2008 12

Noam Chomsky1928
1928 12 7
1945-1950 1955
29 1955

1949 12 24
Carol Schatz

(William Chomsky)

(Zeling
Harris)

11951-1955
1953

1955
1956
Markov model

1957

Syntactic

2002
1

StructureMouton & Co., Sgravenhage, 1957.

1979

1959
(On certain formal properties of
grammaers, Information and Control, 2: 137-176, 1959)

1965
(Aspects of the Theory of Syntax, Cambridge: MIT
Press, 1965)

Standard Theory

-Katz and Postal 1964

(Extended Standard
Theory EST)
197019711973

70

Revised Extended Standard Theory REST

1976 WH-1977
Chomsky and Lasnik 1977

Universal Grammar UG
2


70

1979

Lectures on Government
and Binding, Dordrecht: Foris, 1981

80

(Minimalist Program)

Bare phrase structure, OxfordBlackwell, 1995

Minimalist Program for Linguistic Theory, Cambridge: MIT Press, 1995

PF
LF-articulatory-perceptual, A-P-
concetual-intentional, C-I

Ross- Bresnan Gazdar

1965
6070

911

50

1 (standard theory)
1 1957-1965(the first linguistics model)
(classical theory),(Syntactic Structures)
1957
2 1965-1970(standard theory)
(Aspects of the Theory of Syntax)1965
3 1970-1979(Revised extended standard
theory)1970
1971
1973
2 (Principles and Parameters)
1 1979-1993(the theory of government and
binding)(Lectures on Government and Binding)
19811982
2 1993-(Minimalist Program)
19951995

KatzPostal
FillmoreRossGazdar
Bresnan

Linguistic Inquire
The Linguistic ReviewNatural
5

Language and Linguistic Theory

Language

1992 1993 Hale Keyser 20 The

view from Buliding 20 1995

2
50

Humboldts problem
W. HumboldtErgon
Energeria

/mind/brain

/
Platos problem

mental organs

language faculty

initial stateattained state

Universal Grammar
UG
Particular Grammar PG
UG PG
2

2006
6


Cartesian problem
Descartes
science of body

thinking substance

cognitive psychology

human biology

biolinguistics

methodological naturalism

L
L

I
I InternalIndividualIntensional
I I
I
I I I
/I
I

internalist
externalist

galilean-Newtonian style

minimalism
methodological minimalismsubstantive minimalism

Humboldt

1956


lexicon
syntax
PF-componentLF-component
X-bar X-bar theory
bounding theorygovernment theory-theory
binding theoryCase theorycontrol theory

7
1 X 1970 X X-bar theory

(1) John proved the theorem

(2) Johns proof of the theorem
(1)( VP) Vprovethe theorem
Comp(2) NP
Nproof the
theorem
VP V Comp
NP N Comp
AP( PP)
( A)( PP)
AP A Comp
PP P Comp

XP X Comp
X V, N, A, P

XP
X
Comp
XP X X
X X Comp


X
X
Comp

X X X X
X X

this proof of the theorem

NP
Det

NP
N

this

proof

PP
of the theorem

X
N
Det

N
N

this

proof

P
of the theorem

VV
A,A X,X,X,
X

X
X X
X XP
XP XP XP (maximal
projection)
X (lexical
category)(phrasal category)This proof of
the theorem Proof of the theorem NP

10

 X X X

X X V V
V N A VP A PP

2 ( -theory): (predicate)
(individual)

(1) John ran quickly

(2) John likes Mary

(1) ran quickly John John
(2) likes John Mary ,John
Mary
(argument) John Mary
(non-argument)
it, there
3 It is certain that John will win ()
(4) There are believed to be unicorns in the garden

(-criterion)
1.
2.
() John
Mary
John Mary Mary John

(proform) PRO It is unclear to see who

see who
PRO
It is unclear [COMP [PRO to see who]]
COMP COMP
X Comp COMP to see who
PRO
3(Case theory)

case Case

X
John proved the
theoremJohns
11

proof of the theory

X
(N)(V)
[+N, -V] ()
[-N, +V]
[+N, +V]
[-N, -V]
[-N][-N]

4(government theory)

3
John likes him
John says Bill likes him
John likes himself

S
NP

VP

John

NP

likes
him
John him S John him
John him

S
NP
John

VP
V

S1
NP

says

Bill

VP
V

NP

likes
him
Bill him S1 Bill him
Bill him him John him John
S1John S1 S1

12

NP
John

VP
V

NP

likes
himself
John himself S John himself
John himself
X X X
X Comp
5. (binding theory)

A(bound)
B(free)
C(free).
himself himher
John, Bill

(bound variable)(free
variable)

S NP
C JohnBill

B him S
John John him
B him S1
S1 Bill Bill him
B him S1 John him
Bill John
A himself S John
himself John

6.(bounding theory) wh-

?Who does the

book criticize?who criticize criticize

whoi [s does this book criticize ti]

ti who (trace) who ,who

13

 S.

Who are you reading the book that criticize?

whoi [s are you reading [NP the book [ that [s criticize ti]]]]
who t , S NP.
who wh-
S NP (bounding node),
(subjacency condition)Wh-
,who ,
who Who does
criticise the book that you are reading ?
who1 [s does criticise t1 [np the book that [s you are reading]]]
who S,
7. (control theory):
PRO
John promised Bill to leave
John persuaded Bill to leave
John leave Bill leave

John promised Bill [PRO to leave]

John persuaded Bill [PRO to leave]
PRO promised persuaded
PRO promised PRO
persuaded
Johni promised Bill [PROi to leave]
John persuaded Billi [PROi to leave]
promise persuade

promise promise [+SC]

(Subject Control).
,PRO (arbitrary reference),:
It is unclear [what PRO to do]
It is difficult [PRO to see the point of this]
,PRO

Projection Principle
Licensing PrincipleFull Interpretation Principle
14

Y
(I)
D-
(II)
S-
(III)
PF

(IV)
LF
Y

YY
Y-model Y
(I)(II)-(III)
(IV)(I) D-D-structure(II) D-
S-S-structure(III) S- PF(IV)
S- LF
(I) D-(II) S-(III) PF(IV) LF
D- S-PF LF
interface
D- S- D S

=(D, S, P, L)
D D-S S-P L
What is easy to do today?
D-
[S [NP it] [VP is [AP easy [S NP[VP to do [NP what]]]] today]]
S-
[NP what][S [NP it] [VP is [AP easy [S NP[VP to do [NP e]]]] today]]
S-
For which x, it is easy [S NP[VP to do [NP e]]] today
what for which x
S-
What is easy to do today?
Y What is easy to do today?
D-S-PF LF PF LF
D-S-

15

The Minimalist Program, Cambridge, MIT Press, 1995

MIT 1993
Hale Keyser 20 The view from Building 20

The minimalism Program

The Theory of Principles and Parameters
1.1 Introduction
1.2 The Lexicon
1.3 Computational System
1.3.1 General Properties of Derivations and Representations
1.3.2 D-Structure D
1.3.3 Derived Syntactic Representations
1.4 Modules of Language
1.4.1 Government Theory
1.4.2 Binding Theory
1.4.3 Case Theory
1.5 Future Topics
Some Notes on Economy of Derivation and Representation

2.1 Preliminary Assumptions

2.2 Some Properties of Verbal Inflection
2.3 A Least Effort Account

2.3.1 Minimizing Derivations

2.3.2 The Element I I
2.4 Summary: On Economy of Derivation
2.5 The Agreement System: Some Speculations
2.6 Economy of Representation
2.6.1 Operators and Variables
2.6.2 Legitimate LF Elements LF
2.6.3 FI and Expletives FI
16

2.6.4 Future Questions concerning LF Raising LF

2.7 Some Conclusions on Language Design
A Minimalist Program for Linguistic Theory
3.1 Some General Considerations
3.2 Fundamental Relations: X-Bar Theory X-
3.3 Beyond the Interface Levels: D-Structure D-
3.4 Beyond the Interface Levels: S-Structure S-
3.5 Extensions of the Minimalist Program
Categories and Transformations
4.1 The Minimalist Program
4.2 The Cognitive System of Language Faculty
4.2.1 The Computational Component
4.2.2 The Lexicon
4.3 Phrase Structure Theory in a Minimalist Framework
4.4 The Operation Move
4.4.1 Movement and Economy
4.4.2 Projection of Target
4.4.3 Last Resort: Some Problems
4.4.4 Move F F
4.5 Interpretability and Its Consequences
4.5.1 Types of Features
4.5.2 Checking Theory
4.5.3 Expletives
4.5.4 Clause Type
4.5.5 The Minimal Link Condition
4.5.6 Attract/Move /
4.6 Movement and -Theory
4.7 Properties of Transformational Component
4.7.1 Why Move Why
4.7.2 Departures from the Best Case
4.7.3 XP-Adjunction and the Architecture of Linguistic Theory XP
4.7.4 Other Improprieties
4.7.5 Adjuncts and Shells
4.8 Order
4.9 Expletives and Economy
4.10 Functional Categories and Formal Features
4.10.1 The Status of Agr
4.10.2 Core Concepts Reconsidered
4.10.3 Empirical Expectations on Minimalist Assumptions
4.11 Summary

17

a. /
b.

a. //

b.
mimimalism

perfect system

1.

I
I SDStructure Description
SDStructure DescriptionI
SD

articulatory-perceptual system A-P

conceptual-intentional system C-I
A-P
C-IA-P
PFC-I LF
A-P C-I

2000 Aristotle
18

Y- D- S-

PF
LF

overt syntax
PF

D- S- A-P C-I

converge
crash SD

PF PF
LF LF
PF LF

PF LF

2. X-

X-
X- X- X-

19

XP
ZP

X
X

YP

X-
X- X XP X X
local relation
ZP X -
Spec-head relation X YP -
head-complement relationX YP
X YP
head-head relation

multi-branching
binary-branching
Chomsky normal form
CYK

1982

3. D-
D-once
and all D-- S- S- SF LF Y

X-
SD SD
SD
X-
D- S-
D-
X-
Y- D-
LF D-

20

4. S-
ESTS-
S-
D- LF
Spell-Out

D-
S- S-
D- S-
PF LF
S- S
LF
PF VVerb IInflexion

[V, I]PF

[V, I]
feature checking

PF
LF PF

S-
5.

FI
porcrastinate principlegreed principle
PF
Full Interpretation principle FI
PF
FI LF
C-I C-I

LF
PF

21

1.
SD ,

2.

3.

4.
UG

5.
FI

porcrastinate principle
greed principle

1999

50 11

1988

1986

1992

2002

19874

1988

2006
N. Chomsky, The Minimalist Program, Cambridge: MIT Press, 1995

1
2 I I I
3
4
5
22

6
7-
8 D-
9 S-
10
11

Chomsky 1956
Chomsky Markov

Chomsky

Chomsky 1957 1995

Chomsky

N Chomsky

n n

kernel

1.

23

project

meta-theory

2
1John ate a sandwich.
2Sandwich a ate John.
adequacy

12
12

12

A A A
string
L L

24

4
5

34
5

2
2.1
finite-state
Markov process3 G
S0,Sq A=aijk0ijq1kNij
C=SiSj
Si Sj aijkaijkA
6S1Sm
1=m=0 G SiSi+1C i<m
Si Si+1,7
7aii+1K
KNii+1 concatenation46
8
8a12K1 a23K2 am-1mKm-1
Ki KiNii+1 LG
G
LG G S0
A
S0 L G L

2.2 A
G
A 5 G G

4.1 5.3

A L a1 an
S=a1an L L S i, j

9i1ijn
(ii) bibjAS1 L S2 L
S1 bi S i ai S S2 bj S1 j
aj S1
bi S i ai biai bj S j
aj Lbjaj L S i, j
3

[7][7] 15
[6] 2
5
boy
run
runninging
books
s
4

25

 D={1, 1m, m} L S

10i 1im L S i, i
ii i, j i j
iii i, j ij, ij, ij
L S item
S ai ai
L S m L
2m

11 L mL
m
12
L 1L2 L3
12
iL 1 abaabbaaabbbL1
n a n b L1
iiL2 aabbabbabaabaabbaa
L2 X X
L2
iiiL3 aabbababbabaaabaab
L3 X X L3

L2 m D={12m
22m1mm+1}6
2.3
term S 1S2

13iif S1then S2
iieither S3or S4
iiiThe man who said that S5, is arriving today.
ifthen
eitheror
manis
13i

13ii13iii S1 S 3S5
12 L1
L2 11

L1
9ii bj U X UX= XU=X
Dm L1 2m
26

2.3
device
n
n
Si x x conditional
probability Si n
n+1
approximation n

string
frequency
grammaticalness
14
14colorless green ideas sleep furiously
1414
14
15

15furiously sleep ideas green colorless

141512
1415
1142
151415

n n

n n
S0 S1
S1S1

S1 S0
S0S2

S2S2

S2 S0three-state ab
acbc

c
S2

S0

S1

16b

b
c

aa, aba, abba, abbba,cc, cbc,

7

8
n+1 n n
13iiiisare S5
27

cbbc, cbbbc, abbc, cbba

2.4

2.3

3
3.1
immediate constituent analysis

3NP
VP17
17 the man took
the book
NP

Verb

NP
VP

Sentence
word-by-word
NP
building block

3.2 VpVp
FXY, X Y Vp
X Y
[, F]
181n
FX1Y1

XmYm
Xi Xi Yi
4 U
[, F]18
19
i =ZXi W, =ZYi W, im9
ii St D=S1,, St

Z W U 418 U

Yi Xi 19iii19V
terminality
28

 S1 i< t Si+1 Si
iii18 S S 18

iv St St
v St

F L
[, F] L
L [, F] L
terminal language
VTVT VPVT
VT VT
F rewritten
VT

3.3 18
20#Sentence#
FSentenceNPVP
VPVerbNP
NPtheman, thebook
Verbtook
20
21D1#Sentence#
#NPVP
NPVerbNP
themanVerbNP
themanVerbthebook
themantookthebook
D2
#Sentence#
#NPVP
themanVP
themanVerbNP
themantookNP
themantookthebook

D1 D2
22
#Sentence#

NP
the

VP
man

Verb

NP

29

took the
book
2217the man took the book
S D D S s
nodes X X22
D1 D2
the man NP
tookthebook VP
thebook
NPthe mantookthebook
mantook

[,F]
20
23Verbareflying
Verbare
NP they
NP planes
NP flyingplanes
they are flying -- a planeNP- Verb-NPflyingplanes arenoisy
NPVerbAdjectivethey are flying
planes
24#Sentence#
#Sentence#
NP
they

VP
Verb
are

NP
NP
flying

VP

they
planes

Verb
are

NP

flying planes

theyareflying planes
theyare flyingplanes

3.4
2023
3.2 [, F]25
X ZW Y
25 ZXW ZYW
3.2
25X

obligatory rule
optional rule

proper grammar[, Q]
Q 18 XiYj i
j Xi=Yj XiYj
18
30


Xi Yi1,, Yik
[, F]
DG G G DF={D
G|G [, F]}DQ={DG|G }
26DF DQ DF DQ DQ DF
[, F]
[, F]
3.5 2.1
3.2

27i
ii
iii
LG 2.1 G [,
F]={SO} ; F 28i i, j, k Si, SjG, jo,
kNij; F 28ii i, k Si, SoG kNio
28iSiaijkSj
iiSiaiok
[, F] LG27i
2.2 12 L1L2 L3 L1 L2
L1[, F]
29Z
FZab
ZaZb
27i
L4 Vp={a1,,an} L4 aibi
bis Vp
L4
L5
30ab, cabd, ccabdd, cccabddd,

S1, S2, XY i>1 Si

Si1 Y X
X 18
L5

31Z
FZab
ZcZd
L6L6 a 2n 3n
n=1, 2,12 L1
ab aba a b b
27
2.3
12 L1 L2 L1
31

 L2

3.2Vp VT29
L1 Z L12024

3.6 18[, F]
So,Sq So
X1Xm X1Xm

So 3.2

[, F]12iii L3

3
4

20
4
4.1 20developtook
the man the book
takes
has taken
has been taking
is taking

has been taken

will be taking
has taken
has taking
is being takenis being taking

has been takinghas en

be
take
3220

32 iVerbAuxiliaryV
iiV take, eat,
iiiAuxiliaryCMhaveenbeingbeen
ivM will, can, shall, may, must
v Cpast, present
32iii
auxiliary
C
21 D1
33#themanverbthebook# [21D1]
#themanAuxiliaryvthebook# [32i]
#themanAuxiliarytakethebook# [32ii]
#themanChaveenbeingtakethebook#
[32iii C, haveen being]
#themanpasthaveenbeingtakethebook# [32v]
32

 Af en

ing C V V
M
havebe33
sequence of morpheme
34Afv v Af#
33 Afv
35#themanhavepast#been#takeing#thebook#.
2.2

36havepasthad
beenbeen
takeingtaking
willpastwould
canpastcould
MpresentM
walkpastwalked
takepasttook
35
37the man had been taking the book.
3234

[, F]34
[, F]
3433take V v

34
3.6
4.2 [, F]
[, F]
32
comeoccur32 V been
John has been come
John is occurred been
verbthe manthe food
verb32 been
32the man is eating the food
the man
would have been eating the foodthe man is eaten the food
the man
would have been eaten the food verb
the foodby the man beenthe food is eaten by the man
the food is eating by the man been
32verbbeen
been 32[, F]

been[, F]
the man ate the foodthe
33

food was eaten by the man been 32iii

[, F]
38 S NP1AuxiliaryVNP2
NP2AuxiliarybeenVbyNP1
the manpasteatthe foodNP1AuxiliaryVNP2
the foodpast be eneatby the manNP2AuxiliarybeenVbyNP1
3436the man ate the food
the food was eaten by the man
been 32
32
been the manthe food
the foodby the man
3834

[, F]38

grammatical transformation
[, F]10
5
5.1 T
T
T
domain
3.2 [, F] VP
VTVP
3.3 [, F]
22
11 D1Dn S
S phrase marker D1Dn

24

K S
39S,KX1,,Xn s1,, sn
iS=s1sn
ii inK s1si--1Xisi+1sn
40 Ksi S Xi12
403.3
is asi 40
Xi si S S 22
Xi

analyzability
10

[3]
[1][2][4]
11

12
is a S si S si
siX X S si X [5], P297
34

 R
41R restricting class r, mR

X11,, Xr1

m
X1 ,, Xrm
i, j Xij VP T
R S, KXj1, , Xjr K S
T S S, K S K
S S
S
38 RP
42RP={NP, Auxiliary, V, NP}

43
43 S1,,S4
43the manpasteatthe food
5.2

t
44 n, rnr
a0, a1,ak VP
Z1,,Zk+1
13
ia0=0; k0; 1jk 1ajr; Y0=U
ii Y1, , Yr Y
t 1,, Yn;Yn, , Yr= Ya0Z1 Ya1Z2 Ya2 Yak
Zk+1
t 45 Yn Ya0Z1 Yak
Zk+1
45Y1Yn1--Yn+1Yr
Y1Yr Y1, ,Yr
Ya0Z1 Yak Zk+1 t
Y1--Yr W1--Wr
t* t
46t* t Y1--Yrt*Y1--Yr=W1
Wr nr Wn= tY1,,Yn; Yn,, Yr
t T tP 38

47tPY1; Y1,,Y4=Y4
tPY1, Y2; Y2, Y3, Y4=Y2been
tPY1, Y2, Y3; Y3, Y4=Y3
tPY1,,Y4; Y4=byY1
tPY1,,Yn; Yn,, Yr=Yn nr4
t*
48it*Y1,,Y4=Y1 Y2been Y3 - byY1
iit*the man past eat the food= the food past been eat 13

U 4
35

bythe man
34
3648iithe food was eaten by the man
43the man ate the food
38
42
47RP, tP
RP
tP
R t R t

[3] K S
K S
5.3
XY 20
23
3234
383636
XY
20#Sentence#

3.4
4 34
3834
affixverb
verbaffix

3434

kernel

the man ate the food

proving that theorem was difficultproving that theorem14

was the food eaten by the man

meaningpreserving
6
[1][2]
3.6
14

NPVP1, itVP2 S1 S2 ingVP1 VP2 S1=they prove that

theorem, S2=it was difficulting prove that theorem was difficult,
34proving
that theorem was difficult[1][3]

36

5.12
41

6
simplicity
1
5use
understanding

S
S

3.3 [, F]they are

flying planes

constructional homonymity

49
49the shooting of the hunters
hunter50

51

50the growling of lions

51the raising of flowers
50
51
the V ing of NP.
4951
T1 lions growl50 T2
they raise flowers51
T1 T2 12 hunters shootthey shoot the
hunters T1 T2 49
49

49
49
shoothunters
50

51they growl lionsflowers

raise
[1][2]
5.4

37

3
elementary component

[1] Chomsky, N. The Logic Structure of Linguistic Theorymimeographed

[2] Chomsky, N., Syntactic Structure to be published by Mouton & Co., S-Gravenhage,
Netherlands
[3] Chomsky, N., Transformational Analysis, ph. D. Dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, June,
1955
[4] Harris, Z. S. Discourse Analysis Language 28, 1 1952
[5] Quine, W. V., Mathematical logic, revised edition, Harvard University Press, Cambridge,
1951
[6 ]Rosenbloom, P., Elements of Mathematical logic, Dover, New York 1950
[7] Shannon & Weaver, The Mathematical Theory of Communication, University of Illinois Press,
Urbana, 1949
IRE Transaction on Information Theory, IT-2, pp. 113-124, Proceedings of the
Symposium on Information Theory, Sept, 1956.

38