standard application programming interfaces (APIs) exist. The first mainstream package - the Berkeley Socket Library is still widely in use on UNIX systems. Another very common API is the Windows Sockets (Winsock) library for Microsoft operating systems. Relative to other network programming technologies, socket APIs are quite mature: Winsock has been in use since 1993 and Berkeley sockets since 1982. Interface Types Socket interfaces can be divided into three categories. Perhaps the most commonly-used type, the stream socket, implements "connection-oriented" semantics. Essentially, a "stream" requires that the two communicating parties first establish a socket connection, after which any data passed through that connection will be guaranteed to arrive in the same order in which it was sent. Datagram sockets offer "connection-less" semantics. With datagrams, connections are implicit rather than explicit as with streams. Either party simply sends datagrams as needed and waits for the other to respond; messages can be lost in transmission or received out of order, but it is the application's responsibility and not the socket's to deal with these problems. Implementing datagram sockets can give some applications a performance boost and additional flexibility compared to using stream sockets, justifying their use in some situations. 27

The third type of socket -- the so-called raw socket -- bypasses the library's built-in support for standard protocols like TCP and UDP. Raw sockets are used for custom low-level protocol development. Addresses and Ports Today, sockets are typically used in conjunction with the Internet protocols -- Internet Protocol, Transmission Control Protocol, and User Datagram Protocol (UDP). Libraries implementing sockets for Internet Protocol use TCP for streams, UDP for datagrams, and IP itself for raw sockets. To communicate over the Internet, IP socket libraries use the IP address to identify specific computers. Many parts of the Internet work with naming services, so that the users and socket programmers can work with computers by name (e.g., "thiscomputer.compnetworking.about.com") instead of by address (e.g., 208.185.127.40). Stream and datagram sockets also use IP port numbers to distinguish multiple applications from each other. For example, Web browsers on the Internet know to use port 80 as the default for socket communications with Web servers. Socket Programming and You Traditionally, sockets have been of interest mainly to computer programmers. But as new networking applications emerge, end users are becoming increasingly network-savvy. Many Web surfers, for example, now know that some addresses in the browser look like http://206.35.113.28:8080/ where 8080 is the port number being used by that socket.

The socket APIs are relatively small and simple. Many of the functions are similar to those used in file input/output routines such as read(), write(), and close(). The actual function calls to use depend on the programming language and socket library chosen.

(35)BCNF
Boyce-Codd normal form (or BCNF or 3.5NF) is a normal form used in database normalization. It is a slightly stronger version of the third normal form (3NF). A table is in Boyce-Codd normal form if and only if for every one of its non-trivial [dependencies] X Y, X is a superkeythat is, X is either a candidate key or a superset thereof. BCNF was developed in 1974 by Raymond F. Boyce and Edgar F. Codd to address certain types of anomaly not dealt with by 3NF as originally defined. 28

(36) Hover
When you roll the cursor over a link on a Web page, it is often referred to as "hovering" over the link. This is somewhat like when your boss hovers over you at work, but not nearly as uncomfortable. In most cases, the cursor will change from a pointer to a small hand when it is hovering over a link. Web developers can also use cascading style sheets (CSS) to modify the color and style of link when a user hovers over it. For example, the link may become underlined or change color while the cursor is hovering over it. The term hovering implies your computer screen is a three-dimensional space. In this conception, your cursor moves around on a layer above the text and images. When you click the mouse button while the cursor is hovering over a link, it presses down on the link to activate it. Hovering can also be used in a more general sense such as moving the cursor over icons, windows, or other objects on the screen.

( 37) Key logger

A key logger is a program that records the keystrokes on a computer. It does this by monitoring a
user's input and keeping a log of all keys that are pressed. The log may saved to a file or even sent to another machine over a network or the Internet. Key logger programs are often deemed spyware because they usually run without the user knowing it. They can be maliciously installed by hackers to spy on what a user is typing. By examining the key log data, it may be possible to find private information such as a username and password combination. Therefore, key loggers can be a significant security risk if they are unknowingly installed on a computer. The best way to protect yourself from key logger programs is to install anti-virus or security software that warns you when any new programs are being installed. You should also make sure no unauthorized people have access to your computer. This is especially true in work environments. You can also periodically check the current processes running on your computer to make sure no key loggers or other malware programs are active. While it is unlikely that you have a key logger programs installed on your computer, it is definitely worth it to check.

(38) Applet
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This a Java program that can be embedded in a Web page. The difference between a standard Java application and a Java applet is that an applet can't access system resources on the local computer. System files and serial devices (modems, printers, scanners, etc.) cannot be called or used by the applet. This is for security reasons -- nobody wants their system wiped out by a malicious applet on some wacko's Web site. Applets have helped make the Web more dynamic and entertaining and have given a helpful boost to the Java programming language.

(39) TCP/IP Protocol Architecture

TCP/IP protocols map to a four-layer conceptual model known as the DARPA model, named after the U.S. government agency that initially developed TCP/IP. The four layers of the DARPA model are: Application, Transport, Internet, and Network Interface. Each layer in the DARPA model corresponds to one or more layers of the seven-layer Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model

Note

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Network Interface Layer The Network Interface layer (also called the Network Access layer) handles placing TCP/IP packets on the network medium and receiving TCP/IP packets off the network medium. TCP/IP was designed to be independent of the network access method, frame format, and medium. In this way, TCP/IP can be used to connect differing network types. These include local area network (LAN) media such as Ethernet and Token Ring and WAN technologies such as X.25 and Frame Relay. Independence from any specific network media allows TCP/IP to be adapted to new media such as asynchronous transfer mode (ATM). The Network Interface layer encompasses the Data Link and Physical layers of the OSI model. Note that the Internet layer does not take advantage of sequencing and acknowledgment services that might be present in the Network Interface layer. An unreliable Network Interface layer is assumed, and reliable communication through session establishment and the sequencing and acknowledgment of packets is the function of the Transport layer. Internet Layer The Internet layer handles addressing, packaging, and routing functions. The core protocols of the Internet layer are IP, ARP, ICMP, and IGMP.

The Internet Protocol (IP) is a routable protocol that handles IP addressing, routing, and the fragmentation and reassembly of packets.

The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) handles resolution of an Internet layer address to a Network Interface layer address, such as a hardware address.

The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) handles providing diagnostic functions and reporting errors due to the unsuccessful delivery of IP packets.

The Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) handles management of IP multicast group membership.

The Internet layer is analogous to the Network layer of the OSI model. Transport Layer The Transport layer (also known as the Host-to-Host Transport layer) handles providing the Application layer with session and datagram communication services. The core protocols of the Transport layer are Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the User Datagram Protocol (UDP).

TCP provides a one-to-one, connection-oriented, reliable communications service. TCP handles the establishment of a TCP connection, the sequencing and acknowledgment of packets sent, and the recovery of packets lost during transmission.

UDP provides a one-to-one or one-to-many, connectionless, unreliable communications service. UDP is used when the amount of data to be transferred is small (such as data that fits into a single packet), when you do not want the overhead of establishing a TCP connection, or when the applications or upper layer protocols provide reliable delivery. 31

The TCP/IP Transport layer encompasses the responsibilities of the OSI Transport layer. Application Layer The Application layer lets applications access the services of the other layers and defines the protocols that applications use to exchange data. There are many Application layer protocols and new protocols are always being developed. The most widely known Application layer protocols are those used for the exchange of user information:

The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is used to transfer files that make up the Web pages of the World Wide Web.

The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is used for interactive file transfer. The Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is used for the transfer of mail messages and attachments.

Telnet, a terminal emulation protocol, is used for logging on remotely to network hosts.

Additionally, the following Application layer protocols help facilitate the use and management of TCP/IP networks:

The Domain Name System (DNS) is used to resolve a host name to an IP address. The Routing Information Protocol (RIP) is a routing protocol that routers use to exchange routing information on an IP internetwork.

The Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) is used between a network management console and network devices (routers, bridges, intelligent hubs) to collect and exchange network management information.

IP IP is a connectionless, unreliable datagram protocol primarily responsible for addressing and routing packets between hosts. Connectionless means that a session is not established before exchanging data. Unreliable means that delivery is not guaranteed. IP always makes a best effort attempt to deliver a packet. An IP packet might be lost, delivered out of sequence, duplicated, or delayed. IP does not attempt to recover from these types of errors. The acknowledgment of packets delivered and the recovery of lost packets is the responsibility of a higher-layer protocol, such as TCP. IP is defined in RFC 791. An IP packet consists of an IP header and an IP payload. The following table describes the key fields in the IP header.

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(40)

Bandwidth

Bandwidth refers to how much data you can send through a network or modem connection. It is usually measured in bits per second, or "bps." You can think of bandwidth as a highway with cars travelling on it. The highway is the network connection and the cars are the data. The wider the highway, the more cars can travel on it at one time. Therefore more cars can get to their destinations faster. The same principle applies to computer data -- the more bandwidth, the more information that can be transferred within a given amount of time.

(41)Bitmap
Most images you see on your computer are composed of bitmaps. A bitmap is a map of dots, or bits (hence the name), that looks like a picture as long you are sitting a reasonable distance away from the screen. Common bitmap file types include BMP (the raw bitmap format), JPEG, GIF, PICT, PCX, and TIFF. Because bitmap images are made up of a bunch of dots, if you zoom in on a bitmap, it appears to be very blocky. Vector graphics (created in programs such as Freehand, Illustrator, or CorelDraw) can scale larger without getting blow.

(42) System Architectures

A system for the categorization of the system architectures of computers was introduced by Flynn (1972). It is still valid today and cited in every book about parallel computing. It will also be Presented here, expanded by a description of the architectures actually in use today.

2.1Single Instruction - Single Data (SISD)

The most simple type of computer performs one instruction (such as reading from memory, addition of two values) per cycle, with only one set of data or operand (in case of the examples a memory address or a pair of numbers). Such a system is called a scalar computer. As a scalar computer performs only one instruction per cycle, five cycles are needed to complete the task - only one of them dedicated to the actual addition. To add n pairs of numbers, n 5 cycles would be required. The solution to this inefficient use of processing power is pipelining. If there is one functional unit available for each of the five steps required, the addition still requires five cycles. The advantage is that with all functional units being busy at the same time, one result is produced every cycle. For the summation of n pairs of numbers, only (n1)+5 cycles are then required. As the execution of instructions usually takes more than five steps, pipelines are made longer in real processors. Long pipelines are also a prerequisite for achieving high CPU clock speeds. These long pipelines generate a new problem. If there is a branching event (such as due to an 33

if -statements), the pipeline has to be emptied and filled again, and there is a number of cycles equal to the pipeline length until results are again delivered. To circumvent this, the number of branches should be kept small (avoiding and/or smart placement of if -statements). Compilers and CPUs also try to minimize this problem by guessing the outcome (branch prediction). The power of a processor can be increased by combining several pipelines. This is then called a superscalar processor. Fixed-point and logical calculations (performed in the ALU - Arithmetic/ Logical Unit) are usually separated from floating-point math (done by the FPU - Floating Point Unit). The FPU is commonly subdivided in a unit for addition and one for multiplication. These units may be present several times, and some processors have additional functional units for division and the computation of square roots.

2.2Single Instruction - Multiple Data (SIMD)

The scalar computer of the previous section performs one instruction on one data set only. With Numerical computations, we often handle larger data sets on which the same operation (the same Instruction) has to be performed. A computer that performs one instruction on several data sets is called a vector computer. Vector computers work just like the pipelined scalar computer. The difference is That instead of processing single values, vectors of data are processed in one cycle. The number of values in a vector is limited by the CPU design. A vector processor than can simultaneously work with 64 vector elements can also generate 64 results per cycle - quite an improvement over the scalar processor from the previous section, which would require at least 64 cycles for this. To actually use the theoretically possible performance of a vector computer, the calculations themselves need to be vectorised. If a vector processor is fed with single values only, it cannot perform decently. Just like with a scalar computer, the pipelines need to be kept filled. Vector computers used to be very common in the field of high performance computing, as they allowed very high performance even at lower CPU clock speeds. In the last years, they have begun to slowly disappear. Vector processors are very complex and thus expensive, and perform poorly with non-vectorisable problems. Todays scalar processors are much cheaper and achieve higher CPU clock speeds. Vectorisation is not dead, though. With the Pentium III, Intel introduced SSE (Streaming SIMD Extensions), which is a set of vector instructions. In certain applications, such as video encoding, the use of these vector instructions can offer quite impressive performance increases. More vector instructions were added with SSE2 (Pentium 4) and SSE3 (Pentium 4 Prescott).

2.3 Multiple Instruction - Multiple Data (MIMD)

Up to this point, we only considered systems that process just one instruction per cycle. This applies to all computers containing only one processing core (with multi-core CPUs, single-CPU systems can have more than one processing core, making them MIMD systems). Combining several processing cores or processors (no matter if scalar or vector processors) yields a computer that can process several instructions and data sets per cycle. All high performance computers belong to this category, and with the advent of multi-core CPUs, soon all computers will. MIMD systems can be further subdivided, mostly based on their memory architecture.

2.4 Shared Memory

In MIMD systems with shared memory (SM-MIMD), all processors are connected to a common memory (RAM - Random Access Memory). Usually all processors are identical and have equal memory access. This is called symmetric multiprocessing (SMP).

2.5. DISTRIBUTED MEMORY

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In DISTRIBUTED MEMORY, each memory module are desired. This can be achieved by using a crossbar switch. Crossbar switches can be found in high performance computers and some workstations. The problem with crossbar switches is their high complexity when many connections need to be made. This problem can be weakened by using multi-stage crossbar switches, which in turn leads to longer communication times. For this reason, the number of CPUs and memory modules than can be connected by crossbar switches is limited. The big advantage of shared memory systems is that all processors can make use of the whole memory. This makes them easy to program and efficient to use. The limiting factor to their performance is the number of processors and memory modules that can be connected to each other. Due to this, shared memory-systems usually consist of rather few processors.

2.5 DistributedMemory
As could be seen in the previous section, the number of processors and memory modules cannot be increased arbitrarily in the case of a shared memory system. Another way to build a MIMDsystem is distributed memory (DM-MIMD).Each processor has its own local memory. The processors are connected to each other. The demands imposed on the communication network are lower than in the case of a shared memory system, as the communication between processors may be slower than the communication between processor and memory.

2.6 ccNUMA
The two previous sections showed that shared memory systems suffer from a limited system size, while distributed memory systems suffer from the arduous communication between the memories of the processors. A compromise is the ccNUMA (cache coherent non-uniform memory access) architecture. A ccNUMA system basically consists of several SMP systems. These are connected to each other by means of a fast communications network, often crossbar switches. Access to the whole, distributed or non-unified memory is possible via a common cache. A ccNUMA system is as easy to use as a true shared memory system, at the same time it is much easier to expand. To achieve optimal performance, it has to be made sure that local memory is used, and not the memory of the other modules, which is only accessible via the slow communications network. The modular structure is another big advantage of this architecture. Most ccNUMA system consist of modules that can be plugged together to get systems of various sizes

2.7 Multiple Instruction - Single Data (MISD)

The attentive reader may have noticed that one system architecture is missing: Multiple Instruction - Single Data (MISD). Such a computer is neither theoretically nor practically possible in a sensible way. Openshaw et al. (1999) write: We found it hard to figure out why you would want to do this (the simultaneous manipulation of one data set with several operations) unless you are a computer scientist interested in weird computing! It is a highly specialised and seemingly a very restrictive form of parallelism that is often impractical, not to mention useless, as the basis for a general-purpose machine.

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(43) Dangling Pointers

Dangling pointers and Wild pointers arise when a pointer is used prior to initialization to some known state, which is possible in some programming languages. They show the same erratic behaviour as dangling pointers, though they are less likely to stay undetected. and wild pointers in computer programming are pointers that do not point to a valid object of the appropriate type. Dangling pointers arise when an object is deleted or deallocated, without modifying the value of the pointer, so that the pointer still points to the memory location of the deallocated memory. As the system may reallocate the previously freed memory to another process, if the original program then dereferences the (now) dangling pointer, unpredictable behavior may result, as the memory may now contain completely different data. This is especially the case if the program writes data to memory pointed by a dangling pointer, a silent corruption of unrelated data may result, leading to subtle bugs that can be extremely difficult to find, or cause segmentation faults (*NIX) or general protection faults (Windows). If the overwritten data is bookkeeping data used by the system's memory allocator, the corruption can cause system instabilities.

(44) Thrashing
Most programs reach a steady state in their demand for memory locality both in terms of instructions fetched and data being accessed. This steady state is usually much less than the total memory required by the program. This steady state is sometimes referred to as the working set: the set of memory pages that are most frequently accessed. Virtual memory systems work most efficiently when the ratio of the working set to the total number of pages that can be stored in RAM is low enough that the time spent resolving page faults is not a dominant factor in the workload's performance. A program that works with huge data structures will sometimes require a working set that is too large to be efficiently managed by the page system resulting in constant page faults that drastically slow down the system. This condition is referred to as thrashing: pages are swapped out and then accessed causing frequent faults. An interesting characteristic of thrashing is that as the working set grows, there is very little increase in the number of faults until the critical point (when faults go up dramatically and majority of system's processing power is spent on handling them).

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(45)Database replication
Database replication can be used on many database management systems, usually with a master/slave relationship between the original and the copies. The master logs the updates, which then ripple through to the slaves. The slave outputs a message stating that it has received the update successfully, thus allowing the sending (and potentially re-sending until successfully applied) of subsequent updates. Multi-master replication, where updates can be submitted to any database node, and then ripple through to other servers, is often desired, but introduces substantially increased costs and complexity which may make it impractical in some situations. The most common challenge that exists in multimaster replication is transactional conflict prevention or resolution. Most synchronous or eager replication solutions do conflict prevention, while asynchronous solutions have to do conflict resolution. For instance, if a record is changed on two nodes simultaneously, an eager replication system would detect the conflict before confirming the commit and abort one of the transactions. A lazy replication system would allow both transactions to commit and run a conflict resolution during resynchronization. The resolution of such a conflict may be based on a timestamp of the transaction, on the hierarchy of the origin nodes or on much more complex logic, which decides consistently on all nodes. Database replication becomes difficult when it scales up. Usually, the scale up goes with two dimensions, horizontal and vertical: horizontal scale up has more data replicas, vertical scale up has data replicas located further away in distance. Problems raised by horizontal scale up can be alleviated by a multi-layer multi-view access protocol. Vertical scale up is running into less trouble since internet reliability and performance are improving.

(46)DEADLOCK IN OS
In computer science, Coffman deadlock refers to a specific condition when two or more processes are each waiting for each other to release a resource, or more than two processes are waiting for resources in a circular chain (see Necessary conditions). Deadlock is a common problem in multiprocessing where many processes share a specific type of mutually exclusive resource known as a software lock or soft lock. Computers intended for the time-sharing and/or real-time markets are often equipped with a hardware lock (or hard lock) which guarantees exclusive access to processes, forcing serialized access. Deadlocks are particularly troubling because there is no general solution to avoid (soft) deadlocks. This situation may be likened to two people who are drawing diagrams, with only one pencil and one ruler between them. If one person takes the pencil and the other takes the ruler, a deadlock occurs when the person with the pencil needs the ruler and the person with the ruler needs the pencil to finish his work with the ruler. Neither request can be satisfied, so a deadlock occurs. The telecommunications description of deadlock is weaker than Coffman deadlock because processes can wait for messages instead of resources. Deadlock can be the result of corrupted messages or signals rather than merely waiting for resources. For example, a dataflow element that 37

has been directed to receive input on the wrong link will never proceed even though that link is not involved in a Coffman cycle.

(47)Remote Access Technologies Components

Dial-up Remote Access, Telnet, and Terminal Services are included in Windows Server 2003 as remote access technologies. Dial-up Remote Access Dial-up Remote Access is a remote access technology that is available as part of the Routing and Remote Access services included in Microsoft Windows Server 2003. A dial-up remote access client uses the telecommunications infrastructure to create a temporary physical circuit or a virtual circuit to a port on a remote access server. If the remote access server accepts the dial-up connection from the client, the server forwards packets between the client and the network to which the remote access server is attached. Telnet Windows Server 2003 and Windows XP Professional include Telnet Client and Telnet Server components, which allow users to make remote connections based on the Telnet protocol. By using Telnet Client and Telnet Server, you can create a remote command console session on a host. Using a local command prompt, you can run command-line programs, shell commands, and scripts in a remote command console session just as though you were locally logged on to the host. Terminal Services The Terminal Services component of the Windows Server 2003 operating system delivers the Windows Server 2003 desktop and the latest Windows-based applications to a variety of desktops, including those that normally cannot run Windows. Terminal Services provides the ability to host multiple, simultaneous client sessions on Windows Server 2003. Through terminal emulation, Terminal Services allows the same set of applications to run on diverse types of desktop hardware. For organizations wanting to more flexibly deploy applications and control desktop management costs, a Terminal Services architecture offers an important enhancement to the traditional two- or three-tier client-server architecture based on servers and full-scale personal computers. Terminal Services also provides Remote Desktop for Administration, which can greatly reduce the overhead associated with remote administration. Enabled by Terminal Services technology, Remote Desktop for Administration is specifically designed for server management. Therefore, it does not install the application-sharing and multi-user capabilities or the process scheduling of the full Terminal Server component (formerly called Terminal Services in Application Server mode).

(48)Encryption
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Encryption is the coding or scrambling of information so that it can only be decoded and read by someone who has the correct decoding key. Encryption is used in secure Web sites as well as other mediums of data transfer. If a third party were to intercept the information you sent via an encrypted connection, they would not be able to read it. So if you are sending a message over the office network to your co-worker about how much you hate your job, your boss, and the whole dang company, it would be a good idea to make sure that you send it over an encrypted line.

(49) JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group)

The term actually stands for "Joint Photographic Experts Group," because that is the name of the committee that developed the format. But you don't have to remember that because even computer nerds will think you're weird if you mention what JPEG stands for. Instead, remember that a JPEG is a compressed image file format. JPEG images are not limited to a certain amount of color, like GIF images are. Therefore, the JPEG format is best for compressing photographic images. So if you see a large, colorful image on the Web, it is most likely a JPEG file. While JPEG images can contain colorful, high-resolution image data, it is a lossy format, which means some quality is lost when the image is compressed. If the image is compressed too much, the graphics become noticeably "blocky" and some of the detail is lost. Like GIFs, JPEGs are cross platform, meaning the same file will look the same on both a Mac and PC

(50)Stacks and Queues

Two of the more common data objects found in computer algorithms are stacks and queues. Both of these objects are special cases of the more general data object, an ordered list. A stack is an ordered list in which all insertions and deletions are made at one end, called the top. A queue is an ordered list in which all insertions take place at one end, the rear, while all deletions take place at the other end, the front. Given a stack S=(a[1],a[2],.......a[n]) then we say that a1 is the bottommost element and element a[i]) is on top of element a[i-1], 1<i<=n. When viewed as a queue with a[n] as the rear element one says that a[i+1] is behind a[i], 1<i<=n.

The restrictions on a stack imply that if the elements A,B,C,D,E are added to the stack, n that order, then th efirst element to be removed/deleted must be E. Equivalently we say that the last element to be inserted into the stack will be the first to be removed. For this reason stacks are sometimes 39

referred to as Last In First Out (LIFO) lists. The restrictions on queue imply that the first element which is inserted into the queue will be the first one to be removed. Thus A is the first letter to be removed, and queues are known as First In First Out (FIFO) lists. Note that the data object queue as defined here need not necessarily correspond to the mathemathical concept of queue in which the insert/delete rules may be different.

(51) Data dictionary

A data dictionary is a collection of descriptions of the data objects or items in a data model for the benefit of programmers and others who need to refer to them. A first step in analyzing a system of objects with which users interact is to identify each object and its relationship to other objects. This process is called data modeling and results in a picture of object relationships. After each data object or item is given a descriptive name, its relationship is described (or it becomes part of some structure that implicitly describes relationship), the type of data (such as text or image or binary value) is described, possible predefined values are listed, and a brief textual description is provided. This collection can be organized for reference into a book called a data dictionary. When developing programs that use the data model, a data dictionary can be consulted to understand where a data item fits in the structure, what values it may contain, and basically what the data item means in real-world terms. For example, a bank or group of banks could model the data objects involved in consumer banking. They could then provide a data dictionary for a bank's programmers. The data dictionary would describe each of the data items in its data model for consumer banking (for example, "Account holder" and ""Available credit").

(52)HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol)

HTTP Stands for "Hyper Text Transfer Protocol." This is the protocol used to transfer data over the World Wide Web. That's why all Web site addresses begin with "http://". Whenever you type a URL into your browser and hit Enter, your computer sends an HTTP request to the appropriate Web server. The Web server, which is designed to handle HTTP requests, then sends to you the requested HTML page.

(53)Data flow diagram

Data flow diagrams can be used to provide a clear representation of any business function. The technique starts with an overall picture of the business and continues by analysing each of the functional areas of interest. This analysis can be carried out to precisely the level of detail required. The technique exploits a method called top-down expansion to conduct the analysis in a targeted way.

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The result is a series of diagrams that represent the business activities in a way that is clear and easy to communicate. A business model comprises one or more data flow diagrams (also known as business process diagrams). Initially a context diagram is drawn, which is a simple representation of the entire system under investigation. This is followed by a level 1 diagram; which provides an overview of the major functional areas of the business. Don't worry about the symbols at this stage, these are explained shortly. Using the context diagram together with additional information from the area of interest, the level 1 diagram can then be drawn. The level 1 diagram identifies the major business processes at a high level and any of these processes can then be analyzed further - giving rise to a corresponding level 2 business process diagram. This process of more detailed analysis can then continue through level 3, 4 and so on. However, most investigations will stop at level 2 and it is very unusual to go beyond a level 3 diagram. Identifying the existing business processes, using a technique like data flow diagrams, is an essential precursor to business process re-engineering, migration to new technology, or refinement of an existing business process. However, the level of detail required will depend on the type of change being considered. There are only five symbols that are used in the drawing of business process diagrams (data flow diagrams). These are now explained, together with the rules that apply to them.

This diagram represents a banking process, which maintains customer accounts. In this example, customers can withdraw or deposit cash, request information about their account or update their account details. The five different symbols used in this example represent the full set of symbols required to draw any business process diagram. External Entity

An external entity is a source or destination of a data flow which is outside the area of study. Only 41

those entities which originate or receive data are represented on a business process diagram. The symbol used is an oval containing a meaningful and unique identifier. Process

A process shows a transformation or manipulation of data flows within the system. The symbol used is a rectangular box which contains 3 descriptive elements: Firstly an identification number appears in the upper left hand corner. This is allocated arbitrarily at the top level and serves as a unique reference. Secondly, a location appears to the right of the identifier and describes where in the system the process takes place. This may, for example, be a department or a piece of hardware. Finally, a descriptive title is placed in the centre of the box. This should be a simple imperative sentence with a specific verb, for example 'maintain customer records' or 'find driver'. Data Flow

A data flow shows the flow of information from its source to its destination. A data flow is represented by a line, with arrowheads showing the direction of flow. Information always flows to or from a process and may be written, verbal or electronic. Each data flow may be referenced by the processes or data stores at its head and tail, or by a description of its contents. Data Store

A data store is a holding place for information within the system: It is represented by an open ended narrow rectangle. Data stores may be long-term files such as sales ledgers, or may be short-term accumulations: for example batches of documents that are waiting to be processed. Each data store should be given a reference followed by an arbitrary number. Resource Flow

A resource flow shows the flow of any physical material from its source to its destination. For this reason they are sometimes referred to as physical flows. The physical material in question should be given a meaningful name. Resource flows are usually restricted to early, high-level diagrams and a 42

(54)Concurrency control in databases

Concurrency control in Database management systems (DBMS; Bernstein et al. 1987, Weikum and Vossen 2001), other transactional objects, and related distributed applications (e.g., Grid computing and Cloud computing) ensures that database transactions are performed concurrently without violating the data integrity of the respective databases. Thus concurrency control is an essential element for correctness in any system where two database transactions or more can access the same data concurrently, e.g., virtually in any general-purpose database system. A well established concurrency control theory exists for database systems: serializability theory, which allows to effectively design and analyze concurrency control methods and mechanisms. To ensure correctness, A DBMS usually guarantees that only serializable transaction schedules are generated, unless serializability is intentionally relaxed. For maintaining correctness in cases of failed (aborted) transactions (which can always happen for many reasons) schedules also need to have the recoverability property. A DBMS also guarantees that no effect of committed transactions is lost, and no effect of aborted (rolled back) transactions remains in the related database. Overall transaction characterization is usually summarized by the following ACID rules:

(55)Transaction ACID rules

Every database transaction must obey the following rules:

Atomicity - Either the effects of all or none of its operations remain when a transaction is completed (committed or aborted respectively). In other words, to the outside world a committed transaction appears to be indivisible, atomic. A transaction is an indivisible unit of work that is either performed in its entirety or not performed at all ("all or nothing" semantics). Consistency - Every transaction must leave the database in a consistent state, i.e., maintain the predetermined integrity rules of the database (constraints upon and among the database's objects). A transaction must transform a database from one consistent state to another consistent state. Isolation - Transactions cannot interfere with each other. Moreover, an incomplete transaction is not visible to another transaction. Providing isolation is the main goal of concurrency control. Durability - Effects of successful (committed) transactions must persist through crashes.

(56)Entity-Relationship Diagram
Definition: An entity-relationship (ER) diagram is a specialized graphic that illustrates the relationships between entities in a database. ER diagrams often use symbols to represent three different types of information. Boxes are commonly used to represent entities. Diamonds are normally used to represent relationships and ovals are used to represent attributes. Also Known As: ER Diagram, E-R Diagram, entity-relationship model

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Examples: Consider the example of a database that contains information on the residents of a city. The ER digram shown in the image above contains two entities -- people and cities. There is a single "Lives In" relationship. In our example, due to space constraints, there is only one attribute associated with each entity. People have names and cities have populations. In a real-world example, each one of these would likely have many different attributes.

(57)DMA (Direct Memory Access)

DMA Stands for "Direct Memory Access." DMA is a method of transferring data from the computer's RAM to another part of the computer without processing it using the CPU. While most data that is input or output from your computer is processed by the CPU, some data does not require processing, or can be processed by another device. In these situations, DMA can save processing time and is a more efficient way to move data from the computer's memory to other devices. For example, a sound card may need to access data stored in the computer's RAM, but since it can process the data itself, it may use DMA to bypass the CPU. Video cards that support DMA can also access the system memory and process graphics without needing the CPU. Ultra DMA hard drives use DMA to transfer data faster than previous hard drives that required the data to first be run through the CPU. In order for devices to use direct memory access, they must be assigned to a DMA channel. Each type of port on a computer has a set of DMA channels that can be assigned to each connected device. For example, a PCI controller and a hard drive controller each have their own set of DMA channels.

(58)Normalization
Normalization is the process of efficiently organizing data in a database. There are two goals of the normalization process: eliminating redundant data (for example, storing the same data in more than one table) and ensuring data dependencies make sense (only storing related data in a table). Both of these are worthy goals as they reduce the amount of space a database consumes and ensure that data is logically stored.

The Normal Forms

The database community has developed a series of guidelines for ensuring that databases are normalized. These are referred to as normal forms and are numbered from one (the lowest form of normalization, referred to as first normal form or 1NF) through five (fifth normal form or 5NF). In 44

practical applications, you'll often see 1NF, 2NF, and 3NF along with the occasional 4NF. Fifth normal form is very rarely seen and won't be discussed in this article. Before we begin our discussion of the normal forms, it's important to point out that they are guidelines and guidelines only. Occasionally, it becomes necessary to stray from them to meet practical business requirements. However, when variations take place, it's extremely important to evaluate any possible ramifications they could have on your system and account for possible inconsistencies. That said, let's explore the normal forms.

First Normal Form (1NF)

First normal form (1NF) sets the very basic rules for an organized database:

Eliminate duplicative columns from the same table. Create separate tables for each group of related data and identify each row with a unique column or set of columns (the primary key).

For more details, read Putting your Database in First Normal Form

Second Normal Form (2NF)

Second normal form (2NF) further addresses the concept of removing duplicative data:

Meet all the requirements of the first normal form. Remove subsets of data that apply to multiple rows of a table and place them in separate tables. Create relationships between these new tables and their predecessors through the use of foreign keys.

For more details, read Putting your Database in Second Normal Form

Third Normal Form (3NF)

Third normal form (3NF) goes one large step further:

Meet all the requirements of the second normal form. Remove columns that are not dependent upon the primary key.

For more details, read Putting your Database in Third Normal Form

Boyce-Codd Normal Form (BCNF or 3.5NF)

The Boyce-Codd Normal Form, also referred to as the "third and half (3.5) normal form", adds one more requirement:

Meet all the requirements of the third normal form. Every determinant must be a candidate key.

For more details, read Putting your Database in Boyce Codd Normal Form 45

Fourth Normal Form (4NF)

Finally, fourth normal form (4NF) has one additional requirement:

Meet all the requirements of the third normal form. A relation is in 4NF if it has no multi-valued dependencies.

Remember, these normalization guidelines are cumulative. For a database to be in 2NF, it must first fulfill all the criteria of a 1NF database.

(59)ADSL (Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line)

ADSL Stands for "Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line". ADSL is a type of DSL, which is a method of transferring data over copper telephone lines. While symmetrical DSL (SDSL) uploads and downloads data at the same speed, ADSL has different maximum data transfer rates for uploading and downloading data. For example, an ADSL connection may allow download rates of 1.5Mbps, while upload speeds may only reach 256Kbps. Since most users download much more data than they upload, this difference usually does not make a noticeable impact on Internet access speeds. However, for Web servers or other computers that send a lot of data upstream, ADSL would be an inefficient choice.

(60) ATA (Advanced Technology Attachment)

ATA Stands for "Advanced Technology Attachment." It is a type of disk drive that integrates the drive controller directly on the drive itself. Computers can use ATA hard drives without a specific controller to support the drive. The motherboard must still support an ATA connection, but a separate card (such as a SCSI card for a SCSI hard drive) is not needed. Some different types of ATA standards include ATA-1, ATA-2 (a.k.a. Fast ATA), ATA-3, Ultra ATA (33 MBps maximum transfer rate), ATA/66 (66 MBps), and ATA/100 (100 MBps). The term IDE, or "Integrated Drive Electronics," is also used to refer to ATA drives. Sometimes (to add extra confusion to people buying hard drives), ATA drives are labeled as "IDE/ATA." Technically, ATA uses IDE technology, but the important thing to know is that they refer to the same thing.

(61)Cluster
Cluster is a group of sectors on a disk. While a sector is the smallest unit that can be accessed on your hard disk, a cluster is a slightly larger unit that is used to organize and identify files on the disk. Most files take up several clusters of disk space. Each cluster has a unique ID, which enables the hard drive to locate all the clusters on the disk. After 46

reading and writing many files to a disk, some clusters may remain labeled as being used even though they do not contain any data. These are called "lost clusters" and can be fixed using Scandisk on Windows or the Disk Utility program on the Mac. This is why running a disk utility or defragmentation program may free up space on your hard disk.

(62)Relational Keys
The word "key" is much used and abused in the context of relational database design. In prerelational databases (hierarchtical, networked) and file systems (ISAM, VSAM, et al) "key" often referred to the specific structure and components of a linked list, chain of pointers, or other physical locator outside of the data. It is thus natural, but unfortunate, that today people often associate "key" with a RDBMS "index". We will explain what a key is and how it differs from an index. There are only three types of relational keys Candidate Key As stated above, a candidate key is any set of one or more columns whose combined values are unique among all occurrences (i.e., tuples or rows). Since a null value is not guaranteed to be unique, no component of a candidate key is allowed to be null. There can be any number of candidate keys in a table (as demonstrated elsewhere). Relational pundits are not in agreement whether zero candidate keys is acceptable, since that would contradict the (debatable) requirement that there must be a primary key. Primary Key The primary key of any table is any candidate key of that table which the database designer arbitrarily designates as "primary". The primary key may be selected for convenience, comprehension, performance, or any other reasons. It is entirely proper (albeit often inconvenient) to change the selection of primary key to another candidate key. Alternate Key The alternate keys of any table are simply those candidate keys which are not currently selected as the primary key. According to {Date95} "... exactly one of those candidate keys [is] chosen as the primary key [and] the remainder, if any, are then called alternate keys." An alternate key is a function of all candidate keys minus the primary key.

(63)Domain
Windows Network Domains. This networking option is built into Windows and allows users to create or join a domain. The domain may or may not be password-protected. Once connected to the domain, a user may view other computers within the domain and can browse the shared files and folders available on the connected systems. Windows XP users can browse Windows Network Domains by selecting the "My Network Places" option on the left side of an open window. You can create a new domain by using the Network Setup Wizard. Mac users using Mac OS X 10.2 or later can also connect to a Windows Network by clicking the "Network" icon on the left side of an open window. This will allow you to browse local Macintosh and Windows networks using the SMB protocol. 47

(64)TOOLS AND TECHNOLOGIES FOR AI

AI has developed a large number of tools to solve the most difficult problems in computer science. A few of the most general of these methods are discussed below: Basic Tools Used In Artificial Intelligence:

Search & Optimization

Many problems in AI can be solved in theory by intelligently searching through many possible solutions: Reasoning can be reduced to performing a search. For example, logical proof can be viewed as searching for a path that leads from premises to conclusions, where each step is the application of an inference rule.

Probabilistic Methods For Uncertain Reasoning

Many problems in AI (in reasoning, planning, learning, perception and robotics) require the agent to operate with incomplete or uncertain information. AI researchers have devised a number of powerful tools to solve these problems using methods from probability theory and economics.

Classifiers And Statistical Learning Methods

Controllers do however also classify conditions before inferring actions, and therefore classification forms a central part of many AI systems. Classifiers are functions that use pattern matching to determine a closest match. They can be tuned according to examples, making them very attractive for use in AI. These examples are known as observations or patterns. In supervised learning, each pattern belongs to a certain predefined class.

Neural Networks
Hierarchical temporal memory is an approach that models some of the structural and algorithmic properties of the neo-cortex. The main categories of networks are acyclic or feed forward neural networks (where the signal passes in only one direction) and recurrent neural networks (which allow feedback). Among the most popular feed forward networks are perceptions, multi-layer perceptions and radial basis networks.

Control Theory
Control theory, the grandchild of cybernetics, has many important applications, especially in robotics.

Blackboard Systems
The basic idea of a blackboard system is illustrated in Fig.

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Fig. Blackboard model

The System Consists Of:

Knowledge Sources
-- A set of independent modules containing domain-specific knowledge.

Blackboard
-- The shared data structure through which knowledge sources communicate.

Control System
-- Determined the order in which knowledge sources will operate on entries in the blackboard. Our email based homework help makes use of the modern technique to teach students so that they

(65) Operator overloading

In computer programming, operator overloading (less commonly known as operator ad-hoc polymorphism) is a specific case of polymorphism in which some or all of operators like +, =, or == have different implementations depending on the types of their arguments. Sometimes the over loadings are defined by the language; sometimes the programmer can implement support for new types. 49

Operator overloading is claimed to be useful because it allows the developer to program using notation "closer to the target domain" and allows user-defined types a similar level of syntactic support as types built into the language.

(66)GAME PLAYING
Ever since the beginning of AI, there has been a great fascination in pitting the human expert against the computer. Game playing provided a high-visibility platform for this contest. It is important to note, however, that the performance of the human expert and the AI game-playing program reflect qualitatively different processes.

Game Playing

Computers, Games, and The Real World (if link fails, click here for a local copy) - This Scientific American article by Matthew Ginsberg discusses the current work being done in game-playing AI, such as the now-famous Deep Blue. While it may seem somewhat frivolous to spend all this effort on games, one should remember that games present a controlled world in which a good player must learn to problem solve rapidly, and intelligently. Machine learning in Game playing - This resource page, assembled by Jay Scott, contains a large amount of links to issues related to machine game playing. Report on games, computers and artificial intelligence - An updated, and easy to understand summary of the status of game playing and AI.

More specifically, as mentioned earlier, the performance of the human expert utilizes a vast amount of domain specific knowledge and procedures. Such knowledge allows the human expert to generate a few promising moves for each game situation (irrelevant moves are never considered). In contrast, when selecting the best move, the game playing program exploits brute-force computational speed to explore as many alternative moves and consequences as possible. As the computational speed of modern computers increases, the contest of knowledge vs. speed is tilting more and more in the computers favor, accounting for recent triumphs like Deep Blue's win over Gary Kasparov.

(67)Graphics
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A graphic is an image or visual representation of an object. Therefore, computer graphics are simply images displayed on a computer screen. Graphics are often contrasted with text, which is comprised of characters, such as numbers and letters, rather than images. Computer graphics can be either two or three-dimensional. Early computers only supported 2D monochrome graphics, meaning they were black and white (or black and green, depending on the monitor). Eventually, computers began to support color images. While the first machines only supported 16 or 256 colors, most computers can now display graphics in millions of colors. 2D graphics come in two flavors raster and vector. Raster graphics are the most common and are used for digital photos, Web graphics, icons, and other types of images. They are composed of a simple grid of pixels, which can each be a different color. Vector graphics, on the other hand are made up of paths, which may be lines, shapes, letters, or other scalable objects. They are often used for creating logos, signs, and other types of drawings. Unlike raster graphics, vector graphics can be scaled to a larger size without losing quality. 3D graphics started to become popular in the 1990s, along with 3D rendering software such as CAD and 3D animation programs. By the year 2000, many video games had begun incorporating 3D graphics, since computers had enough processing power to support them. Now most computers now come with a 3D video card that handles all the 3D processing. This allows even basic home systems to support advanced 3D games and applications.

(68)Extranet
If you know the difference between the Internet and an intranet, you have an above average understanding of computer terminology. If you know what an extranet is, you may be in the top echelon. An extranet actually combines both the Internet and an intranet. It extends an intranet, or internal network, to other users over the Internet. Most extranets can be accessed via a Web interface using a Web browser. Since secure or confidential information is often accessible within an intranet, extranets typically require authentication for users to access them. Extranets are often used by companies that need to share selective information with other businesses or individuals. For example, a supplier may use an extranet to provide inventory data to certain clients, while not making the information available to the general public. The extranet may also include a secure means of communication for the company and its clients, such as a support ticket system or Web-based forum.

(69) EXPERT SYSTEM

An expert system is kind of a computer program which adopts a knowledge base of person to remove complications or to illustrate ambiguities where generally more than one human professional would want to be examined. Expert systems are much conformed in the given type of complication, and are a conventional appliance and/or subset of the artificial intelligence (AI). Sample types of procedures 51

may be adopted to counterfeit the consummation of the professionals; however, similar to many or every are: 1) The formation of a knowledge base that adopts little knowledge representation architecture to grab the knowledge of the Subject Matter Expert (SME). 2) A operation of aggregate that information via SME and condensing it subsequently to the architecture, that is known as knowledge engineering. 3) The time instant when the system is get developed, it will be allocated in the universe complicated circumstance like the human Subject Matter Expert (SME), customarily as a help to human peasant or like a addendum to few useful data system. Expert systems can have or it may be possible that it do not have knowledge gaining ingredients.

Methods Of Operation:
Certainty Factors
A way of completion of procedure of expert systems is via a quasi-probabilistic nearly with certainty factor.

Chaining
Two ways of cogitating if using inference rules are well developed forward chaining and backward chaining.

Inference Rules
An inference rule is supposed to be a conditional statement which consists of two clauses one is if and other one is then. This rule is mentioned to be able to find solutions to diagnostic and prescriptive problems.

(70)KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION
Knowledge Representation (KR) research involves analysis of how to accurately and effectively reason and how best to use a set of symbols to represent a set of facts within a knowledge domain. A symbol vocabulary and a system of logic are combined to enable inferences about elements in the KR to create new KR sentences. Logic is used to supply formal semantics of how reasoning functions should be applied to the symbols in the KR system. Logic is also used to define how operators can process and reshape the knowledge. Examples of operators and operations include negation, conjunction, adverbs, adjectives, quantifiers and modal operators. Interpretation theory is this logic. A good KR must be both declarative and procedural knowledge. What is knowledge representation can best be understood in terms of five distinct roles it plays, each crucial to the task at hand: A knowledge representation (KR) is most fundamentally a surrogate, a substitute for the thing itself, used to enable an entity to determine consequences by thinking rather than acting, i.e., by reasoning about the world rather than taking action in it. 52

 It is a set of ontological commitments, i.e., an answer to the question: In what terms should I think about the world? It is a fragmentary theory of intelligent reasoning, expressed in terms of three components: (i) (ii) (iii) the representation's fundamental conception of intelligent reasoning; the set of inferences the representation sanctions; and the set of inferences it recommends.

It is a medium for pragmatically efficient computation, i.e., the computational environment in which thinking is accomplished. One contribution to this pragmatic efficiency is supplied by the guidance a representation provides for organizing information so as to facilitate making the recommended inferences. It is a medium of human expression, i.e., a language in which we say things about the world."

(71)JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group)

The term actually stands for "Joint Photographic Experts Group," because that is the name of the committee that developed the format. But you don't have to remember that because even computer nerds will think you're weird if you mention what JPEG stands for. Instead, remember that a JPEG is a compressed image file format. JPEG images are not limited to a certain amount of color, like GIF images are. Therefore, the JPEG format is best for compressing photographic images. So if you see a large, colorful image on the Web, it is most likely a JPEG file. While JPEG images can contain colorful, high-resolution image data, it is a lossy format, which means some quality is lost when the image is compressed. If the image is compressed too much, the graphics become noticeably "blocky" and some of the detail is lost. Like GIFs, JPEGs are cross platform, meaning the same file will look the same on both a Mac and PC.

(72)Firmware
Firmware is a software program or set of instructions programmed on a hardware device. It provides the necessary instructions for how the device communicates with the other computer hardware. But how can software are programmed onto hardware? Good question. Firmware is typically stored in the flash ROM of a hardware device. While ROM is "read-only memory," flash ROM can be erased and rewritten because it is actually a type of flash memory. Firmware can be thought of as "semi-permanent" since it remains the same unless it is updated by a firmware updater. You may need to update the firmware of certain devices, such as hard drives and video cards in order for them to work with a new operating system. CD and DVD drive manufacturers often make firmware updates available that allow the drives to read faster media. Sometimes manufacturers release firmware updates that simply make their devices work more efficiently

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(73)AI PROBLEMS, PROBLEM SPACE AND SEARCH

The number of rules that are used must be minimized and the set can be produced by expressing each rule in as general a form as possible. The representation of games in this way leads to a state space representation and it is natural for well organized games with some structure. This representation allows for the formal definition of a problem which necessitates the movement from a set of initial positions to one of a set of target positions. It means that the solution involves using known techniques and a systematic search. This is quite a common method in AI.

Searching There Are 2 Basic Ways To Perform A Search:

Blind search -- can only move according to position in search. Heuristic search -- use domain-specific information to decide where to search next.

Blind Search Depth-First Search

1. 2. 3. 4. Set L to be a list of the initial nodes in the problem. If L is empty, fail otherwise pick the first node n from L If n is a goal state, quit and return path from initial node. Otherwise remove n from L and add to the front of L all of n's children. Label each child with its path from initial node. Return to 2.

Breadth-First Search
1. 2. 3. 4. Set L to be a list of the initial nodes in the problem. If L is empty, fail otherwise pick the first node n from L If n is a goal state, quit and return path from initial node. Otherwise remove n from L and add to the end of L all of n's children. Label each child with its path from initial node. Return to 2.

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Heuristic Search Methods Generate And Test Algorithm

1. Generate a possible solution which can either be a point in the problem space or a path from the initial state. 2. Test to see if this possible solution is a real solution by comparing the state reached with the set of goal states. 3. If it is a real solution, return. Otherwise repeat from 1. This method is basically a depth first search as complete solutions must be created before testing. It is often called the British Museum method as it is like looking for an exhibit at random. A heuristic is needed to sharpen up the search

Hill Climbing
Here the generate and test method is augmented by an heuristic function which measures the closeness of the current state to the goal state. 1. Evaluate the initial state if it is goal state quit otherwise current state is initial state. 2. Select a new operator for this state and generate a new state. 3. Evaluate the new state o if it is closer to goal state than current state make it current state o if it is no better ignore 4. If the current state is goal state or no new operators available, quit. Otherwise repeat from 2.

(74)Hover
When you roll the cursor over a link on a Web page, it is often referred to as "hovering" over the link. This is somewhat like when your boss hovers over you at work, but not nearly as uncomfortable. In most cases, the cursor will change from a pointer to a small hand when it is hovering over a link. Web developers can also use cascading style sheets (CSS) to modify the color and style of link when a user hovers over it. For example, the link may become underlined or change color while the cursor is hovering over it. The term hovering implies your computer screen is a three-dimensional space. In this conception, your cursor moves around on a layer above the text and images. When you click the mouse button while the cursor is hovering over a link, it presses down on the link to activate it. Hovering can also be used in a more general sense such as moving the cursor over icons, windows, or other objects on the screen. 55

(75) HEURISTIC SEARCH

A Heuristic Is A Method That

might not always find the best solution But is guaranteed to find a good solution in reasonable time. By sacrificing completeness it increases efficiency. Useful in solving tough problems which o Could not be solved any other way. o Solutions take an infinite time or very long time to compute.

The classic example of heuristic search methods is the travelling salesman problem.

Heuristic Search Methods Generate And Test Algorithm

1. generate a possible solution which can either be a point in the problem space or a path from the initial state. 2. test to see if this possible solution is a real solution by comparing the state reached with the set of goal states. 3. if it is a real solution, return. Otherwise repeat from 1. This method is basically a depth first search as complete solutions must be created before testing. It is often called the British Museum method as it is like looking for an exhibit at random. A heuristic is needed to sharpen up the search. Consider the problem of four 6-sided cubes, and each side of the cube is painted in one of four colours. The four cubes are placed next to one another and the problem lies in arranging them so that the four available colours are displayed whichever way the 4 cubes are viewed. The problem can only be solved if there are at least four sides coloured in each colour and the number of options tested can be reduced using heuristics if the most popular colour is hidden by the adjacent cube. Heuristics: In order to find the most promising nodes a heuristic function is needed called f' where f' is an approximation to f and is made up of two parts g and h' where g is the cost of going from the initial state to the current node; g is considered simply in this context to be the number of arcs traversed each of which is treated as being of unit weight. h' is an estimate of the initial cost of getting from the current node to the goal state. The function f' is the approximate value or estimate of getting from the initial state to the goal state. Both g and h' are positive valued variables. Best First: The Best First algorithm is a simplified form of the A* algorithm. From A* we note that f' = g+h' where g is a measure of the time taken to go from the initial node to the current node and h' is an estimate of the time taken to solution from the current node. Thus f' is an estimate of how long it takes to go from the initial node to the solution. As an aid we take the time to go from one node to the next to be a constant at 1.

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(76)Intranet
Contrary to popular belief, this is not simply a misspelling of "Internet." "Intra" means "internal" or "within," so an Intranet is an internal or private network that can only be accessed within the confines of a company, university, or organization. "Inter" means "between or among," hence the difference between the Internet and an Intranet. Up until the last few years, most corporations used local networks composed of expensive proprietary hardware and software for their internal communications. Now, using simple Internet technology, intranets have made internal communication much easier and less expensive. Intranets use a TCP/IP connection and support Web browsing, just like a typical Internet connection does. The difference is that Web sites served within the intranet can only be accessed by computers connected through the local network. Now that you know the difference between the Internet and an intranet, you can go around telling people on the street what you know and impress them.

(77)Software
Computer instructions or data. Anything that can be stored electronically is software. The storage devices and display devices are hardware. The terms software and hardware are used as both nouns and adjectives. For example, you can say: "The problem lies in the software," meaning that there is a problem with the program or data, not with the computer itself. You can also say: "It's a software problem." The distinction between software and hardware is sometimes confusing because they are so integrally linked. Clearly, when you purchase a program, you are buying software. But to buy the software, you need to buy the disk (hardware) on which the software is recorded.

Types of Software
System software
This is the software which is actually running your computer. This software handles different request for use the hardware, many housekeeping work, storage of data etc. A good example of such system software is the Windows program which is running your computer. Linux and UNIX are the other common system software available for running computers.

Application software
These types of software are developed to handle a specific task and are developed to cater for the specific requirement of the user. This could be the Payroll system or the Accounting system of your company. The system is developed keeping all the requirements of the user in mind. But, for small companies it would not be a good idea to develop software applications specifically for your use. To keep the system running properly, you should have skilled IT expertise available to you and you might have to spend lots time and money to run the system properly.

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Off-the-shelf software
When software is developed catering for your specific requirement, you would be able to execute all the functions you desire. But, development of software would be quite costly and may not be suitable for small enterprises for their implementation. Off-the-shelf software generally provides some standard functions and they do not cost much. But, you may find that the software does not provide what you require. Therefore, you might have to change your business practice to be in line with this shrink-wrapped software. Because, the software is sold in large quantities, you would get proper support from the software vendor. Also, proper training facilities would be available so that you could extract the maximum benefit of using the software package. These standard off-the-shelf software packages are the best solution for small companies. The packages could be word processing program, office applications etc. Sometimes, these packages could be modified if it does not provide all the functionality you desire.

(78)INHERITANCE
Inheritance is the process by which new classes called derived classes are created from existing classes called base classes. The derived classes have all the features of the base class and the programmer can choose to add new features specific to the newly created derived class. For example, a programmer can create a base class named fruit and define derived classes as mango, orange, banana, etc. Each of these derived classes, (mango, orange, banana, etc.) has all the features of the base class (fruit) with additional attributes or features specific to these newly created derived classes. Mango would have its own defined features, orange would have its own defined features, banana would have its own defined features, etc. Inheritance helps the code to be reused in many situations. The base class is defined and once it is compiled, it need not be reworked. Using the concept of inheritance, theprogrammer can create as many derived classes from the base class as needed while adding specific features to each derived class as needed.

(79) Abstraction
Abstraction is one of the most powerful and vital features provided by object-oriented C++ programming language. Modularity is very important in any programming language, it provides flexibility to users for using the programming language. This aspect is well achieved with high performance by the concept of abstraction in C++. In object-oriented programming language the programmer can abstract both data and code when needed. The concept of abstraction relates to the idea of hiding data that are not needed for presentation. The main idea behind data abstraction is to give a clear separation between properties of data type and the associated implementation details. This separation is achieved in order that the properties of the abstract data type are visible to the user interface and the implementation details are hidden. Thus,abstraction forms the basic platform for the creation of user-defined data types called objects. Data abstraction is the process of refining data to its essential form. An Abstract Data Type is defined as a data type that is defined in terms of the operations that it supports and not in terms of its structure or implementation. 58

(80) Encapsulation
Encapsulation is the process of combining data and functions into a single unit called class. Using the method of encapsulation, the programmer cannot directly access the data. Data is only accessible through the functions present inside the class. Data encapsulation led to the important concept of data hiding. Data hiding is the implementation details of a class that are hidden from the user. The concept of restricted access led programmers to write specialized functions or methods for performing the operations on hidden members of the class. Attention must be paid to ensure that the class is designed properly. Neither too much access nor too much control must be placed on the operations in order to make the class user friendly. Hiding the implementation details and providing restrictive access leads to the concept of abstract data type.Encapsulation leads to the concept of data hiding, but the concept of encapsulation must not be restricted to information hiding. Encapsulation clearly represents the ability to bundle related data and functionality within a single, autonomous entity called a class.

(81) TRANSMISSION MEDIA

The means through which data is transformed from one place to another is called transmission or communication media. There are two categories of transmission media used in computer communications.

BOUNDED/GUIDED MEDIA UNBOUNDED/UNGUIDED MEDIA

1. BOUNDED MEDIA: Bounded media are the physical links through which signals are confined to narrow path. These are also called guide media. Bounded media are made up o a external conductor (Usually Copper) bounded by jacket material. Bounded media are great for LABS because they offer high speed, good security and low cast. However, some time they cannot be used due distance communication. Three common types of bounded media are used of the data transmission. These are Coaxial Cable

Twisted Pairs Cable Fiber Optics Cable

UNBOUNDED / UNGUIDED MEDIA Unbounded / Unguided media or wireless media doesn't use any physical connectors between the two devices communicating. Usually the transmission is send through the atmosphere but sometime it can be just across the rule. Wireless media is used when a physical obstruction or distance blocks are used with normal cable media. The three types of wireless media are: RADIO WAVES

MICRO WAVES 59

INFRARED WAVES

(82) COAXIAL CABLE

Coaxial cable is very common & widely used commutation media. For example TV wire is usually coaxial. Coaxial cable gets its name because it contains two conductors that are parallel to each other. The center conductor in the cable is usually copper. The copper can be either a solid wire or stranded martial. Outside this central Conductor is a non-conductive material. It is usually white, plastic material used to separate the inner Conductor form the outer Conductor. The other Conductor is a fine mesh made from Copper. It is used to help shield the cable form EMI. Outside the copper mesh is the final protective cover. (as shown in Fig) The actual data travels through the center conductor in the cable. EMI interference is caught by outer copper mesh. There are different types of coaxial cable vary by gauge & impedance. Gauge is the measure of the cable thickness. It is measured by the Radio grade measurement, or RG number. The high the RG number, the thinner the central conductor core, the lower the number the thicker the core.

(83)Twisted Pair Cable

The most popular network cabling is Twisted pair. It is light weight, easy to install, inexpensive and support many different types of network. It also supports the speed of 100 mps. Twisted pair cabling is made of pairs of solid or stranded copper twisted along each other. The twists are done to reduce vulnerably to EMI and cross talk. The number of pairs in the cable depends on the type. The copper core is usually 22-AWG or 24-AWG, as measured on the American wire gauge standard. There are two types of twisted pairs cabling 1. Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) 2. Shielded twisted pair (STP) 1. Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) UTP is more common. It can be either voice grade or data grade depending on the condition. UTP cable normally has an impedance of 100 ohm. UTP cost less than STP and easily available due to its many use. There are five levels of data cabling Category 1 These are used in telephone lines and low speed data cable. 60

Category 2 These cables can support up to 4 mps implementation. Category 3 These cable supports up to 16 mps and are mostly used in 10 mps. Category 4 These are used for large distance and high speed. It can support 20mps. Category 5 This is the highest rating for UTP cable and can support up to 100mps. UTP cables consist of 2 or 4 pairs of twisted cable. Cable with 2 pair use RJ-11 connector and 4 pair cable use RJ-45 connector. 2. Shielded twisted pair (STP) It is similar to UTP but has a mesh shielding thats protects it from EMI which allows for higher transmission rate. IBM has defined category for STP cable. Type 1 STP features two pairs of 22-AWG Type 2 This type include type 1 with 4 telephone pairs Type 6 This type feature two pairs of standard shielded 26-AWG Type 7 This type of STP consist of 1 pair of standard shielded 26-AWG Type 9 This type consist of shielded 26-AWG wire

(84)Fiber Optics
Fiber optic cable uses electrical signals to transmit data. It uses light. In fiber optic cable light only moves in one direction for two way communication to take place a second connection must be made between the two devices. It is actually two stands of cable. Each stand is responsible for one 61

direction of communication. A laser at one device sends pulse of light through this cable to other device. These pulses translated into 1s and 0s at the other end. In the center of fiber cable is a glass stand or core. The light from the laser moves through this glass to the other device around the internal core is a reflective material known as CLADDING. No light escapes the glass core because of this reflective cladding. Fiber optic cable has bandwidth more than 2 gbps (Gigabytes per Second) Characteristics Of Fiber Optic Cable:

Expensive Very hard to install Capable of extremely high speed Extremely low attenuation No EMI interference

Advantages Of Fiber Optic Cable:

Fast Low attenuation No EMI interference

Disadvantages Fiber Optics:

Very costly

(85) RADIO WAVES

It has frequency between 10 K Hz to 1 G Hz. Radio waves has the following types.

Short waves VHF (Very High Frequency) UHF (Ultra High Frequency)

SHORT WAVES:There are different types of antennas used for radio waves. Radio waves transmission can be divided into following categories.

LOW POWER, SINGLE FREQUENCY. HIGH POWER, SINGLE FREQUENCY

1. LOW POWER , SINGLE FREQUENCY:62

As the name shows this system transmits from one frequency and has low power out. The normal operating ranges on these devices are 20 to 25 meter. CHARACTERISTICS LOW POWER , SINGLE FREQUENCY:

Low cost Simple installation with pre-configured 1 M bps to 10 M bps capacity High attenuation Low immunity to EMI

2. HIGH POWER, SINGLE FREQUENCY:This is similar to low power single frequency. These devices can communicate over greater distances. CHARACTERISTICS HIGH POWER, SINGLE FREQUENCY:

Moderate cost Easier to install than low power single frequency 1 Mbps to 10 Mbps of capacity Low attenuation for long distances Low immunity to EMI

(86) MICRO WAVES

Micro waves travels at high frequency than radio waves and provide through put as a wireless network media. Micro wave transmission requires the sender to be inside of the receiver. Following are the types of Micro waves. 1. Terrestrial Micro waves 2. Satellite Micro waves

1. Terrestrial Micro waves:Terrestrial Micro waves are used are used to transmit wireless signals across a few miles. Terrestrial system requires that direct parabolic antennas can be pointed to each other. These systems operate in a low Giga Hertz range. CHARACTERISTICS of Terrestrial Micro waves:

Moderate to high cost. Moderately difficult installation 1 M bps to 10 M bps capacity Variable attenuation 63

87) Satellite Micro waves

The main problem with aero wave communication is the curvature of the earth, mountains & other structure often block the line of side. Due to this reason, many repeats are required for long distance which increases the cost of data transmission between the two points. This problem is recommended by using satellites. Satellite micro wave transmission is used to transmit signals through out the world. These system use satellites in orbit about 50,000 Km above the earth. Satellite dishes are used to send the signals to the

satellite where it is again send back down to the receiver satellite. These transmissions also use directional parabolic antenna with in line of side. In satellite communication micro wave signals at 6 GHz is transmitted from a transmitter on the earth through the satellite position in space. By the time signal reaches the satellites becomes weaker due to 50,000 Km distance. The satellite amplifies week signals and transmits it back to the earth at the frequency less than 6 GHz. Characteristics Satellite Micro waves:

High cost Extremely difficult and hare installation. Variable attenuation. Low immunity to EMI

High security needed because a signal send to satellite is broadcasts through all receivers with in satellite.

(88)Infrared
Infrared frequencies are just below visible light. These high frequencies allow high sped data transmission. This technology is similar to the use of a remote control for a TV. Infrared transmission can be affected by objects obstructing sender or receiver. These transmissions fall into two categories. 1. Point to point 2. Broadcast (i) Point to Point: - Point to point infrared transmission signal directly between two systems. Many lap top system use point to pint transmission. These systems require direct alignment between many devices. 64

Characteristics of Point to point:

Wide range of cost Moderately easy installation. 100 k bps to 16 Mb of capacity. Variable attenuation. High immunity to EMI

(i) Broad Cast: - These infrared transmission use sprayed signal, one broad cast in all directions instead of direct beam. This help to reduce the problems of proper alignment and abstraction. It also allows multiple receiver of signal Characteristics of Broad Cast:

In expensive. Single installation. 1M bps capacity.

(89)ROUTERS
Routers are physical devices that join multiple wired or wireless networks together. Technically, a wired or wireless router is a Layer 3 gateway, meaning that the wired/wireless router connects networks (as gateways do), and that the router operates at the network layer of the OSI model.

Home networkers often use an Internet Protocol (IP) wired or wireless router, IP being the most common OSI network layer protocol. An IP router such as a DSL or cable modem broadband router joins the home's local area network (LAN) to the wide-area network (WAN) of the Internet. By maintaining configuration information in a piece of storage called the routing table, wired or wireless routers also have the ability to filter traffic, either incoming or outgoing, based on the IP addresses of senders and receivers. Some routers allow the home networker to update the routing table from a Web browser interface. Broadband routers combine the functions of a router with those of a network switch and a firewall in a single unit.

(90)Software Requirements Specification (SRS)

In theory a Software Requirements Specification is simply a detailed description of the software functionality that needs to be produced, which describes how the new software will behave and how it will interact with other software. It also contains the functional as well as non-functional requirements of the software and the constraints which will restrict its performance.

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In reality since the software requirements specification is the building block for an entire development, they need to be absolutely correct, but rarely are. The reason? Either the business requirements documentation or the project management requirements are ambiguous or misunderstood. As soon as this occurs you can kiss your project goodbye, unless of course, it is using Agile methodology in which case you may have a chance to salvage it. Intrigued? Well read on because even if you don't consider yourself a "technical" project manager, you must at the very least, understand what this documentation needs to deliver.

What Should a Software Requirements Specification (SRS) Contain?

Any Software Requirement Specification usually needs to address five categories regarding the software. These are

Functionality of the System

The SRS details what the system is expected to do.

Interfaces
This will describe how the software will interact with people, hardware and other software. This is particularly important. More software fails because it's can't "communicate" with other systems.

Performance
The software requirements specification gives the details of performance level that the software should be able to deliver. This includes reliability, speed and response time etc.

Attributes
This includes areas such as security, portability, maintainability and accuracy.

Database Requirements and Design Limitations

This includes database structure, communication protocol, language for implementation, memory constrains and assumptions etc.

Sections of a Software Requirements Specification

Introduction
This section includes the purpose behind writing the software requirements specification, the conventions followed in the document, intended audience, contact information of the SRS team and references.

Overall Description
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This section includes the product perspective, product functionalities, users description, operating environment of the software, design constrains and assumptions.

External Interface Requirements

It includes user interfaces, hardware interfaces, software interfaces, communication protocols and interfaces. It pays to spend a little extra time on this section and get the right project management stakeholders and techies talking to each other, rather than rushing your development lead through this section by making a load of assumptions.

System Features
This section contains the details of the features that the system will have, the priority list, actions, results expected and functional requirements.

Non Functional Requirements

The non-functional requirement section includes performance, safety, security. quality of the software, project documentation and user documentation.

(92)Object Oriented Programming

Definition object oriented programming is critical to understanding, what is object oriented programming? This is popularly known as OOP and is a language centered on objects and following the four basic principles of Abstraction, Encapsulation, Inheritance and Polymorphism. Many programmers who have worked only in functional/ procedural languages such as C and Pascal often have difficulty in understanding just what is object oriented programming. It is often referred to as a programming paradigm based on objects and their interactions.

What is Object Oriented Programming? - Examples

Since C++ and Java have procedural elements as well as an OOP element, a question often arises if they qualify as per the definition object oriented programming language. The answer is Yes, although they are a mix and match of procedural language + object orientation they pass all the parameters of OOP. Many developers believe that using this definition object oriented programming is restricted to imperative programming, which is not the case. PHP is a great example of a language that had a procedural origin but then converted to object orientation to gain maximum benefits from OOP.

Objected Oriented Programming Classes & Objects

A good understanding of Classes and Objects is essential to understand just what is object oriented programming. Classes and objects are used heavily to structure the program. The crux behind the definition object oriented programming is a collection of objects, which are instances of classes. 67

Objects are accessible to the programmer via an interface and they can send/ receive messages to other objects. The behavior of these objects is defined by its methods.

Dispute Over What is Objected Oriented Programming?

Many programmers believe that there is a valid dispute over what is object oriented programming. Some believe that it must be termed object based programming and the principle of inheritance should be excluded from the founding principles of such languages. Most popular OO languages such as C++ and Java support inheritance so the dispute over whether they are OOP languages does not seem appropriate for these languages at the very least. Programmers often say that Java does not support multiple inheritance directly, therefore does it still justify the definition Object Oriented Programming? Yes, it does because it offers multiple inheritance using the concept of interfaces

(93) Multithreading
Multitasking is performing two or more tasks at the same time. Nearly all operating systems are capable of multitasking by using one of two multitasking techniques: process-based multitasking and thread-based multitasking. Process-based multitasking is running two programs concurrently. Programmers refer to a program as a process. Therefore, you could say that process-based multitasking is program-based multitasking. Thread-based multitasking is having a program perform two tasks at the same time. For example, a word processing program can check the spelling of words in a document while you write the document. This is thread-based multitasking.

(93)Software Development Costs

With financial constraints so tight today, being able to accurately determine software development costs when managing IT projects is a vital skill for any project manager to have. After all, get it wrong and as we have all seen, the costs mount dramatically. On some huge programs the cost over run has amounted to billions!

Why You Need To Estimate Software Development Costs

Software development is a rapidly growing area and there are few projects which do not include some element of programming. It is also an area which is increasing in complexity and with complexity come increased costs and the potential for problems. Hence the greater need now for accurate costings with regard to the software development effort. Here are a few additional reasons which will dictate the need for working out the costs of software development:

1.1 Effective Budgeting

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This is the most basic purpose fulfilled by software development costs estimation.

1.2 Risk Analysis

A thorough knowledge of costs involved in a software development helps in risk-cutting as prior estimates can be made and the pitfalls compensated for.

1.3 Project Planning and Control

This enables the production of a realistic plan which ensures the entire project delivers to its fullest potential.

2.0 Reasons why Software Development Costs can Be Inaccurate

1. Imprecise business requirements documentation. 2. New projects can be compared to previous one for cost purposes, but remember no two projects are ever exactly the same 3. Specific information must be gathered about past projects ie what types of resources were used and their costs 4. Estimates must never be forced to match the resources available and must be looked at independently.

3.0 Methods for Determining Software Development Costs

3.1 Algorithmic Cost Model
This is the most-widely used model in estimating software development costs. The technique involves estimating the costs using mathematical formulae and linking costs or inputs with metrics to estimate the outputs.

3.2 Expert Judgment

This method depends upon the expert judgment and experience to estimate the effort and costs necessary to complete a software project plan.

3.3 Machine Learning

This is a comparatively new approach, but the estimates yielded off this technique can be extremely accurate. The technique involves methods like neutral networks, case-based reasoning, fuzzy logic, analogy, regression trees and hybrid system.

4.0 Ways to Reduce Software Development Costs

Since software development costs can be sky-high and could weigh heavily on a products pricing and organizational profits, here are some ways to reduce these costs:

Ensuring the presence of well documented functional requirements Focusing early on non-functional aspects Having a clear and manageable change request process 69

Arranging for high-quality configuration management of releases and environments. Creating a well defined user acceptance testing model while determining the requirements Conducting unit testing as an integral part of the process of software development will save project time and cost later on

(94) Hardware and Software Selection

There is a bewildering array of IT hardware, software, and services available to businesses today. But line of business managers typically don't have the background, the time, or the inclination to educate themselves on all the features, pros and cons of alternative solutions to their business problems. In fact, too often, the way that new technology comes into an organization is like this:

Somebody goes to a trade show A vendor gloms onto them and, of course, has the answer to all their problems The vendor pitches to an ad hoc procurement team, which vows to research alternatives and perhaps even issue a Request For Proposal (RFP) Due to the press of business, the process is short-circuited and the decision comes down to "Can we afford what the vendor is selling?" rather than "Is this the right solution of the many alternatives we've researched?" The purchase is made and never evaluated to see if it a) solved the problem and b) delivered true ROI

Hardware Selection Criteria

Hardware must support current software as well as software planned for procurement over the next planning interval [year, 18 months, three years] Hardware must be compatible with existing or planned networks Hardware must be upgradeable and expandable to meet the needs of the next planning interval Hardware warranties must be of an appropriate length Hardware maintenance must be performed by [local/remote vendor, in-house personnel] Whenever feasible, hardware standards will dictate procurement of like brands and configurations to simplify installation and support Routine assessments of installed infrastructure will feed an upgrade/replace decision process

Software Selection Criteria

Software must be compatible with current and future hardware over the next planning interval Software maintenance and warranties must be of appropriate length and cost Sotware help desk must be maintained by [vendor, third party, in-house personnel] Software must be standardized throughout the business to improve purchasing power, simplify training, and facilitate support Software must comply with current standards set by technology leadership Software must support and enhance business goals

In addition to these hardware and software selection criteria, StratVantage will evaluate the proposed vendors on several criteria, including: 70

Stability Vendor's attributes such as length of operations, size of customer base, size of income and revenue, company size, leadership, stock history and more can affect a technology purchasing decision Proven Track Record A vendor's experience not only in the broader market but in your business' specific industry can be key Business Model Fit If the vendor is offering, for example, software as a service, but your business isn't always Internet-connected, this business model mismatch could rule out the vendor Mature Technology You want to see continuity in the vendor's offerings. If the vendor has been through a series of acquisitions and is just now integrating new technology with an old line of business, you may want to obtain assurances on the longevity of the vendor's solution. Service Level Agreements Unfortunately, most vendor Service Level Agreements (SLAs) aren't worth the paper they are printed on. We'll help you understand the vendor's SLA and negotiate a service level partnership instead.

(95)Graphs
Graphs are widely-used structure in computer science and different computer applications. We don't say data structure here and see the difference. Graphs mean to store and analyze metadata, the connections, which present in data. For instance, consider cities in your country. Road network, which connects them, can be represented as a graph and then analyzed. We can examine, if one city can be reached from another one or find the shortest route between two cities. First of all, we introduce some definitions on graphs. Next, we are going to show, how graphs are represented inside of a computer. Then you can turn to basic graph algorithms. There are two important sets of objects, which specify graph and its structure. First set is V, which is called vertex-set. In the example with road network cities are vertices. Each vertex can be drawn as a circle with vertex's number inside.

vertices Next important set is E, which is called edge-set. E is a subset of V x V. Simply speaking, each edge connects two vertices, including a case, when a vertex is connected to itself (such an edge is called a loop). All graphs are divided into two big groups: directed and undirected graphs. The difference is that edges in directed graphs, called arcs, have a direction. These kinds of graphs have much in common with each other, but significant differences are also present. We will accentuate which kind of graphs is considered in the particular algorithm description. Edge can be drawn as a line. If a graph is directed, each line has an arrow. 71

undirected graph Now, we present some basic graph definitions.

directed graph

Sequence of vertices, such that there is an edge from each vertex to the next in sequence, is called path. First vertex in the path is called the start vertex; the last vertex in the path is called the end vertex. If start and end vertices are the same, path is called cycle. Path is called simple, if it includes every vertex only once. Cycle is called simple, if it includes every vertex, except start (end) one, only once. Let's see examples of path and cycle.

path (simple)

cycle (simple)

The last definition we give here is a weighted graph. Graph is called weighted, if every edge is associated with a real number, called edge weight. For instance, in the road network example, weight of each road may be its length or minimal time needed to drive along.

weighted graph 72

(96)Constructors (C++ only)

A constructor is a member function with the same name as its class. For example:
class X { public: X(); }; // constructor for class X

Constructors are used to create, and can initialize, objects of their class type. You cannot declare a constructor as virtual or static, nor can you declare a constructor as const, volatile, or const volatile. You do not specify a return type for a constructor. A return statement in the body of a constructor cannot have a return value.

(97)Bubble Sort
Bubble sort is a simple and well-known sorting algorithm. It is used in practice once in a blue moon and its main application is to make an introduction to the sorting algorithms. Bubble sort belongs to O(n2) sorting algorithms, which makes it quite inefficient for sorting large data volumes. Bubble sort is stable and adaptive.

Algorithm
1. Compare each pair of adjacent elements from the beginning of an array and, if they are in reversed order, swap them. 2. If at least one swap has been done, repeat step 1. You can imagine that on every step big bubbles float to the surface and stay there. At the step, when no bubble moves, sorting stops. Let us see an example of sorting an array to make the idea of bubble sort clearer. Example. Sort {5, 1, 12, -5, 16} using bubble sort.

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(98)Binary heap
There are several types of heaps, but in the current article we are going to discuss the binary heap. For short, let's call it just "heap". It is used to implement priority queue ADT and in the heapsort algorithm. Heap is a complete binary tree, which answers to the heap property.

Complete binary tree

It is said, that binary tree is complete, if all its levels, except possibly the deepest, are complete. Thought, incomplete bottom level can't have "holes", which means that it has to be fulfilled from the very left node and up to some node in the middle. See illustrations below.

Correct example of a complete binary tree

Incorrect case, middle level is incomplete

Incorrect case, bottom level has a "hole"

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Height of a complete binary tree is O(log n).

Heap property
There are two possible types of binary heaps: max heap and min heap. The difference is that root of a min heap contains minimal element and vice versa. Priority queue is often deal with min heaps, whereas heapsort algorithm, when sorting in ascending order, uses max heap.

Heap property for min heap

For every node in a heap, node's value is lesser or equal, than values of the children.

Heap property for max heap

For every node in a heap, node's value is greater or equal, than values of the children.

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To maintain simplicity, in the articles below we consider min-heap only.

(99)Array
Array is a very basic data structure representing a group of similar elements, accessed by index. Array data structure can be effectively stored inside the computer and provides fast access to the all its elements. Let us see an advantages and drawbacks of the arrays.

Advantages

No overhead per element. Any element of an array can be accessed at O(1) time by its index.

Drawbacks

Array data structure is not completely dynamic. Many programming languages provides an opportunity to allocate arrays with arbitrary size (dynamically allocated array), but when this space is used up, a new array of greater size must be allocated and old data is copied to it. Insertion and deletion of an element in the array requires to shift O(n) elements on average, where n is size of the array.

(100)Binary search tree

First of all, binary search tree (BST) is a dynamic data structure, which means, that its size is only limited by amount of free memory in the operating system and number of elements may vary during the program run. Main advantage of binary search trees is rapid search, while addition is quite cheap. Let us see more formal definition of BST. Binary search tree is a data structure, which meets the following requirements:

it is a binary tree; each node contains a value; a total order is defined on these values (every two values can be compared with each other); left subtree of a node contains only values lesser, than the node's value; right subtree of a node contains only values greater, than the node's value.

Notice, that definition above doesn't allow duplicates.

Example of a binary search tree

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What for binary search trees are used?

Binary search tree is used to construct map data structure. In practice, data can be often associated with some unique key. For instance, in the phone book such a key is a telephone number. Storing such a data in binary search tree allows to look up for the record by key faster, than if it was stored in unordered list. Also, BST can be utilized to construct set data structure, which allows to store an unordered collection of unique values and make operations with such collections. Performance of a binary search tree depends of its height. In order to keep tree balanced and minimize its height, the idea of binary search trees was advanced in balanced search trees (AVL trees, Red-Black trees, Splay trees). Here we will discuss the basic ideas, laying in the foundation of binary search trees.

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