Ecosystems 1

ECOSYSTEMS
1.
(a) A tree can be thought of as a system. Draw and label a systems

diagram of a tree that shows inputs, outputs and storages of matter
and energy.
(3)
(b)
State two functions of producers in an ecosystem.

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(2)
(c)
For a named ecosystem, draw a food chain with named species

showing three appropriately labelled trophic levels.
(3)
(d)
Explain the role of decomposers in an ecosystem.

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(2)
(e)
Suggest what effect a significant and prolonged decrease in the pH of

rainfall would have on primary productivity in a terrestrial ecosystem.
Explain your answer.
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(3)
2.
(a) Examine the diagram below. It is not intended to represent any
particular ecosystem and
the organisms are not shown to the same scale.
Choose one of the organisms shown in the diagram.
Write its name
here .................................................................................................
....
a r s h
a q u a t i c
pi n l av ne tr t e b r a t e
y t o
l a n
t o
i r d
m
a q
am
a q
i b
i a n
a t i c
a m
m
a l
l a n t s
m
i d g e
l a r v a e
f i s h
a t i c a sq n u a a i t l i c
t r e e
l a n
s s e l
[Source: Adapted from Adds, J et al. The Organism and the Environment, 2nd edition (1997),
page 81]
For the organism you have chosen, describe and evaluate a method
for estimating its abundance.
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(5)
(b)
Explain why it might be important to know the abundance of the

species of organisms in an ecosystem in assessing that ecosystems
diversity.
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(2)
(c)
State how you would attempt to identify an organism with which you
were unfamiliar.
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(d)
(i)
Name and briefly describe an ecosystem of which you
have made a special study.
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(1)
(ii)
Describe one human activity that might influence your chosen

ecosystem.
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(1)
(iii) State one abiotic factor that might be changed by this human
activity.
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(1)
(iv) Explain how this human activity might change the abiotic factor.
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(2)
(v)
Outline how you would measure changes in this abiotic factor.

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(2)
(e)
(i)
Explain, with an example, what is meant by the term
environmental gradient.
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(2)
(ii)
Explain how you would measure the changes in the species

diversity of an ecosystem along an environmental gradient.
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(2)
(Total 20 marks)
3.
(a) Describe and evaluate a method to estimate the abundance of
elephants in an African
national park.
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(4)
(b)
Explain how you would compare the diversity of two different
ecosystems.
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(5)
(Total 9 marks)
4.
A study has been made of the number of flowering plant species that occur
on six islands off the coast of the same country. The graph below shows the
2
relationship between the area (in km ) of each of the islands and the
number of flowering plant species found on them.
1
8 0
N
u m
b e r o f f l o
p l a n t s p e c i e s
6 0
4
e r i n
0
0
4
A
(a)
5
r e a
6
o
7
f
i s l a n
9
d
1
k
Describe the relationship between island area and plant diversity

shown by the graph.
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(2)
(b)
Suggest one possible reason for the relationship described in (a).

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(1)
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(c)
Predict the effects of the introduction of goats or some other species of

large herbivore on a small island ecosystem.
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(2)
(Total 5 marks)
5.
With the help of a diagram, explain the term pyramid of numbers.
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(Total 4 marks)
6.
(a)
(i)
Name and briefly describe an ecosystem you have studied.

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(1)
(ii)
State two abiotic factors significant in the ecosystem.

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(1)
(iii) Outline and evaluate a method to measure one of the selected

abiotic factors.
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(3)
(b)
Name an organism found in the ecosystem specified above. Describe

and evaluate a method for estimating its abundance.
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(4)
Two areas of forest each contain 50 trees. The species composition of the two
areas is as follows.
Eucalyptus
Casurina
Area A
Area B
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(c)
Simpsons diversity index can be calculated by applying the formula

below,
N ( N 1)
D = n( n 1)
where:
N = total number of organisms of all species,

n = number of organisms of a particular species.
(i)
Calculate Simpsons diversity index for area B (showing your

working).
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(2)
(ii)
Simpsons diversity index for area A is 1.38. Suggest a reason for

the difference between the values for these two areas.
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(1)
(Total 12 marks)
7.
The organisms shown below were found in a European estuary.
15
(Not drawn to scale)

[Source: modified from J Adds et al., (1997), The Organisms and the Environment, Nelson,
page 158]
(a)
Suggest three visible characteristics of the organisms shown in the

diagram which could be used to construct part of a key to identify
them.
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(3)
(b)
If you actually collected organisms A and B from the estuary, suggest

two other characteristics which might help you to identify them.
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(2)
(c)
State one limitation of using a key to identify an organism.

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(1)
(d)
Outline two practical problems that you might have when trying to
estimate the biomass of the population of any organism living in an
estuarine ecosystem.
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(2)
(Total 8 marks)
8.
The diagram below shows a cross-section through a typical rock pool. A

variety of species are shown that belong to the rock pool community,
together with some organisms that inhabit other parts of the rocky or sandy
shore.
r o
l i m
e t s
w
c k
s t e r c a t c h
c h a n n e l w
( s e a w
e e d
a t e r
s e a
a n e m
og nr e e n
s h o r e
c r a b
s h
e r i w
i n
l l u
r a c k
)
l e
s sea aww
ew e r d a c k
( s e a w e e d )
r i m
e r
a r n
a c l e s
s c
r i t t l e s t a p r o h l yi d c i h n s a g t e a t r e f i s h
i n
s a n d
u n d e r rw o o c rk m
[M J Reiss and J L Chapman, Ecology and Conservation, (1994).
Reproduced by permission of Cambridge University Press]
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For a named consumer organism shown in the diagram above, describe and
evaluate a method for measuring its gross and net secondary productivity.
Name of
organism: ................................................................................................
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(Total 5 marks)
9.
(a)
Define the term diversity.

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(1)
(b)
(i)
A group of students sampled two local ecosystems, A
and B. They determined the abundance of each species they
found. Using Simpsons diversity index, calculate the diversity of
ecosystem B. Show your working.
Abundance of
Organism
Ecosystem
A
Ecosystem
B
species 1
species 2
species 3
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12
species 4
species 5
Diversit
y
3.27
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(2)
(ii)
Suggest one reason why the species diversity of the two

ecosystems are different.
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(1)
(Total 4 marks)
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10. The data in the graph below show the variation in the numbers of mule deer
(a herbivore) in an area of the southwestern United States between 1905
and 1940.
[D Lack, The Natural Regulation of Animal Numbers, (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1954).
Reproduced by permission of Oxford University Press]
(a)
Describe and explain the shape of the graph.

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(4)
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(b)
Outline how data for this graph might have been collected.
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(3)
(c)
Suggest what difficulties might be encountered in collecting this type

of data.
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(3)
(d)
Outline how you would measure the net primary productivity of a

named ecosystem.
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(4)
(e)
(i)
For the ecosystem named in (d), identify an abiotic
factor that might change over time, and suggest how this change
might influence a named biotic component in the ecosystem.
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(2)
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(ii)
Outline and evaluate a method, which you could use in the field,
to gather evidence for your suggestion in (e) (i).
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(4)
(Total 20 marks)
11. The table below gives the mean dry weight biomass for the primary
producers in certain ecosystems.
Ecosystem
Biomass/kg m
Tropical rainforest
45.0
Deciduous forest
35.0
Boreal (coniferous)
forest
30.0
Grassland
6.0
Tundra
0.6
Desert
0.2
Freshwater lake
0.1
(a)
(i)
Define the term dry weight biomass.
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(1)
(ii)
For one of the ecosystems listed above, describe and evaluate a

method for obtaining such dry weight biomass data.
Selected
ecosystem ...............................................................................
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Method ............................................................................................
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(4)
(iii) Name one abiotic factor important in the ecosystem you have
selected, and describe how you would study its variation over
time.
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(3)
The table below gives the number of individuals of four species of trees in
two small patches of Australian forest.
Tree species
(b)
Area A
Area B
Allocasurina
huegelina
Banksia grandis
Eucalyptus calophylla
Acacia saligna
(i)
Using the formula for Simpsons diversity index
N(N 1)
D = n(n 1)
calculate which of area A or area B has the higher diversity index.
Show your working.
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(3)
(ii)
Name one environmental factor that might explain this

difference.
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(1)
The sketch below shows four types of termite found in Australia. (Termites
are burrowing, colonial insects.)
[Source: Some Termites from Western Australia, (1989).

Reprinted with the permission of the Western Australian Gould League Inc.]
(c)
(i)
List three characteristics displayed by the organisms
illustrated above that might be used to construct a key to assist in
identifying termites from the same part of Australia.
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(2)
(ii)
Name two methods, other than the use of a key, that you might
use to identify an insect you had not seen before.
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(2)
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(iii) Bearing in mind that termites live in colonies of many thousands

of individuals, and that these colonies sometimes form large
mounds, suggest how you might estimate the number of termites
on five hectares of land. Evaluate your methods.
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(4)
(Total 20 marks)
12.
(a)
Distinguish between the terms predator and parasite.
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(2)
a r a s i t e s
1
1
(b)
(i)
r o
e r b
i v
r e s
c e r s
State the name of the type of diagram shown above.
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(1)
(ii)
Suggest why there are often more organisms at the third trophic
level than at the second trophic level in a food chain containing
parasites.
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(2)
(c)
Explain why the energy available to the predators in a food chain is

much less than that fixed by the producers.
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(3)
(Total 8 marks)
13. Groups of students studied the species diversity of the beetle fauna found
on two upland sites in Europe. The same number of students searched for a
similar length of time in each of the two sites. The two sites were of equal
area.
Aphodius beetle (enlarged)

[http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Aphodius_bimaculatus.png]
The number of individuals of the four species found at each site is given in
the table below.
(a) (i)
Species
Site A
Site B
Trichius fasciatus
10
20
Aphodius
lapponum
10
Cincidela
campestris
15
Stenus
geniculatus
10
Describe how you might estimate the population of one of these

beetle species in 0.1 hectare of upland vegetation.
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(4)
(ii)
State two factors that might influence the accuracy of the results
you obtain using the method described in (c) (i).
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(2)
(b)
(i)
Name and briefly describe an ecosystem you have
studied, and name an abiotic factor that influences the abundance
of organisms within it.
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(1)
(ii) For the ecosystem and the abiotic factor named in (e) (i),
describe how you would measure an environmental gradient.
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(4)
(iii) Explain how a named human activity might affect the abiotic
factor in the ecosystem selected in (e) (i).
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(2)
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14. An ecological study has been carried out in a small deciduous

woodland. The aim of the study is to establish the baseline ecological
conditions within the site as part of an environmental impact
assessment.
As part of the ecological survey, floral diversity has been monitored on a
species by species basis. The results for primroses (Primula vulgaris) are
shown below. Ten 50 cm 50 cm quadrats were positioned randomly within
the woodland and the number of primroses in each quadrat were recorded.
The results are shown in table 1.
Table 1. Primrose counts
(a)
Quadra
t
Number of
Primroses
10
23
23
34
12
56
12
10
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(i)
Calculate the mean number of primroses per quadrat.

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(1)
(ii)
Using the mean number of primroses, calculate their density per

metre square of woodland.
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(2)
(iii) Outline an environmental gradient that might be present in a

woodland.
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(1)
(iv) Outline a possible method for measuring changes along this

gradient.
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(2)
The Lincoln Index provides a means of estimating animal populations. The

method was
used to establish the population density of wood mice
(Apodememus sylvaticaus) in the woodland.
The Lincoln Index is calculated using the following formula:
N=
n1 n 2
m
N = total population
n1 = number of animals first marked and released
n2 = number of animals captured in the second sample
m = number of marked animals in the second sample
As part of the survey, 100 traps were set three metres apart in a grid
pattern. The traps were left open for four days and baited regularly to allow
animals to get used to their presence. On the first sampling day, 28 wood
mice were caught and individually marked. Two days later a second sample
was taken (recapture sample) during which 32 wood mice were captured, of
which 10 animals were already marked.
(b)
(i)
Calculate the population number of wood mice within
the sample area using the Lincoln Index. Show your working.
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(ii)
Suggest what steps could be taken to ensure accurate results.

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(2)
(c)
Describe how you would calculate the dry plant biomass of a grassland
or meadow.
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(3)
(d)
(i)
The deciduous woodland contains the following
breeding birds.
Table 2
Breeding Birds
Robin (Erithacus rubecula)
Number of
Pairs
4
Wood pigeon (Columba

palumbus)
10
Blue tit (Parus caerulus)
22
Yellow wagtail (Motacilla

flava)
Stock dove (Columba oenas)
Blackbird (Turdus merula)
Wren (Troglodytes
troglodytes)
Green woodpecker (Picus

viridis)
Sparrow hawk (Accipiter

nisus)
Use Simpsons diversity index to determine the species richness

(in terms of bird pairs) within the woodland.
Simpsons diversity index is calculated using the equation:
N ( N 1)
D=
n( n 1)
where N = total number of individuals of all species found and n =
the number of individuals of a particular species.
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..................
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..................
(3)
(ii)
State what a low diversity index indicates about a habitat and

suggest how a low value may occur.
.........................................................................................................
..................
39
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..................
.........................................................................................................
..................
.........................................................................................................
..................
(2)
(iii) Distinguish between the terms diversity and abundance.

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..................
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..................
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..................
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..................
(2)
(Total 20 marks)
15.
(a)
Outline the term ecosystem.
.................................................................................................................
.....................
.................................................................................................................
.....................
.................................................................................................................
.....................
(1)
(b)
State an example of a flow within a named ecosystem.

.................................................................................................................
.....................
.................................................................................................................
.....................
(1)
(c)
State one example of biological storage within a forest ecosystem.

.................................................................................................................
.....................
.................................................................................................................
.....................
(1)
(d)
Calculate the net primary productivity per kg of biomass for the boreal
forest ecosystem in the table below.
Comparison of ecosystem productivity
Mean net
primary
productivity /
2
1
kg m yr
Mean
biomass /
2
kg m
Net primary
productivity
per kg biomass
per year
Temperate
forest
1.20
32.5
0.037
Boreal forest
0.80
20.0
...........................
....
Tropical
rainforest
2.20
45.0
0.049
Savanna
grassland
0.90
4.0
0.225
Tundra
0.14
0.6
0.233
Ecosystem
[Source: Table of ecosystem productivity, Geography Review, Volume 5, Number 1 (1991).

Reproduced by permission of Philip Allan Updates]
(1)
(e)
Compare and explain the data for two of the ecosystems in the table
above.
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.....................
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41
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.................................................................................................................
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.................................................................................................................
.....................
.................................................................................................................
.....................
(4)
(f)
Briefly outline a method for measuring biomass of a primary producer.

Name of primary
producer: .........................................................................................
Method: ...................................................................................................
....................
.................................................................................................................
.....................
.................................................................................................................
.....................
.................................................................................................................
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(3)
(Total 11 marks)
43
MARKING SCHEME:
1.
(a)
C
e aH t e a Lt i g
O
O
T i s s u e
t o
o t h e r
t r o p h i c
l e v e l s
L
N
t r i e n
i t t e r
t o
s o i l
t s
W a et r
3 max
Award [1] for tree in box, [1] for two matter flows and [1] for two
energy flows.
(b)
producers convert solar energy into chemical energy through

photosynthesis;
one of the main contributors to organic matter in soil;
through symbiotic bacteria, producers are significant in fixing
nitrogen;
provide habitat for other organisms;
2 max
Accept other reasonable statements that show ecological knowledge.
(c)
e.g. Chilean matorral

3 max
p
r o
c e r
c a c i a
c a v e n s
C h i l e a n
t h o r n
t r e e
p
O
c t o d o /n
r o d e n t
e g
F
C
r i m
a r y
e l i s /g u i g n a
i l e a n
w
i l d
Award [1] for appropriately labelled trophic levels, [2] for three
appropriate species or [1] for two appropriate species.
c o
c a t
Do not accept rabbit, fox etc., unless there is some identifying

feature i.e. snowshoe hare and arctic fox.
(d) decomposers break down tissue;
release nutrients for reabsorption by producers;
form basis of decomposer food chain (which may be energetically
more important in some ecosystems than grazing food chains);
as chemosynthetic autotrophs may form basis of food chain;
through incomplete breakdown of organic material contribute
to build up of humus and improve nutrient retention capacity in soil;
are vital in nitrogen cycle; 2max
(e) primary productivity would decrease;
Award [2 max] for the following.
acid rain can damage foliage directly thus reducing photosynthesis;
increase in solubility of nutrients facilitates leaching with consequent
loss of productivity;
increases susceptibility of trees to stresses such as disease/
temperature/insects/fungal infection; 3max
[16]
2.
(a)
Allow any reasonable method.

description of method for non-motile organism (plants, mussels):
measure area;
use of quadrats;
count organisms within area;
calculate number per unit area;
evaluation:
problems such as organisms part-in/part-out of quadrat;
difficulties of very large organisms (e.g. trees);
problem of organisms where it is impossible to clearly distinguish
individuals (e.g. some plants);
for motile organisms:
measure out area/use naturally limited area such as small pond;
use Lincoln index;
trap organisms and mark;
release and allow to mix with population;
retrap, counting number of marked individuals;
use formula to calculate number
no. marked at t 1 no. captured at t 2
population = no. marked organisms caught at t 2 ;
use aerial photos for large organisms (trees; possibly waterfowl);
evaluation:
e.g. for Lincoln index method: problem of births and deaths
between trappings;
inward or outward migration;
some organisms become habituated to trapping/trapshy;
5 max
Generally [3] for description and [2] for evaluation unless
account of method is very detailed; in which case up to [4]
45
may be awarded for method and [1] for evaluation.

No mark for organisms name; it is intended simply to focus
attention. However, responses must apply to organism selected
if not mark out of [3].
(b)
some indices of diversity/e.g. Simpsons index;

take account of both the abundance of species in an ecosystem
and the number of different species present;
2
c)
carefully observe/measure specimen (colour, length, number

of limbs) etc.;
use key/by working through logically comparing characteristics
of specimen with those in key;
compare specimen with illustrations in field guide/reference
collection or herbarium;
characteristics such as sound (birds, insects)/distribution/
time of year;
good practice recommends that as far as possible identification
should be done in the field and removing/killing/picking
specimens should be avoided;
any other reasonable answers;
2 max
(d)
(i)
name of ecosystem and brief description
Must be reasonably specific: lake is insufficient; Lake

Neerabup, north of Perth, Western Australia gets the mark.
1
(ii)
description of human activity;

must be appropriate to example: for above, cultivation of
peat surrounding lake for vegetable-growing;
1 max
(iii) abiotic factors: e.g. temperature/turbidity/pH/salinity

Must be appropriate.
1
(iv) must establish clear link between activity and factor;

and indicate direction or nature of change (e.g. increase
or decrease); 2
(v)
for above lake example: test pH by noting colour

change using pH-testing kit;
perform a number of tests and take mean;
ideally test before and after change and note difference;
and at different sites;

Method must be appropriate to example.
Any reasonable example allowable. No marks if response
gives a biotic factor.
2 max
(e)
(i)
the change in some factor or factors (biotic or abiotic)
over
a distance/OWTTE;
such as the change in the amount of time organisms are
exposed to air across the distance from high tide mark to
the extremes of low tides on a seashore;
any other reasonable example;
2 max
(ii)
mark out transect across gradient using tape or similar;

establish quadrats at appropriate distances apart along transect;
apply (Simpsons) diversity index to each quadrat;
N ( N 1)
D = n( n 1) ;
where D = diversity index, N = total number of organisms
of all species n = number of individuals of a particular species;
2 max
Allow [1] if diversity index is well explained, even if the
concept of environmental gradient is misunderstood
Responses need not have formula completely accurate for
full marks, providing method is clearly understood.
[20]
3.
(a) Description:
simple count at ground level;
tag/mark counted individuals;
use of aircraft/count from air;
count individuals in a known area and extrapolate for the area
of the whole park;
use information from previous census/survey;
capture mark release recapture/Lincoln index;
Evaluation:
problems due to very large areas;
capture mark release recapture method possibly inappropriate
for large mammals;
density of population in different habitats might vary;
some individuals might be concealed by vegetation;
seasonal variations/migration habits of elephants;
problem of replicating sampling;
high cost of some methods;
4 max
To receive full marks, answers must have at least one evaluation,
i.e. award only [3 max] for describing method.
47
(b)
count and identify organisms;

in a specified period of time;
defined number of collectors;
calculate relative abundance of organisms;
use of Simpsons diversity index;
N ( N 1)
D = n( n 1) ;
other appropriate diversity index;
higher index value implies greater diversity/OWTTE;
sample areas/quadrant;
replicate countings in both ecosystems under similar conditions;
compare values;
replicate countings in both ecosystems under similar conditions;
compare values;
5 max
Any other reasonable points.
[9]
4.
(a) positive relationship/species diversity increases as island area

increases;
as island size increases, rate of increase in number of plant
species decreases/steepness of curve decreases;
2 max
(b)
number of habitats increases with island area/larger islands more

complex ecosystems;
larger islands have longer shores, therefore more likely to receive
drifting seeds, fruits, etc.;
larger islands more likely to be nesting sites for seabirds and
therefore to have seeds,
fruits brought from mainland;
larger islands more likely to be conserved;
larger islands can support larger populations of a given organism
and so extinction is less likely;
1 max
Any reasonable alternative explanation.
(c)
reduction in plant biomass;

reduction in number of plant species;
increase in very low ground-living plant species;
competition with and decline of any other herbivorous species;
trampling and soil erosion;
accelerated turnover of nutrients (especially N, P) though herbivore
excretion; 2 max
Any reasonable alternative explanation.
Do not expect sophisticated ideas on island biogeography in this
question, but reward appropriately if they appear.
[5]
5.
a pyramid of numbers is a model/diagram/representation of an ecosystem;

which divides it into a number of trophic/food levels;
showing the number of organisms/organisms per unit area in each level;
usually the number of organisms decreases at the higher levels of
the pyramid;
4 max
Award [1 max] for appropriate example(s).
Award a correctly drawn and labelled diagram [2 max]. If no
diagram is included award [3 max].
Accept either set of labels on either type of diagram.
h
b
s h
a r r i e r s
b
i r d
t o
c a r n
c a r n
c a t e r p
g
r e e n
i l l a r s
p
l a n
t s
h
p
r o
i v
e r b
i v
o
r e s
i v
r e s
( s e c o
r e s
( p
r i m
c e r s
[4]
6.
(a)
(i)name and brief description (e.g. intertidal rock pool

at Tagus river, Portugal);
(ii)
Candidates must state two abiotic factors appropriate

to ecosystem to receive [1].
e.g.
salinity;
pH;
temperature;
dissolved oxygen;
wave action;
turbidity;
flow velocity;
light intensity;
wind speed;
particle size;
slope;
soil moisture;
drainage;
mineral content;
1 max
(iii) e.g.:
freshwater ecosystem, abiotic factor temperature
use thermometer;
take account of: temperature may change with depth of the lake;
temperature may change at different hours of the day/seasons;
so need to take several observations to calculate mean;
49
a r y
a r y
aquatic ecosystem, abiotic factor pH

use pH meter/pH paper;
take account of: pH is a logarithmic scale (increase of
1 point on the scale represents 10 times);
pH may change with depth of water column;
so need to take several observations to calculate mean;
terrestrial ecosystem, abiotic factor soil texture
use of sieves;
use of triangular graph with proportions of sand, silt and clay;
take account of: field sample may be wet, so must be
dried before testing;
sample must be well shaken to separate particles;
soil may vary within profile/locally;
so need to take several samples;
presence of living organisms;
presence of organic matter;
3 max
(b)
appropriate example (name of organism);

Award [1] for appropriate method.
e.g. non-motile animal or plant by quadrat;
transect sampling;
by capture-mark-recapture if motile animal;
Method must be appropriate for the species named.
Award [1] for description.
repeat sampling procedure (time);
ensure sampling is consistent and replicated;
calibration of instrument;
location of sampling;
Award [1] for evaluation of method. Take account of e.g.:
birth;
death;
immigration;
emigration;
4 max
(c)
(i)
= 2.04;
(ii)
50 49
D = (25 24) + (25 24) ;
2
there is a difference between the (relative) abundance of

organisms;
one area has been disturbed by human activities;
two areas are at different seral stages;
1 max
Any other reasonable suggestion.
[12]
7.
(a) presence/absence of legs;

number of legs;
presence/absence of tentacles;
number of tentacles;
shape;
visible eyes;
bristles; 3 max
Any other reasonable suggestion, but not size, colour, habitat.
(b)
size;
colour;
habitat;
behaviour;
2 max
(c)
organism not in key;

difficult terminology;
no key available for organisms under investigation;
may require dissection/chemical tests or other techniques;
1 max
(d)
hard to collect;
difficult to determine dry weight;
difficulty of estimating area of irregularly shaped habitat;
seasonal variations in abundance;
2 max
[8]
8.
The organism chosen must be a consumer. If a producer is chosen, award

[2 max].
Description: [3 max]
weigh the organism and place it into an enclosure;
each day weigh the food provided;
collect leftover food and feces (the wastes) and weigh them;
after a given period of time e.g. 1 month, reweigh the organism;
gross productivity is food eaten minus the wastes;
net productivity is the increase in animal biomass;
productivity must be given as mass (g or kg) per unit time;
Description of biomass alone award [2 max].
51
Evaluation: [2 max]
the animal must be provided with an ample amount of food;
it may be difficult to determine an appropriate diet for the animal;
the animal may become stressed and unwell in captivity;
water must be provided to keep the animal alive and may increase the
mass of the wastes being weighed;
it is very difficult to collect all leftover food and feces (particularly
for aquatic animals);
a number of animals should be involved in the testing and averages taken;
the artificial environment may contribute to errors as the animal
will have unusually low levels of activity;
problem of moving some organisms (e.g. limpets, barnacles) from
their habitat;
5 max
[5]
9.(a) diversity is the variety of organisms per unit area/species

diversity is a measure of the number of different species
present and the relative numbers of individuals of each species;
1
Do not allow just number of species. Allow number of
organisms/plants and animals in an ecosystem or OWTTE.
Accept correct definitions given in terms of genetic or habitat diversity.
N ( N 1)
33(33 1)
or
(5 4) + (4 3) + (12 11) + (7 6) + (5 4) ;
(i)
D = n(n 1)
ecosystem B, D = 4.67; (accept 4.60 to 4.70)
2
(b)
(ii)
ecosystem A has a lower value of D due to pollution/agricultural

activity/disturbance;
ecosystem A is a more immature ecosystem/different
soil/different microclimate;
ecosystem A is an extreme environment (such as desert,
tundra, salt lake);
1 max
Any other reasonable suggestions.
Allow human involvement/activities.
Do not allow greater evenness/uniformity in abundance
or OWTTE.
[9]
10.
(a) first part of graph resembles j curve;

typical boom and bust/increase and crash graph;
initial low population;
period of exponential increase;
as population increases with few limiting factors (E);
e.g. with minimum effects of predators (E);

perhaps because predators killed off by humans (E);
population peaks in about 1924;
eventually population falls rapidly/crash occurs;
decline might be due to hunting pressure, owtte (E);
in due course control factor(s) take(s) effect (E);
e.g. as food supplies exhausted (E);
as population exceeds carrying capacity;
and/or disease/starvation occurs (E);
as death rate > birth rate (E);
population eventually approaches stability;
possibility that there may be an effect of severe weather (E);
4 max
At least two explanation (E) points are required for full marks.
(b)
catch and release method;

sample number of deer caught and marked/tagged without
harming them;
released and allowed to mix with population;
recaptured and checked for marks;
use of Lincoln index to calculate number;
use of aerial photos/satellite images;
photos/images could be divided into quadrats;
select sample quadrats using random number tables or similar;
multiply to obtain value for whole region;
use of hunting records;
use of tracks/scats (dung)/fallen antlers to estimate numbers;
statistical/computer modelling;
obtain separate estimates for areas of each distinctive habitat;
3 max
Any other reasonable points elaborating methods. Any points
addressing difficulties with methods should not be credited here
but may gain credit under (c).
(c)
possibility that marking might interfere with ability to move/

feed/reproduce;
some animals may become capture-prone or capture shy;
possibility of immigration/emigration/births/deaths within
census period;
hunting records can be unreliable (poaching/illegal shooting etc.);
some animals may be hidden from aerial surveillance beneath cover;
if sample quadrat system is used, sample area may not be typical;
deer are social animals and move in herds/groups leads to underor over-recording;
indirect method (tracks, scats etc.) notoriously unreliable;
3 max
Any other reasonable points. Points mentioning difficulties under
(b) may be credited here.
Do not credit the same point in (b) and (c).
(d)
The methodology must be appropriate for the selected ecosystem.

(Terrestrial or aquatic)
NPP = GPP R;
53
NPP measured by selection of typical quadrat/appropriate

ecosystem sample;
collection of biomass at start of growing period;
air-drying of organic material;
careful weighing to obtain value for dry-weight biomass per
unit area/sample;
collection of biomass from an identical quadrat/sample at end
of growing period;
drying and weighing of new sample;
obtain caloric value from tables;
or use bomb calorimeter;
difference related to time gives productivity;
allowance needs to be made for underground material, roots etc./
special efforts must be made to obtain this;
and material consumed by herbivores;
repetition of studies and taking of mean for greater accuracy;
4 max
N.B. Do not award a mark for naming an ecosystem, but mark out
of [3] if no ecosystem is mentioned. Do not credit details of
calculation of secondary productivity (e.g. measure mass of
animals, amount of feces produced, etc.).
(e)
(i)
The abiotic factor must be appropriate to ecosystem
specified
in (d) and must change over time. The link with a biotic factor
(i.e. living organisms) must be reasonable. If no ecosystem
is named in (d), allow ECF.
E.g. for a freshwater system:
temperature varies both on a daily and a seasonal basis;
as photosynthesis varies with temperature, the abundance
of producers (e.g. phytoplankton) and consumers (e.g.
water fleas) varies seasonally with temperature;
2
(ii)
Method will depend on factor selected. E.g. for temperature

and number of water fleas in freshwater:
Method [2 max]
use thermometer/thermograph;
repeat at regular intervals;
e.g. at different times of day/times of year;
under identical conditions;
count number of water fleas in a scoop (with net) of water;
preferably at same time as temperature measurements;
under identical conditions each time;
Evaluation [2 max]
Should address issues of:
subjectivity of observation (different people observe/record
in different ways);
standardization of procedures;
generalizability (avoidance of atypical conditions
e.g. a shaded area);

difficulties in qualitative measurements (e.g. poor light
conditions);
correlation not necessarily indicative of causality;
4 max
Any other reasonable points;
Do not allow full marks for a detailed description of the
method, plus evaluation of that method, of a single factor,
however detailed. For the full [4] the candidate must
emphasize the relationship with the second factor. Thus
a very full account of the measurement of soil pH, even
if some evaluation is included, cannot obtain full marks
if there is no comment about the factor supposedly influenced
by it.
[20]
11.
(a)
water;
(i)
1
(ii)
the weight/mass of (organic) material, after the removal of
Methodology will vary slightly with ecosystem chosen.

Award [1] for each of the following up to [4 max]. Award [3
max]
if no evaluation of (E) points given.
mark out measured area;
select quadrats using an appropriate method;
harvest all plant material within sample area;
air dry/oven dry;
Do not accept burn
weigh;
ideally take several samples and obtain mean;
problems with very large trees/difficult to harvest/destruction
of ecosystem (E);
problems with estimation of subterranean biomass (especially
in forest ecosystems) (E);
Any other reasonable point
4 max
Points of methodology inappropriate to selected ecosystem
should
not be credited.
Reject any discussion of animals/secondary productivity
(iii) Methodology will depend on abiotic factor chosen and must

be appropriate to the selected ecosystem.
name of factor (e.g. temperature, rainfall);
Do not accept a biotic factor
brief methodology (e.g. use thermometer/thermograph/rain
gauge);
repeat observation under similar conditions regularly over
period/day/year;
3
(b)
(i)
20 19
380
=
area A: 12 + 20 + 42 + 12 86 = 4.4
55
20 19
380
=
area B: 0 + 56 + 72 + 2 130 = 2.9
Accept more but not less significant figures than above.
therefore, area A is the most diverse area;
[1] for correct method, [1] for correct answers. Award [1] for
identifying area A.
Allow ECF for final point, but no mark if no working shown
at all
3 max
(ii)
(c)
Award [1] for any reasonable factor e.g.

succession;
soil texture;
moisture;
pH of soil;
logging/burning;
light intensity; 1 max
Reject a statement about number of species and abundance
of species.
(i)
Award [1] for two of the following and [2] for three
presence of wings;
presence of pincers;
steeply curved antennae/feelers;
abdomen more than twice the size of head and thorax/
relative size of head, thorax, abdomen;
horn-like structure on head;
absolute size;
Any other reasonable suggestion
2 max
Reject number of legs. All the specimens shown have six,
as do almost all (adult) insects.
(ii)
Award [1] for each of the following:

use field guide/illustrated textbook;
compare with museum specimen;
internet resources, OWTTE;
consult expert on the group;
distribution;
DNA testing;
behaviour (including sound);
habitat;
time of day or year;
Any other reasonable points
2 max
(iii) Award [3 max] for method and [1 max] for evaluation.

methods:
simple numerical count of termite mounds;
sample area might be taken and result multiplied to give total
figure;
mean of several samples might be taken;
use aerial photos to count mounds;
(Reject use of satellite images: scale probably too small).

use catch release recapture/Lincoln index method to
estimate number of termites in a colony;
multiply estimate of numbers in colony by number of colonies;
evaluation:
problems of dealing with very large numbers;
difficulty of access to interior of termite mound;
problems of variation in numbers with season;
difficulty of estimated numbers outside mound foraging;
Lincoln index method may not be appropriate for termite
community if organisms do not move around randomly between
marking and recapture;
problems of recruitment to population and deaths between
marking and recapture;
4 max
Any other reasonable suggestions for method or evaluation
When marking be tolerant: reward adequate understanding
of methods or concepts. However, award [3 max] if mounds
are not mentioned at all or if an account focuses solely on
mounds to the exclusion of actual insects.
[20]
12. (a)a parasite lives in or on another (host) organism/species and gains

all
or much of its food from that organism (usually without killing it)
OWTTE;
a predator is an animal that hunts another animal and kills it for
food OWTTE;
2
(b)
(i)
pyramid of numbers;
1
pyramid alone is insufficient; allow Eltonian pyramid.
Do not allow: biomass pyramid, food-chain, food-web.
(ii)
(c)
parasites are usually much smaller than their host;

so many of them can feed on a single organism at a time;
2
more than one species of parasite may live on a single host;
parasites can breed more quickly than herbivores;
energy available higher up a food chain is limited by energy fixed

by producers;
losses due to respiration reduce available energy/much energy
(about 90%) is converted to heat at each level of the food chain;
because all organisms must transform some energy to heat to
carry out their metabolic functions;
as implied by the Second Law of thermodynamics;
predators are always near the top of food chain/at third trophic
57
level or above;
so much of the available energy/production from producers is
converted to heat and lost from the system before it reaches the
predators;
3 max
[8]
13.
(a) (i)
capturemarkreleaserecapture method/use Lincoln
index method;
mark out area of 0.1 ha;
capture sample of beetles using traps/nets/searching in
appropriate places e.g. dung/carrion/dead wood according
to species;
mark with non-toxic paint or some other appropriate method;
allow interval and recapture similar number;
n1 n 2
n3 ;
P=
4 max
(ii)
(b)
immigration;
emigration;
deaths;
births/hatching from pupae;
patchy distribution;
difficulty of finding adequate sample;
2 max
(i)
Award [1 max] for abiotic factor and named
ecosystem.
Ecosystem must not be too vague. Do not credit biotic factors.
Example: sunlight intensity in eucalypt forest in south-west
Australia; 1
(ii)
Method will depend on the ecosystem selected.

For the above example:
light intensity varies with height;
measure light intensity with light meter;
measure at regular intervals (2m, 5m) from ground level to
top of canopy;
using ladders/extending poles/climbing trees or similar
method;
as far as possible under similar conditions each time;
as far as possible repeat several times and take mean;
4 max
(iii) Example: clearance of forest/cutting of trees

would allow sunlight to reach ground level;
light intensity would increase;
however, eventually thick successional community might
exclude sunlight;
and light intensity would decrease;

2 max
No mark is awarded for name of ecosystem, but if no name
is given, award [1 max]
[14]
14.
(a)
(ii)
or
(i)
1
20.6 (accept 21)

2
50 50 cm quadrat = 0.25 m ;
2
therefore 20.6 4 = 82.4 primroses m ; (accept 82)
2
21 4 = 84
(iii) e.g. light levels would decrease with distance into wood
1
(iv) along a profile or transect;
take reading at regular intervals;
enough to be statistically significant;
take samples using relevant equipment;
2
(b)
28 32
(i)
N = 10 ;
N = 89.6; 2
(ii) make sure all traps were working properly;
ensure all traps were equally baited;
ensure all animals were handled humanely and not hurt;
ensure all traps were in similar locations (e.g. all at the base
of a tree, all on a defined animal track);
traps checked at same time each day;
mark in a way that will not rub off;
mark in a way that does not compromise survival;
max
Accept other reasonable answers.
(c)
(d)
randomly place a series of quadrats in the meadow/grassland;

remove all vegetation from each quadrat;
dry the vegetation in an oven to remove water and measure the
dry mass;
work out the average dry biomass per quadrat and multiply by
total area of meadow;
3 max
(i)
51(51 1)
D = n( n 1) ;
59
2550
D = 596 ;
D = 4.28; 3
(ii)
low diversity index suggests that a habitat is newly colonised;

a monoculture dominated by a single species;
2 max
(iii) abundance is a measure of the number of organisms per

unit area;
diversity is the number of different species and the relative
number of individuals within a species;
2
[20]
15.
(a) a community of interdependent organisms and the physical

environment
they inhabit/OWTTE;
1
(b)
e.g. water flow through a river ecosystem;

1
Accept any reasonable answer that identifies a flow and an ecosystem.
Award [0] if no named ecosystem.
(c)
biomass within trees and plants/nutrient within soil;

1
Do not accept for example trees or soil. The item stored must
be identified.
(d)
0.04;
(e)
e.g. tropical rainforest and tundra;

mean NPP tropical rainforest greater than tundra/mean biomass
tropical rainforest far greater than tundra;
NPP per kg biomass of tropical rainforest is far lower than tundra;
Candidates may give figures from the table but they need to make
comparative statements.
tropical rainforest hot and wet so greater opportunity to develop

large biomass/high rate of photosynthesis and high rate of
respiration so NPP/per kg biomass/per year is low;
tundra cold and dry so low rates of photosynthesis and respiration/
plants slow growing, slow accumulation of biomass, relatively large
growth in biomass per year;
4 max
Award up to [2 max] for comparison and up to [2 max] for
explanation. Award any other combination of two ecosystems.
(f)
name of primary producer: e.g. grassland;

method: [2 max]
collect all the vegetation (including roots, stems, leaves) within a
series of quadrats;
weigh vegetation;
dry the vegetation until no further weight loss is encountered/dry
weight represents biomass;
3 max
Award [2 max] if no named primary producer.
[11]
61

Ecosystems 1

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Ecosystems 1

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ECOSYSTEMS

(a) A tree can be thought of as a system. Draw and label a systems

State two functions of producers in an ecosystem.

For a named ecosystem, draw a food chain with named species

Explain the role of decomposers in an ecosystem.

Suggest what effect a significant and prolonged decrease in the pH of

Explain why it might be important to know the abundance of the

Describe one human activity that might influence your chosen

Outline how you would measure changes in this abiotic factor.

Explain how you would measure the changes in the species

Describe the relationship between island area and plant diversity

Suggest one possible reason for the relationship described in (a).

Predict the effects of the introduction of goats or some other species of

With the help of a diagram, explain the term pyramid of numbers.

Name and briefly describe an ecosystem you have studied.

State two abiotic factors significant in the ecosystem.

(iii) Outline and evaluate a method to measure one of the selected

Name an organism found in the ecosystem specified above. Describe

Simpsons diversity index can be calculated by applying the formula

N = total number of organisms of all species,

Calculate Simpsons diversity index for area B (showing your

Simpsons diversity index for area A is 1.38. Suggest a reason for

The organisms shown below were found in a European estuary.

(Not drawn to scale)

Suggest three visible characteristics of the organisms shown in the

If you actually collected organisms A and B from the estuary, suggest

State one limitation of using a key to identify an organism.

The diagram below shows a cross-section through a typical rock pool. A

Define the term diversity.

Suggest one reason why the species diversity of the two

Describe and explain the shape of the graph.

Suggest what difficulties might be encountered in collecting this type

Outline how you would measure the net primary productivity of a

Define the term dry weight biomass.

For one of the ecosystems listed above, describe and evaluate a

Using the formula for Simpsons diversity index

Name one environmental factor that might explain this

[Source: Some Termites from Western Australia, (1989).

(iii) Bearing in mind that termites live in colonies of many thousands

Distinguish between the terms predator and parasite.

State the name of the type of diagram shown above.

Explain why the energy available to the predators in a food chain is

Aphodius beetle (enlarged)

Describe how you might estimate the population of one of these

14. An ecological study has been carried out in a small deciduous

Calculate the mean number of primroses per quadrat.

Using the mean number of primroses, calculate their density per

(iii) Outline an environmental gradient that might be present in a

(iv) Outline a possible method for measuring changes along this

The Lincoln Index provides a means of estimating animal populations. The

The Lincoln Index is calculated using the following formula:

Suggest what steps could be taken to ensure accurate results.

Wood pigeon (Columba

Blue tit (Parus caerulus)

Yellow wagtail (Motacilla

Stock dove (Columba oenas)

Blackbird (Turdus merula)

Green woodpecker (Picus

Sparrow hawk (Accipiter

Use Simpsons diversity index to determine the species richness

State what a low diversity index indicates about a habitat and

(iii) Distinguish between the terms diversity and abundance.

Outline the term ecosystem.