Archaeological Investigations at Pikillacta, a Wari Site in Peru Author(s): Gordon F. McEwan Source: Journal of Field Archaeology, Vol.

23, No. 2 (Summer, 1996), pp. 169-186 Published by: Boston University Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/530502 Accessed: 08/04/2010 14:55
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169

Archaeological Investigations at Pikillacta, a WariSite in Peru

Gordon F. McEwan
Denver Art Museum Denver7 Colorado

The1989 andf1990Jieldf seasons the Wari at provincial ofPikillactain thevalleyof site Cuzco,Peru,comprisedf Jirstextensive the excavation thesecond&-largest of existingWari architectural complex. Occupiedf between 600 andf900, Pikillactawasbuiltin three A.C. successive construstion pholses andJinallyabandfonedf completion theJinalone. before of Excavations revealedf well7reservedf architecture thecenterof thesite,includfing in such featuresasgypsum-plasteredffloors walls; andf superimposedffloor remainscollapsedf on oneanother, dfemonstrating existence multi-storiedf the of buildfings; plasteredf staircases; plaster-linedf niches; a varietyofsub-floor andf offering pits.Although interiors the the of buildfings largely were dfevoidf artifacts,excavations thesite's of in principalmidfdfen prodfucedf abundfance material:largequantities ceramic an of of remains, includfing such foreignstyles Nazca andfCayamarca, wellas obyssts bone, as as of shell,metal,obsidfian, andfworkedf stone.Evidfence presentedf adfdfresses of thelong-standfing is that many questionsregardfing unusuoll Thedfata this site. suggest sudfdfen ordferly a but abandfonment of Pikillactain themidfst thelast construction of phase. Entrances manyof thebuildfings to werecarefullysealed&, at leastonepartiallyconstructedf andf buildfing intentionally was buried&. is alsoevidfence thecentral There that portionof thesitewasconsumedfJiredfurby ing orshortly afterabandfontnent. Introduction How andwhen the firstAndeanimperial statedeveloped has long been the subjectof scholarly debate.By the time of the Spanishconquest in A.C. 1532, the majorityof the vast territoryof Andean South Arnerica had been united into a singlepoliticalentityknownas the IncaEmpire.The Spanishconquerors were astonishednot only at the size of the Empirebut also by its sophisticated politicaland economic structure,and by its monumentalpublic works. Soon afterthe Conquest,the Spaniards madeinquiries into the originsof the Inca state, learningthat the empirehad been in existence for only about 80 years (Rowe 1946: 205; Schacdel1978: 115). This seems entirelytoo short a time for the Incasto have not only conqueredsuch a vast territorybut also to haveindependencly inventedall of the politicaland economic institutionsnecessary controlit. to ltecent archaeological studieshave demonstrated that the Incas were the end product of a long process of social evolution,and that the origin of the state and the concept of empire lay furtherin the past than the Spanishwere told. Research focusingspecifically the remainsof the Wari on culturerevealarchaeological evidencefor the emergenceof

an expanding stateduringthe MiddleHorizontimeperiod (A.C. 540-900). Severalmonumental architectural complexeshavebeen identifiedas Waristatecentersof administration.Most prominentof these arePikillacta Cuzvo near in the southern Highlands, Viracocha Pampa near Huamachucoin the north Highlands,and the presumed capitalof the empire,the site of Wariin Ayacucho(FIG. 1). Additionally,Wari-styleartifactsare found throughout much of what is now modernPeru.These datahavebeen interpreted manyscholars suggestthat the Wari by to were the originators the firstAndeanempire. of In additionto being a stylistichorizon of ceramicsand other portableartifacts, Wariempirehas been defined the by a widespread, highlyuniform,architectural style. Shifts in settlementpatternoccurringduring the Middle Horizon have also been viewedas a diagnostictraitof the Wari empire (Lumbreras1974; McEwan 1979, 1984; Rowe 1963; Schacdel 1966; Schreiber 1978, 1987; Willey 1953). These changesare seen to reflecta reorganization of economic and social activitieswith an emphasis on centralizedadministrative control and channelingof resourcesthatseemsto suggestthe impositionof an imperial organization (Schacdel1966).

170 Pikillacta, a WariSite in Peru/McEwan

PERU

Figure 1. Map of Peru showinglocationof the Pikillacta as well as the other principal site Waricenters. The moderncities of Limaand Cuzco are shown for reference.

The archaeological remains the Waricultureappear of to meet many of the the criteriaused in anthropological definitionsof the state, which commonlyincludeconcentration of economic and political power, monopoly of force, organization along politicaland territorial lines, and differentialaccess to resourcesbased on status (Service 1962; Adams 1966; Fried 1967; Wright 1977). Trigger (1974: 98-101) has noted that the distribution varying of sized settlementsis likely to be significant interpreting in politicalorganization.In complex societies, the size and architectural featuresof some settlementsarelikelyrelated to theirpositionwithinan administrative hierarchy. Wright and Johnson(1975) have definedthe earlystate in Mesopotamiausing the criteriaof a site size hierarchy which, they argue, would reflect a parallelhierarchy decision of making.Wright(1977) has observedthat statesare internallyspecialized, comprising more thanone decision-mak-

ing level within the centralizedadministrative hierarchy. Such systemsentaila seriesof regionaladministrative centersand an efficientcommunication networkfor the transfer of informationbetween levels of the administrative hierarchy. Isbell and Schreiber(1978) have consideredthe Wari datain the context of these observations haveapplied and the Wrightand Johnson(1975) site-sizehierarchy model to the Waridata. They concludedthat the distribution of Wari sites tends to conform to this model and, thus, supportsthe conceptof a state-level politicalorganization. They also cite evidencefor a Warihighwaynetworkthat provided the communicationslink between the various
sites.

In orderto increase understanding our ofthe natureand inction of the Wariempire,the Pikillacta Archaeological Project,conductedbetween1989 and 1991, examined the

Journatlof Field Archateology/Vol. 1996 171 23,

Figure2. Aerialphotographof the Pikillacta site. Courtesyof ServicioAerofotografico Nacional,Peru.

largestand best preservedof the Wariprovincialcenters. This work has produced a large quantityof information about the Warisite of Pikillacta the Valleyof Cuzvo in in the southernPeruvian Andes. Since most of the data sets resulting from this project are still being analyzed,the purposeof this reportis to providea preliminary overview of the principal findingsof the project. The archaeological of Pikillacta believedto have site is been a provincialcapitalof the Wariempire during the AndeanMiddle Horizon (ca. A.C. 540-A.C. 900). Pikillacta ("flea-town" Qucchua)is located on the north side of in the LucreBasinat the southernend of the Valley Cuzvo. of Builtat an elevationof 3250 m asl,the site restson a series of low ridgesthatform the westernflankof CerroHuchuy Balcon(FIGS. 1, 2 ) . Pikillacta noted for its huge size, well-preserved is archi-

tectural remains,andrigidgeometriclayout.The gridplan of Pikillacta forms a nearlyperfectrectanglewhen viewed fromthe air(FIG. 2). This geometricsymmetry evenmore is impressive when viewed on the ground;the steep undulations of the terrain were not modifiedto accommodate the architecture the site. The NE side of Pikillacta considof is erablyhigherin elevationthanthe sw side, and the ground risesand fallsthroughoutthe site. The entiresite measures approximately 1680 x 1120 m, the most prominentportionof the site consistingof a very large,rectangular enclosure(approximately x 630 m) 745 that containsmost of the architectural features.Flanking the north and SE sides of this main architectural block are two groups of large, semi-rectangular enclosures(each approximately x 600 m in size) that may have func400 tioned as corrals. The individual structures withinthe main

172 Pikillacta, a Wri Site iv Petu/McEwv

enclosureare also built on a grand scale, with some of them measuring50 m or more on a side. Some of the ruinedwallsstill stand 12 m high. In additionto its enormoussize and strictadherence to a geometricplan, Pikillacta presentspeculiarities have that stimulatedmuch comment and speculation.For example, therearealmostno surfaceartifacts indicatethat the site to was ever occupied.This paucityof surfacematerial stands in markedcontrastto nearlyall other sites in the Cuzvo Valleyand, for that matter,most ceramic-period sites in Peru.Anotherprovocative questionrelatesto the acquisition of waterwithinthe site.Althoughsubterranean canals have been found, no sources of water were encountered during the site survey and excavations. Additionalquestions ariseregardingaccessto the variousstructures. A1though therearemorethan 700 individual structural units within the main architectural block, there are very few connecting corridors,doorways,or windows that would provideentriesto these structures. Withoutsurfaceceramics assistin cultural to interpretations,Valcarcel (1933) and Harth-Terre (1959) speculated that Pikillacta an Inca site. It was not until the midwas 1950s andearly1960s that JohnRowe (1956: 149) recognized architectural similarities that linked Pikillacta with the site of Wari in Ayacucho. Sanders' (1973) limited excavations,producing Wari style ceramics, confirmed Rowe's observationthat Pikillacta in fact a Warisite. was Sanders,however,found such a smallquantityof artifacts that he concludedthat Pikillacta had never,in fact, been occupied. Recent work at Pikillactaby the author (1979, 1984, 1987) resultedin the firstcompletegroundplanofthe site (FIG. 3) and a typologyof architectural units that could be used to define sampling strata for testing the site. An archaeological testing programestablishedseveralcrucial points. First, the site had definitely been occupied. A considerablenumber of artifacts remained in context withinthe structures in the maintrashmiddendiscovand ered just outside the SE side of the main enclosurewall. Second, the site was unquestionably Wariconstruction a with ceremonialceramicsof that type found in clearcontext with the structures.Third, test excavationsin the numerous(501) small,conjoinedstructures the NW on side of the site produced no evidence of a storage function. Thus there is no supportfor the widely-heldview (HarthTerre 1959; Rowe 1963; Menzel 1964; Lanning 1967) that these structures were analogousto Inca storageunits (called qolqas) and that the entire site functioned as a storagecenter.The testingprogram demonstrated site that finciion could not be determinedby superficial examination alone.

Instead,it is most likelythat Pikillacta servedas a major administrative node in the Wari empire, probablyas a provincial regionalcapital.This conclusionis basedon or several lines of evidence. First, the site is strategically located, with respect to both the local environmentand topographyand the imperialWaridomain and road system. Second, Pikillactais the earliestlarge architectural complex to have been constructedin the southernPeruvian highlands;size alone would indicatethe significance of Pikillacta duringthe MiddleHorizon. Third,artifactual remains, including polychrome ceramics, finely-carved bone objects, bronze implements,and objects of exotic materials example,spondylusshell and turquoise-col(for ored stone) reveal evidence of elite occupation. Certain structures withinthe site havebeen interpreted ceremoas nial in function,basedon recoveredofferingsand specialized architectural forms(McEwan1987: 39-40). Increasingly, the picture that emerges from the archaeological investigationis that Pikillacta served as a large, imperial, palace-like complex that housed high-ranking elites concernedwith stateadministration religiousactivities. and Architectural Investigations In 1989, extensivearchitectural excavations wereundertaken at Pikillacta.The purpose of these was to obtain evidenceof structural function,whichin turnwouldreflect total site function. The hypothesisthat Pikillacta was an administrative centerfor the Wariempirewas approached through this analysis. selectingthe locationsof excavaIn tion units,several considerations wereimportant. Pikillacta is dividedby its own architecture four sectors(FIG. 3). into In orderto studythe constructionsequenceand function of the site's main divisions, it was essential to sample variousstructural typeswithinall sectors.

A Revised Typolo,gy PikillDlstDl for

The 1982 structural typology used in previousstudies (McEwan 1984, 1987, 1991, 1992) has been redefined and simplified,based on the results of excavation.The 1982 typologycontainedfivebasicstructural types(FIG. 4). Type A structuresconsist of a rectangular enclosurewith peripheral galleriesarrangedsymmetrically, or more two on each side. Type B structurescomprisea rectangular enclosurewith or without peripheral galleries,but always containing a rectangularbuilding inside the enclosure. Type C structureshave a rectangular enclosurewith peripheral gallerieslaid out in an asymmetrical pattern(this asymmetryconstitutingthe principaldifferencebetween Types A and C); thus, one or more sides of a Type C structuremay have multiple galleriesbut all four sides neverhavethe samenumberof galleries, exceptwhen only

Journglof FieldArchgeology/Vol. 1996 173 23,

N 0

50

10 0

METERS

Figure3. Groundplan of the centralpart of the site of Pikillacta.

174 Pikillacta, a WariSite in Per/McEwan

NEW WARI STRUCTURALTYPOLOGY

OLD WARI STRUCTURALTYPOLOGY

TYPE A

TYPE I STRUCTURES TYPE B

3_1 TYPE II STRUCTURE TYPE C

L
TYPE D

TYPE III STRUCTURES

TYPE E

Figure4. Illustration the groundplansof the new and old structural of typologiesfor I'ikillacta.

a singlegalleryis presenton each of the foursides.Type D structures consistof only an empty,rectangular enclosure, while Type E structuresare rectangularbuildings with rounded corners that are unaccompaniedby the other elements.A new three-parttypology has been developed by McEwanand Couturefor reasonsexplainedbelow. Examinationof the 1982 data revealsno discernible differencein function between Types A and C, despite differences structural and the numberof sub-units in size within each type. Although it is not possibleat presentto definethe specificfunctionof these structures, is apparit ent that the artifactpatterningin these two types is very similar. TypesA and C both containfew hearthsand only smallamountsof refuse,composedof animalbones, broken pottery, and discardedartifactsof bronze, obsidian, and shell. Manychambers within both structural typesare devoid of any artifacts,however. Differences between Types A and C seem to be more a matter of scale and

elaboration thanfunction.Due to theirperceived similarity (particularly when compared with the other structural typesat Pikillacta), TypesA and C havebeen combinedto form a singletype usingthe new designation"TypeI." Excavation TypesB and E indicatedthat these types of arenot analogous,as previously believed(McEwan1987: 29-30). Further,it has become apparent that the original definitionof Type B (which had includeda free-standing structureinside an enclosure compound) was in error. Type B structuresare found both free-standing emand bedded in surroundingarchitectural units and do not appearto be necessarily linked with an enclosurecompound. The definition of Type B has been revised to include only the rectangularstructurewith niches and internally-rounded corners;it has been renamed "Type II." Structuresformerlyidentifiedas Type E have been reclassified "TypeIII." as No type D structures were tested by excavation because

JournoDl Field ArchoDeolo,gy/Vol. 1996 175 of 23,

L1 L1

L1
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11
11

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UNIT 43
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L E

Partially Excavated/Surface Cleaning Excavation Units

l
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1 1

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1C1 1g1 11 11 1L1 1z1

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Figure5. Planof excavation Units 36, 37, 38, 42, and 43.

the definitionprovedto be too vague. It was evidentthat almostanyempty-appearing enclosurecould be definedas type D but, without excavating each of them, it is impossible to have confidencein their equivalence. is apparent It that Type D was not satisfactorily defined originallyand shouldbe abandonedas a typologicalcategory. The revised,simplified, three-part typologyis illustrated in Figure4.

ExcavationsIn Sector1
Two excavations, designatedUnits 47-A and47-B, were conductedin a TypeII structure locatedon the swperimeter of Sector 1 (FIG. 3). Unit 47-A involvedclearingan exteriorstone staircase of 10 steps that led to the entranceof the building,which had been carefullyblocked with stone in antiquity.The areasurrounding includingthe thresholdof the doorand way was excavated, exposingan offeringof camelidbones and spondylusshellwhich had been placedin the floor of the thresholdat the time of construction. Unit 47-B, located in the westerncornerof the structure, consisted of a 2 x 4 m pit that was excavatedto a depth of 3.95 m. No floor was identified,but an offering

pit, measuringapproximately m in diameter,was en1 countered 1.28 m below the surfaceand continued to a depth of 3.95 m below the surface.At the bottom of this deep pit was an offering of camelidbone and spondylus shell. Both excavations revealedthat the interiorwallsof this structure had not been plasteredwith clay and white gypsum,as is commonlythe case with finishedstructures at Pikillacta.This building appearsto have been abandoned after the placement of dedicatory offerings but before construction was completed. Excavationsconducted in 1982 in Unit 31, also in Sector 1 on the NE perimeter, producedsimilarresults,indicatingthat Sector 1 was abandoned the midstof construction. in

ExcavationsIn Sector2
Four contiguousType I and Type II structures, located nearthe centerof Sector2, wereinvestigated excavation by
(FIGS. 3, 5 ) .

Unit 36 consistedof fiveexcavations (labeledA through E) to samplea TypeII structure that measures x 30 m. 10 Unit 36-A, the largestexcavation this structure, in exposed about 60 sq m of the NE end of the buildingand revealed

Site 176 PikillgstoD, WoDri in Per/McEwoDn Pv

Figure6. View of the plasterfloor and four largenichesin Unit 36. Note the offeringpit in the far
corner.

preserved the NE in fourlargenichesthathad been partially in nichesaretrapezoidal the horizontal wall (FIG. 6). These plane,with the narrowend openinginto the interiorof the building.This structurestill had tracesof the originalwall finishing,composedof as manyas seven layersof clayand cappedwith a final, surfacecoat of white gypsumplaster. Also exposedwas a large section of the massive,gypsumplastered floor at the NE end of the building.This wasvery 10 smooth and had an originalthicknessof approximately of cm. Otherexcavations the unit confirmedthatit continued throughoutthe structure. At each of the four corners of the structurewas a sub-floorpit into which an offering may have originally been placed.Al1of these pits)however,had been looted at some point in the past, but those at the north and east and were well-preserved still concornersof the struccure tainedsome of theiroriginalcontents.Thesewereapproxiand mately90 cm in diameter 3 m deep)andat the bottom spondylus of eachwas found a numberof partially-worked

shells and green-stainedcamelid bones. The pits at the south and west were much more shallow and reached 60 bedrock at a depth of approximately cm. Unit 36 encounteredevidenceof an old looting episode near the centerof the NE wall and in the thresholdof the doorway, but there did not appearto havebeen an offeringlocated in either location. Excluding the remainsfound in the were found in this structure. offeringpits, no artifacts to Unit 36-F sampleda room adjacent the NE wallof this structure,but neither plasterflooring nor artifactswere found. Unit 38 tested the south cornerof a Type II structure of located acrossthe large courtyardto the NW Unit 36. This excavationrevealeda shallow offering pit, approximately20 cm deep, that had been looted in the past and containedno artifacts. DirectlySE and acrossa narrowcorridorfrom Unit 36 10 measuring x 10 m thatwas was a smallType I structure designatedUnit 42. This showed evidenceof a plastered

23, Journalof FieldArchaeology/Vol. 1996 177

courtyard,and the exposed interiorsof the rooms confloors and wall surtained the originalgypsum-plastered was featureof this structure the faces.The most interesting in staircase the western gypsum-plastered well-preserved, corner(FIG. 7), which consistedof a flight of six steps that led to a secondfloorlanding.How entrywas gainedto this buildingis not clear:the mainentranceseemsto be in the southerncorner but the corridorleadingto the entrance from Unit 37 appearsblocked by a cross-wall.Since the latter was plasteredwith clay and gypsum in the same manneras the rest of the structure,it appearsto be an originalfeature. Adjacentto Unit 42 and just to the SE iS a largerType I 20 that measures x 20 m. Designatedas Unit 37, structure this building was sampled by means of nine excavation units (FIG. 5). Units 37-B1 through B3, Unit 37-C, Unit 37-D1, Unit 37-E1, and Unit 37-H1 exposed various rooms of this structure.All contained gypsum-plastered floors and walls beneath 2-3 m of overburden(FIG. 8). they all containedremainsof the collapsed Additionally, constructedof plaster upper floors that were apparently of and clay laid over a framework wooden poles (FIG. 9). includedpartsof polychromebowls and The few artifacts a fragmentof a bottle with a modeled human face on its neck. Excavationalso revealed large ash deposits and burnedwooden beams,indicatingthat this buildinghad likelybeen burned. cut A stratigraphic in the south cornerof the patio, just was in front of the mainentryto the structure, designated that revealed the Unit 37-P1. The profileofthis excavation twice in patio floor level had been raisedand re-plastered The second remodelingof the patio covered a antiquity. bench that had originallyrun along the NE wall of Unit the 37-A and Unit 37-B. To accommodate raisedpatio, a short flight of four steps had been placedin front of the main entrance. Three entrances to this structure were located;two in the south cornerandone in the eastcorner. The two doorwaysin the south corner appearto be the blockedin antiquity and entrances were carefully principal at (FIG. 10), presumably the time of site abandonment. The north corner of the largest structurein the site intrudesinto the south cornerof Unit 37. This structure was sampledby three excavations,Unit 43-A3, Unit 43A4, and Unit 43-B1 (FIG. 5). The first of these revealed plasteredwalls and the remains of three finely-finished floors (indicatingthe presence separategypsum-plastered had been a three-storybuilding).Large of what originally chunks of fallen floor showed the impressionsof beams lashed with ropes that had formed the upper-storysupports. In Unit 43-A3 we encountereda single,rectangular, blockrestingon the floor;this is the only cut dressed-stone

context at Pikillacta stone ever found in an architectural (FIG. 11). This room was filledto a depth of 3 m with fine, grayash mixedwith burnedwooden beams,suggestinga massiveburning episode. In contrastto the excavations potsherds,needles,and clothingpins described, previously were common (tupus) of bronze, and obsidianfragments of in the fill. In Unit 43-A3 were recoveredfragments the originalwooden lintelsthatspannedthe doorwaysin sockets on either side of the door frames. Resting in the doorwayof the second story was a large chunk of fallen plasterfloor that could only have come from a collapsed third floor as it restedwell above the protrudingsecondfloor supports. Slightly to the north of Unit 43-A3 are two curious, rooms, each measuringapproximately triangular-shaped 1 x 1 x 2.7 m, and designated Unit 43-A4 and Unit 43-B1. These were excavatedto the ground floor (about 3 m below present surface)and revealedthat each con0.9 taineda low doorway(measuring m in height x 0.6 m in width) for access.The fillwithinthese unitsconsistedof ash and burnedwood. Restingon the floorof Unit 43-A4 of werethe remains at least30 beans,suggestingthatthese smallrooms mayhavebeen used for food storage. Withinthe NE and SE wallsof this huge centralstructure (FIG. 3). Unit 45 sampled arelocatedtwo TypeII structures locatedwithin the NE wall. This unit the Type II structure was located in the western corner of this structureand construcinternally-rounded revealed the characteristic, tion. The remains of a looted offering pit, measuring were found beneaththe 90 approximately cm in diameter, an floor.Unit 45 alsorevealed extraordigypsum-plastered nary,full-heightniche, (verydifferentfromthe othersseen that at Pikillacta) extendedfromthe floorto the top of the ruinedwall (1 m wide x 2.1 m high). The fill within this gray unit alsoconsistedof finely-powdered, ashmixedwith burnedwood fragments. Unit 46 sampledthe north cornerof the other Type II structureembeddedwithin the SE wall of this same large, rounded corner centralbuilding (FIG. 3). A characteristic Unit 46 containeda largeniche was exposed.Additionally, in (trapezoidal its horizontalplane) and a looted offering pit (about 90 cm in diameter)located beneath the gypfloor. No artifactswere found within this sum-plastered unit, andthe fill containedmuchless ashthanwasencounteredin the previousexcavations. indicatesthat before abandonment, In sum, excavation Sector 2 had been completely constructed,with some buildings having multiple stories and probablyroofs of in thatch. Previousexcavations, 1982, also providedevidence that this sector was finishedand occupied.A trash midden and hearthswere found in severalbuildings.Un-

178 Pikillacta, a Wari Site in Peru/McEwan

Figure7. View of the staircase found in Unit 42.

23, of Joxrn6B1 Field Arch6Beolo,gy/Vol. 1996 179

Figure8. Plasterfloorsin Units 37-D and E.

180 Pikill6Dctg, Wgri Site in Per/McEwgn Pv

stones on the right Figure9. Collapsedupperfloor in situ in Unit 37-B2. Note the line of projecting wall indicatingthe originalheight of the floor.

like Sector 1, Sector2 seems to have been completedand occupied.It also seems to have been destroyed,at least in part,by fire.

Excolvoltzons tector J In
* n n

and Sector 3 containsthe smallestnumberof structures shows the least evidenceof finishedconstructionin Pikilend of the lacta (FIG. 3). A Type II structureon the NW sector, designatedUnit 34, was sampledby means of 21 excavation pits. Internally-roundedcorners and large cross-sectionwere exposed by exnicheswith trapezoidal cavation.This building had been completely filled with sterile clay soil. The floors had not been laid, the walls remainedunfinished,and none of the usualofferingsbeen placed in the cornersand door threshold.The doorway This structure had blockedin antiquity. had been carefully apparently been abandonedduring its constructionand carefully sealedin clay. Other finds of interest in Sector 3 consisted of two to originalentrances the site and two burials,all locatedin National wall of Pikillacta. The Peruvian the sw perimeter Instituteof Culturehad been engaged in conservingthe walls of Pikillactawhen they came upon these features. Members of the PikillactaArchaeologicalProject were

of askedto assistthe archaeologists the Institutein excato vatingand recordingthe burials.Entrance1 appears be a narrow gatewayextending the full height of the wall. Entrance2 was much lower and was capped by a lintel stone. Burial1 containedthe bodiesof a mananda woman of about middle age (John Verano,personalcommunication, 1989). Associatedwith the burialwere a numberof stone beads.These bodies appear small,turquoise-colored to havebeen placedin the wall at the time of construction. Due to the slumpingof the wall it was difficultto determine the preciseoriginalpositionof the bodiesor whether there had been a preparedcyst within the wall; both individuals were in a flexed, seatedposition. Burial2 was alsofoundin a slumpedportionof the mud andsplit-stone wall.The body was in a flexedpositionbut had fallenonto its side. The remainswere of an adolescentfemalewith a severefacialdeformity(John Verano,personalcommunication, 1989). Excavations In The Midden is The midden at Pikillacta located outside the SE peavenue rimeterwall and just above the southernapproach to the site (FIG. 3). Unit 39, Unit 40, and Unit 44 were excavatedwithin this midden and more than 150,000

Journglof FieldArchgeolo,gy/Vol. 1996 181 23,

Figure10. View of the principal entranceto Unit 37 that was deliberately blockedin antiquity.

artifacts were recovered.Most of these were potsherdsbut therewere also quantitiesof metal, bone, shell, stone, and obsidian artifacts.Analysisof these materialsis not yet completebut preliminary inspectionhasyieldedsome provocative data. One of the more unusual finds was the discoverya largefragment a Nazca6-stylebowl (Patricia of Knobloch, personal communication, 1989). About five sherdsin the Cajamarca were also recovered(FIG. 12). style A largenumberof metalimplements(probably copperand bronze) tupupins, needles,chisels,andfragments were also found, indicatingthat the use of metal objects was fairlycommon duringthe Middle Horizon. Radiocarbon Dates From Pikillacta Five radiocarbonsamples collected during the 1989 excavations have been processed.Charcoalfound directly on the floor of Unit 36 (Beta 43230) provideda date of 1150+80 B.P. (an uncorrected date of A.C. 800+80).Two samplesfrom Unit 37 were processed.One (Beta 43234) was taken from a wooden beam support associatedwith the collapsedsecond floor andyieldeda date of 1330 + 60 B.P. (an uncorrecteddate of A.C. 620 + 60). The second sample(Beta43232) from Unit 37 was of charcoal from a burned upper-floorsupport beam. It provided a date of 1180+ 60 B.P. (an uncorrected date of A.C. 770 + 60). Two

samplesfromUnit 43 were alsoprocessed. fragment a A of wooden lintel found in situ in a doorway (Beta 43231) provideda date of 1290 + 60 B.P. (an uncorrecteddate of A.C. 660 + 60). The second samplefrom this unit was of charcoalfrom a burnedfloor or roof supportbeam (Beta 43233), and yielded a date of 1060 + 50 (an uncorrected date of A.C. 890 + 50). Although there is always the possibility that the wooden architecturalbeams were reused from other earlierstructures,the dates obtained from them fall within the expected range for the Middle Horizon. The datesfrom these samplesare also consistent with those obtainedin 1979 and 1982 (McEwan1987). Conclusions Although the data recovered from Pikillactaare still being analyzed,it is possible to draw some preliminary conclusionsfromthe excavation results.Therearedatesfor the occupation,an indicationof the sequenceof construction, evidencefor structural function, and some information regardingthe circumstances site abandonment. of The site was begun possiblyas earlyas A.C. 600 and may have been occupieduntil A.C. 850-900. Architectural evidence indicatesthat constructioncontinued throughout the occupation and that the site was abandonedbefore much of the architecture completed.Excavation was illus-

182 Pikillact6l,a W6lri Site in Per/McEw6ln

Figure11. View of Unit 43-A3. Note the columnof ash fill in the doorwayand the cut stone in situ on the floor.

Journal of Field Archaeology/Vol. 1996 183 23,

Figure12. Ceramic fragments the Nazca (right) and Cajamarca of (leftmost)styles,found at Pikillacta.

tratesthat Sector 2 was the firstto be built, and featured filllyplasteredwalls and floors in multiple-story buildings with thatchedroofs.This sectorwas occupiedlong enough for some buildingsto have undergoneat leasttwo remodeling episodes. Basedon the degreeof completeness, appears the it that other threeSectorswere constructedin the sequenceof 1, 4, and finally3. Wallsand floorswere incompletein Sector 1, but offerings had been placed in doorway thresholds andcornerpits preparatory layingthe gypsum-plastered to floor. In Sector 4, constructionwas also well advanced, with offeringsin place (McEwan1987: 35, 40), but walls were incompleteand floorswere unfinished.Sector 3 was the least complete, with walls risingonly a short distance abovethe foundationbeforebeing halted. Structuralfilnction in Wariarchitecture remainsenigmatic. The buildings are so unusual that they do not suggest any filnctionrecognizableby form alone. Thereis consistentplacementof elaborately-prepared offeringpits in the cornersof Type II structuresand, although these pits have all been looted, the few remainingartifacts suggest importantofferingsof humanand animalbone, metal, and spondylus shell. It also seems likely that these offeringpits originally containedsets of turquoise-colored stone figurineslike those reported to have been looted from the site in 1927 (Valcarcel 1933; Cook 1992). Type

II buildingsalso are unusualin Wariarchitecture that in they contain large wall niches. From this evidence it is possibleto suggest that Type II structures ceremonial are in natureand representshrinesor temples.Type I structures only contain hints as to originalfilncton; the few remaining arofactspoint to the storageand preparatonof food and perhapsother goods, however. The multiple, small cellularrooms (like those of Unit 37) would have been difficultto light and seem crampedand inconvenient for living quarters; they would, however,have servedadmirably storage.Among the few artifacts for found in this type of structureare decoratedceramicservingbowls and metal pins usually associatedin the Andes with texales worn by women. Hearths have also been found in the chamberscloser to the courtyards some of these buildin ings. Direct evidencefor storageof foodstuffscomes from the smalltriangular of Unit 47 in whichthe remains cell of beans were found on the floor. Analysisof the ceramic collection,currently underway, shedmorelight on this will queston. The abandonmentof Pikillactaoccurred during the constructon of Sectors 1, 3, and 4. The abruptcessaton of constructon in the midst of a majorexpansionof the site seemsto reflectsome sort of crisisfromwhichthe Wari never recovered. Although construction was halted abruptly,the abandonmentof the site was orderly and

184 Pikillacta, a Wri Site in Petu/McEwn

enough time was availablefor elaborate preparations. Among thesewas the sealingof a numberof key doorways with stone blocksin what seems to have been an attempt to discourageunwanted visitors. Rooms were carefully emptied of valuablegoods, which no doubt accountsfor encounter. the clean, empty chambersthat archaeologists filled Some buildings,such as Unit 34, were deliberately and sealed with clay,perhapsto protect sacredprecincts from outsiders.Some offeringsmayhavebeen removedat this time as well. The precisionof the cuts through the floor in Unit 36 suggests prior knowledge of the exact was locationof eachoffering.No excessplaster brokenand by the hole was cut directlyoverthe pit. Theseprecautions the Warialso stronglysuggestthat they intendedto return and to Pikillacta were seekingto protectit. The final event in the abandonmentseems to be a massiveburningepisode. It is unknownwho lit these fires but it seems unlikelythat the Wariwould have burned down the site after taking such elaborate measuresto that local peoples protectit. More likelyis the explanation of attemptedto sackthe site afterthe departure the Wari. of The extensiveness the burningin the site, togetherwith evidenceof its intensity(with large,whole beamsbecoming completelycarbonizedand beamsburnedon the unand dersideof floors)suggeststhat the firewasdeliberately set. not accidentally In sum, the evidenceseemsto suggest and an abruptend to the Warioccupationof Pikillacta the Cuzvo region, and perhapsan end to the empire. well with correlate resultsfromPikillacta The excavation the basic chronology set forth by Menzel (1964, 1968) sites.It is and the resultsof studiesof the othermajorWari in to instructive view Pikillacta termsof the Warichronology and datafromthe other two majorsites that represent the imperialorganization:the imperialcapitalat Wariin in the AyacuchoBasin,andthe site of Viracochapampa the North Highlands. In the 1960s Dorothy Menzel (1964, 1968) undertook ceramicstudiesof collectionsfromWariand other Middle Horizon sites and was able to identifyand seriateseveral majorstyles involvedin the Wariexpansion.From these chronologyof studiesshe was able to derivea generalized events in the history of the Wariempire.The portion of the Middle Horizon (A.C. 540-900) during which Wari ceramicswere spread throughout Peru is divided into epochs 1 and 2, each spanning100 years.Each of these into partsA andB of approxiepochsis furthersubdivided mately50 yearsduration. potterywith DuringEpoch 1A a new styleof ceremonial and to similarities BolivianTiahuanaco other iconographic altiplano styles appearedin the Ayacucho region. This seems to imply the introductionof a new religion rather

than a conquest by outsiderssince few importedartifacts havebeen found. During Epoch 1B Waribecamethe centerof an expansion movement.This expansionis markedby both religin and ious and secularceramics was likelymilitary character ratherthanreligiousbecauseof the high proportionof by influenced the expansion. artifacts foundin areas secular suggestthat and Radiocarbon ceramicdatafromPikillacta it was founded duringthe Epoch 1B expansionand that constructionbegan between A.C. 600 and 650 (see also McEwan1984: 131-133). a In Epoch2A Menzelpostulatesa severecrisis,perhaps expansionof the empire. revolt or epidemic that halted This is reflectedin the change in settlementdistribution and burialpatternsin the AyacuchoValleyand on the had South Coast. During this time sector 2 of Pikillacta been completedand continuedto be occupied. resolvedby Epoch2B and the This crisiswas apparently empire expandedvery rapidlyand reachedits maximum was also undertakenand extent. Expansionat Pikillacta constructionin sectors1, 3, and 4 was begun. At the end of Epoch 2B the empirecollapsedand the capitalat Wari abandoned.At about this same time (the latest construction date determinedby radiocarbonis A.C. 830 + 42) Pikillactawas abandonedwith sectors 1, 3, and 4 left uncompleted. At the capital of the empire, the site of Wari in Ayacucho,a similarsequenceis seen in the architectural and contructionphasesof the site (Isbell, Brewster-Wray, in Spickard1991). Constructionof architecture the style seemsto peakduringEpoch 1B. Thiswas seen at Pikillacta construcfollowedlate in Epoch2 by a new andambitious tion phasethat was not completedbeforethe site is abandoned. Thus the sequence of construction,occupation, at is expansion,and abandonment paralled Wariand Pikillacta. in At the site of Viracochapampa the North Highlands to parallels (FIG. 1) can be seen anotherset of interesting This at the situationrevealedby the excavations Pikillacta. site is also laid out in a rigid grid plan and can be subdiViracochapampa vided into four sectors. Like Pikillacta, was abandonedbefore constructionwas completed.The end of constructionhoweveris rathertenuouslydated to earlierthan at Pikillacta(Topic Epoch 1B, considerably and Topic 1983; Topic 1991). A red claydepositor fill is seen in many of the incomplete buildingsat Viracochaof pampawhichis reminiscent the red clayfillseen in Unit Although Topic (1991: 151) feels that 34 at Pikillacta. these deposits may be the result of excavationfor wall this foundation trenches at Viracochapampa, is not the werealsobuilt wherethe wallfoundations caseat Pikillacta

23, Journalof FieldArchaeology/Vol. 1996 185

brought in trenches.The red clayseems to be deliberately in and likely had some symbolic value in terms of the materialand the color. Blocked doorways are another At feature seen at both Pikillactaand Viracochapampa. Pikillactathey have been interpretedas an effort by the entryafterabandonment. unauthorized to Wari discourage Topic and Topic (1983: 18; 1991: At Viracochapampa, 151) havearguedthat the blockeddoorwaysarethe result of a constructiontechnique representingtemporarymasonrysupportsfor lintelsthatwere neverremoved. seen throughout activity Thisuncompletedconstruction the Waridomain providessome interestinginsights into the state of the empireat the time of its collapse.Rather than a state of decline or decay, the data reflect a state and renovation new construction.If engagedin large-scale future studies can decipherthe function of the buildings that underconstructionanddemonstrate theywerepartof of apparatus the state, then these abanthe administrative doned constructionprojectsmay reflecta parallelexpansion of the empire. This third great expansionseems to resultsfor the Wari, failedhowever,with catastrophic hasTe includingthe abruptcollapseof theirempire. Acknowledgments The PikillactaArchaeologicalProject was carriedout under a grant from the National Science Foundation the acknowledges (BNS-8819481). The authorgratefully in who participated the help of the following individuals Alana Cordy Collins, Nicole Couture, Mary excavations: Glowacki,Daniel Julien,Ann Hutflies,Nemesio Holguin, Donald McHwan,Roberto Perez, RahillaAbbas, Kathy Reese, WilbertPalomino,and WilbertVera.I would also like to thankInga Calvinfor editorialassistance. Art F. Gordon McEwgnis Curgtorof New World gt the erly stgtes gnd DenverArt Museuxn hgs beenstudyinsg gddress: in the vglleyof Cuzco,PerH,since 1977. Mgilinsg Deprtxnent, 100 W New World DenverArt MHseuxn, 14thAvenuePrkwgy, Denver;CO 80204.

Harth-Terre,Emilio 1959 Pikillacta - ciudad de positosy bastimientosdel imperio incaico.Cuzvo: Universidaddel Cuzvo. and Isbell, William H., ChristineBrewster-Wray, Lynda Spickard and 1991 "Architecture SpatialOrganizationat Huari,"in William H. Isbell and Gordon F. McEwan, eds., Huari AdMonumentalArchitecministrativeStructure:Prehistoric ture and State Government. Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks, 19-53. Schreiber Isbell, William H., and Katharina 1978 "WasHuari a State?"AmericanAntiquity43: 372-389. Lanning, Edward P. 1967 Peru Beforethe Incas. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: PrenticeHall. Lumbreras,Luis G. and Culturesof Ancient Peru. Betty J. Meg1974 ThePeoples gers, transl. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press. McEwan, Gordon F. 1979 "Principlesof Wari Settlement Planning," M.A. thesis, Department of Anthropology, University of Texas at Austin. 1984 "The Middle Horizon in the Valleyof Cuzvo, Peru: the Impact of the Warioccupation of Pikillactain the Lucre Basin," Ph.D. dissertation, The Universitv of Texas at Austin. The Middle Horizon in the Valleyof Cuzco, Peru: The Impact of the Wari Occupationof Pikillacta in the Lucre S-372. Oxford: B.A.R. Basin. BAR InternationalSeries "Investigationsat the PikillactaSite: A ProvincialWari Center in the Valleyof Cuzvo," in WilliamH. Isbell and Gordon F. McEwan, eds., Huari Administrative Strucand State GovMonumentalArchitecture ture:Prehistoric ernment.Washington,D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks, 93-119. "El Horizonte Medio en el Cuzvo y La SierraDel Sur Peruano,"in Duccio Bonavia,ed., EstudiosdeArqueolozgia Peruana. Lima:Fomciencias,279-310.

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Rowe, John H. 1946 "Inca Culture at the Time of the SpanishConquest," in of JulianH. Steward,ed., Handbook SouthAmericanIndians. Bulletin 143, Vol. 2. Washington, D.C.: Bureau of AmericanEthnology, 18 3-3 30 . 1956 1963 "ArchaeologicalExplorationsin Southern Peru, 195455," AmericanAntiquity 22: 135-151. "Urban Settlements in Ancient Peru." NaxvpaPacha 1: 1-27.

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Schacdel, RichardP. 1966 "IncipientUrbanization and Secularizationin Tiahuanacoid Peru,"AmericanAntiquity 31: 338-344. 1978 "Formationof the Inca State," in RamiroMatos M. ed., III Conzgreso Peruano del Hombrey la Cultura Andina, XtOl. Lima: UniversidadNacional Mayor de San Mar1. cos, 112-156.

Schreiber,K. J. 1978 "PlannedArchitectureof Middle Horizon Peru: Implications for Social and PoliticalOrganization,"Ph.D. dissertation, State Universityof New Yorkat Binghamton. 1987 "From State to Empire:The Expansionof Warioutside the Ayacucho Basin,"in JonathanHaas, Shelia Pozorski, and Thomas Pozorski,eds., TheOrizgins Development and of the Andean State. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,91-96.

Service, Elman 1962 Primitive Social Orzganization: EvolutionaryPerspecAn tive. New York:Random House. Topic, John R. 1991 "Huariand Huamachuco,"in WilliamH. Isbell and Gordon F. McEwan, eds., Huari Ad ministrative Structure: PrehistoricMonumental Architectureand State Government.Washington,D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks, 141-164. Topic, John R., and Theresa Lange Topic 1983 HuamachucoArchaeolozgical Project:Preliminary Report on the SecondSeasonJune-Auzgust1982. Peterborough, Ontario:Trent University Trigger, Bruce 1974 "The Archaeologyof Government," World Archaeolozgy 6: 95-106. Valcarcel,Luis 1933 "Esculturas Pikillacta,"Revista del MuseoNacional 2: de 1948. Willey, Gordon R. 1953 Pre-HistoricSettlementPatterns in the Viru Valley, Peru. Bureau of Amreican Ethnolozgy Bulletin, Volume 155. Washington,D.C.: SmithsonianInstitution. Wright, Henry T. 1977 "Recent Research on the Origin of the State," Annual Reviexv Anthropolozgy 379-397. of 6: Wright, Henry T., and Gregory Johnson 1975 "Population Exchange and Early State Formation in Southwestern Iran," American Anthropolozgist 26777: 289.