Differential Amplifier

A differential (or difference) amplifier is a circuit used for amplifying a voltage difference between two input signals while rejecting signals that are common to both inputs.

Basic operation:

Loop 1: VBE VE = 0 VE = VBE = 0.7V and IE1 = IE2 since both currents combine in RE, IE1 = IE2 = IRE/2 Loop 2: IRERE + VEE + VE = 0

1 2

VEE + VE

IRE =

RE

based on approximation IC IE then IC1 = IC2 = IRE/2 therefore, VC1 = VC2 = VCC IC1R1

Modes of Signal Operation: 1. Single-ended input input signal is applied to either input with the other input connected to ground 2. Differential or double-ended input two opposite polarity input signals are applied. 3. Common-mode input same signal is applied to both inputs

Single-ended Input:

Differential Input:

Common-mode Input:

Common-mode signal signal that drives both inputs of a differential amplifier equally. these are interference, static and other kinds of undesirable signals picked-up by the circuit. Common Mode Rejection Ratio(CMRR): measure of an amplifiers ability to reject common-mode signals.
Av(d)

CMRR =

Acm Av(d) Acm

CMRR = 20 log

Example: A certain differential amplifier has a differential voltage gain of 2000 and a commonmode gain of 0.2. Determine the CMRR and express in dB.
2000

CMRR =

0.2

= 10,000

CMRR = 20 log 10000 = 80dB

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Differential gain: vin(d) = vin1 vin2 From Loop 1: vin1 ie1re (ie1 + ie2)RE = 0 vin1 = ie1(re + RE) + ie2RE (1) vin2 ie2re (ie1 + ie2)RE = 0 vin2 = ie2(re + RE) + ie1RE (2) express in terms of the currents:
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from (1) ie1=

vin1 ie2RE re + RE

substitute in (2) vin1 ie2RE vin2 = ie2(re + RE) + RE re + RE simplify in terms of ie2 = vin2 ie1RE re + RE vin2 ie1RE RE re + RE

substitute ie2 in equation 1: vin1 = ie1(re + RE) + which makes ie1 = (re + RE) vin1 REvin2 (re + RE)2 RE2

do the same to compute for ie2 = at the output side:

(re + RE) vin2 REvin1 (re + RE)2 RE2

vout(d) = vc1 vc2 = RC (ic1 ic2) = RC (ie1 ie2) = RC (re + RE) vin1 REvin2 (re + RE)2 RE2 vout(d) vin(d) = RC re (re + RE) vin2 REvin1 (re + RE)2 RE2

Simplify to obtain Av(d) =

*true for balanced output (vout(d) = vc1 vc2)

for unbalanced output (vc1 or vc2 only): Av(d) =

vout(d) vin(d)

RC 2re

Common-mode gain: vicm = vin1 + vin2 2 voutcm Acm = v incm

for common-mode, emitter currents ie1 = ie2 since the two transistors are matched, only one-half of the circuit may be considered:

voutcm Acm = vincm =

RC re + 2RE

Example: For the circuit shown, calculate: (a) ICQ and VCEQ (b) Av(d) and Acm (c) CMRR Solution: (a) VE = 0.7V IRE =
VEE + VE RE

12 0.7 8.2k

= 1.378mA

IE = IRE/2 = 0.689mA = ICQ VCQ = VCC ICQRC = 9.726V VCEQ = VCQ VEQ = 9.726 (0.7) = 10.426V re = 25mV/IE = 36.28 RC Av(d) = r = 90.95 e Acm = RC = 0.2 re + 2RE

CMRR = 90.95/0.2 453

Introduction to Operational Amplifiers (Op-amp)

The operational amplifier is a direct coupled high gain amplifier and is used to perform a wide variety of linear as well as non-linear functions. This circuit was originally used for carrying out mathematical operations such as summation, differentiation, and integration on input signals. Now, operational amplifiers are used for functions other than mathematical operations such as dc as well as ac amplification, rectification, waveform generation, filtration, non-linear waveshaping, etc. Block Diagram of an op-amp

Input stage this stage provides most of the voltage gain and also establishes the input resistance of the OPAMP. Intermediate stage is another differential amplifier which is driven by the output of the first stage. Level shifting circuit used to shift the dc level at the output downward to zero with respect to ground. Output stage increases the output voltage swing and raise the current supplying capability of the OPAMP, also provides low output resistance. A simple op-amp arrangement:

Symbols and Terminals: The standard operational amplifier symbol is shown. It has two input terminals, the inverting input (-) and the non-inverting input (+), and one output terminal. The typical op-amp operates with two dc supply voltages, one positive and the other negative.

Ideal Op-amp Characteristics: The ideal op-amp has infinite voltage gain, infinite input resistance, zero output impedance and infinite bandwidth.

Practical Op-amp Characteristics: 1. Very high voltage gain (~105) 2. Very high input impedance (~2MW) 3. Very low output impedance (~75W) 4. Wide bandwidth (0 1MHz) 5. Very high differential gain (~80dB) 6. Large CMRR (~80dB)

Op-amp Parameters: Input Offset Voltage It is desired that the dc voltage at the output is zero with no input voltage. But because of the unequal amount of current drawn by the input transistors of the first differential amplifier due to unbalance in the circuit, the output voltage will not become zero. Input
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offset voltage is the voltage required between the inputs to force the differential output to zero volts. Typical values are in the range of 2mV or less. Input Offset Voltage Drift with Temperature The input offset voltage drift is a parameter related to Vos that specifies how much change occurs in the input offset voltage for each degree change in temperature. Typical values range anywhere from about 5mV per degree Celsius to about 50mV per degree Celsius. Usually, an op-amp with a higher nominal value of input offset voltage exhibits a higher drift. Input Bias Current The input bias current is the dc current required by the inputs of the amplifier to properly operate the first stage. By definition, the input bias current is the average of input currents and is calculated as follows: I +I I BIAS = 1 2 2 Input Impedance - Differential input impedance is the total resistance between the inverting and the noninverting inputs. It is measured by determining the change in bias current for a given change in differential input voltage. - Common-mode input impedance is the resistance between each input and ground and is measured by determining the change in bias current for a given change in common-mode input voltage. Input Offset Current Ideally, the two input bias currents are equal, and thus their difference is zero. In a practical op-amp, however, the bias currents are not exactly equal. The input offset current, Ios, is the difference of the input bias currents expressed as an absolute value.

I OS = I1 I 2

Output Impedance The output impedance is the resistance viewed from the output terminal of the op-amp. Common-mode Input Voltage Range All op-amps have limitations on the range of voltages over which they will operate. The common-mode input voltage range is the range of input voltages which, when applied to both inputs will not cause clipping or other output distortion.

Open-loop Voltage Gain The open-loop voltage gain of an op-amp is the internal voltage gain of the device and represents the ratio of output voltage to input voltage when there are no external components. The open-loop voltage gain is set entirely by the internal design. Open-loop voltage gain can range up to 200,000 and is not a well-controlled parameter. Data sheets often refer to the open-loop voltage gain as the large-signal voltage gain. Maximum Output Voltage Swing (Vo(pp)) The output voltage of an op-amp cannot be higher than the positive dc power supply voltage (+VDC), and cannot be lower than the negative dc power supply voltage (-VDC). Vo(pp) also varies with the load connected and increases directly with load resistance.

Common-mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR) The CMRR is a measure of an op-amps ability to reject common-mode signals. A good op-amp should have a very high value of CMRR, this enables the op-amp to virtually eliminate interference signals from the output. A A CMRR = v ( d ) = ol Acm Acm Slew Rate The slew rate of an op-amp is the maximum rate of change of the output voltage in response to a step input voltage. It is dependent upon the high-frequency response of the amplifier stages within the op-amp.

The slew rate can be measured using the circuit given below: -the output voltage cannot change instantaneously when a high frequency, large amplitude signal is applied at the input side.

Example: What is the slew rate for the output signal shown in response to a step input? The output goes from -10 V to +10 V in 25 s.

Frequency Response Ideally, an op-amp should have infinite bandwidth. This means the gain of an op-amp must remain the same for all frequencies from 0 to infinite. Practical op-amps however decrease its gain at higher frequencies. The dependence of gain on frequency is due primarily to the presence of capacitive component in the equivalent circuit of the op-amp. Maximum Operating Temperature. The maximum temperature is the highest ambient temperature at which the device will operate according to specifications with a specified level of reliability. Minimum Operating Temperature. This is the lowest temperature at which the device operates within specification. Output Short-Circuit Duration. This is the length of time the op-amp will safely sustain a short circuit at the output terminal. Many modern op-amps can carry short circuit current indefinitely. Maximum Output Voltage. The maximum output potential of the op-amp is related to the DC power supply voltages. Typical for a bipolar op-amp with 15 V power supply is about 13 V maximum and - 13 V minimum. Negative Feedback Negative feedback is the process whereby a portion of the output voltage of an amplifier is returned to the input with a phase angle that opposes (or subtracts from) the input signal. This method helps stabilize the gain and reduce distortion. It can also increase the input resistance.

Advantages of Negative feedback: 1. Stable voltage gain 2. Decreased output impedance 3. Increased/decreased input impedance depending on circuit 4. Decreased distortion 5. Increased bandwidth Closed-loop Voltage Gain (Acl): The closed-loop voltage gain (Acl) is the voltage gain of an op-amp with external feedback. The gain can be controlled by external component values. Concept of Virtual Ground: When finding the gain, assume there is infinite impedance at the input (i.e. between the inverting and non-inverting inputs. Infinite input impedance implies zero current at the input. If there is no current at the input impedance, there is no voltage drop between the inverting and non-inverting inputs. Thus, the voltage at the inverting input is zero. The zero at the inverting input is referred to as virtual ground.

0V

(a) Virtual ground

(b) Iin=If and current I1 = 0

Op-amp Configurations with Negative Feedback The Inverting Amplifier: The inverting amplifier has the output fed back to the inverting input for gain control. The gain for the inverting op-amp can be determined by the formula: V1 = V2 = 0
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 Vin R f Vout Ri = 0 Rf Vout = R Vin i

Example: Given the op-amp configuration in the figure, determine the value of R f required to produce a closed-loop voltage gain of -100.

The Non-inverting Amplifier: The closed loop gain for a non-inverting amplifier can be determined by the formula V1 = V2 = Vin V1 V1 Vout + =0 Ri Rf

Vin R f + Ri (Vin Vout ) = 0

Vin ( Ri + R f ) = Ri Vout ) Vin R Ri Example: Determine the gain of the amplifier in the figure. The open-loop voltage gain of the op-amp is 100,000. Vout = Ri + R f Vin = (1 + Rf

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The Voltage Follower: The voltage-follower amplifier configuration has the entire output signal fed back to the inverting input. The voltage gain is 1. This makes it useful as a buffer amp since it has high input impedance and low output impedance.

Effect of Negative Feedback on Open-loop Gain Vf = Ri Vout Ri + Rf Vout = Aol (Vin Vf) substituting Vout for Vf Vout = Aol (Vin Vout ) VouT Aol = = Acl(NI) Vin 1+ Aol since 1<< Aol then Acl(NI)
1 Ri + Rf = Ri

= Vf / Vout (attenuation)

Input impedance of the non-inverting amplifier The input impedance of an op-amp without feedback is Zin. The input impedance with negative feedback increases the value of Zin to a very large value that for all practical circuits it can be considered infinite. Vin = Vd + Vf Substituting Vout for Vf Vin = Vd + Vout Since VoutAolVd Vin = Vd + AolVd = Vd (1 + Aol) Substituting IinZin for Vd Vin = IinZin (1 + Aol) Where Zin is the open-loop impedance Vin/Iin = Zin (1 + Aol) Vin/Iin is the overall input impedance of the closed-loop non-inverting configuration: Zin(NI) = (1 + Aol)Zin

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Output impedance for the non-inverting amplifier The output impedance of an op-amp without feedback is Zout. Negative feedback decreases this by a factor of (1 + AolB). This is so small that for all practical circuits it can be considered to be zero. Vout = AolVd ZoutIout but Vd = Vin Vf by assuming AolVd >>ZoutIout then Vout Aol(VinVf) substituting Vout for Vf Vout Aol (Vin Vout) Vout AolVin AolbVout AolVin Vout + AolVout (1 + Aol) Vout since output impedance Zout(NI) = Vout/Iout AolVin (1+Aol) IoutZout(NI) dividing both sides by Iout: AolVin/Iout (1+Aol) Zout(NI) AolVin/Iout (1+Aol) Zout(NI) since AolVin = Vout and Vout/Iout =Zout then Zout = (1+Aol) Zout(NI) thus,

Example: What are the input and output impedances and the gain of the non-inverting amplifier? Assume the op-amp has Aol = 100,000, Zin = 2 M, and Zout = 75 . The gain is

Acl (I) = 1 +

Rf Ri

= 1+

36 k 25 = 1.5 k
1 = 0.040 25

The feedback fraction is B = The input impedance is The output impedance is

8G 0.019

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Input impedance for the inverting amplifier

Recall that negative feedback forces the inverting input to be near ac ground for the inverting amplifier. For this reason, the input impedance of the inverting amplifier is equal to just the input resistor, Ri. That is, Zin(I) = Ri.

Output impedance for the inverting amplifier The equation for the output impedance of the inverting amplifier is the essentially the same as the non-inverting amplifier:

Example: What is the input resistance and the gain of the inverting amplifier? Assume the opamp has Aol = 100,000, Zin = 2 M, and Zout = 75 . The gain is

Acl (I) =

Rf Ri

36 k 24 = 1.5 k

The input impedance is Zin(I) = 1.5k The output impedance is 0.019 Voltage Follower The voltage-follower is a special case of the non-inverting amplifier in which Acl = 1. The input resistance is increased by negative feedback and the output resistance is decreased by negative feedback. This makes it an ideal circuit for interfacing a high-resistance source with a low resistance load. Zin(NI) = (1 + Aol)Zin

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Bias Current and Offset Voltage Compensation Effect of an Input Bias Current

Ideally, if the input voltage is zero, there should be zero current coming into the inverting input of the op-amp. However, there is a small bias current I1 that goes through Rf. This current creates a voltage at the output equal to I1Rf known as the error voltage.

In the voltage follower circuit shown, it is shown that the output error voltage is I1Rs.

Bias current compensation:

(a) Voltage follower

(b) non-inverting

(c) inverting

Effect of Input Offset Voltage The output voltage of an op-amp should be zero when the differential input is zero. However, there is always a small output error voltage present whose value typically ranges from microvolt to millivolts. This is due to unavoidable imbalances within the internal op-amp transistors aside from the bias currents previously discussed. VOUT(error) = AclVIO since Acl for the voltage follower is 1, VOUT(error) = VIO

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Input Offset Voltage Compensation

Open-loop vs. Closed-loop Voltage Gain Open-loop voltage gain is set entirely by the internal design, whereas the closed-loop voltage gain is determined by the external component values.

3-dB Open-Loop Bandwidth The bandwidth of an AC Amplifier is the frequency range between the points where the gain is 3dB less than the midrange gain. In general, the bandwidth equals the upper critical frequency (fCU) minus the lower critical frequency (fCL). Since fCL for an op-amp is zero, the bandwidth is simply equal to the upper critical frequency. BW = fC(OL) Unity-Gain Bandwidth In the bode plot of the Open-loop amplifier, the gain steadily decreases to a point where it is equal to 1 (0 dB). The value of the frequency at which this unity gain occurs is the unity gain bandwidth.

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Phase Shift

An RC lag circuit found in an op-amp stage causes a propagation delay from input to output, thus creating a phase shift between the input signal and the output signal. Phase Shift () is expressed as: = -tan-1(f/fC) The negative sign indicates that the output lags the input. The math expression shows that the phase shift increases with frequency and approaches -90 as f becomes much greater than fC.

Example. Calculate the phase shift for an RC lag circuit for each of the following frequencies, and then the curve of phase shift versus frequency: (a) f = 1 Hz (b) f= 10 Hz (c) f = 100 Hz (d) f = 1000 Hz (e) f = 10,000 Hz. Assume fc = 100 Hz. (a) = -tan-1(f/fC) = tan-1(1/100) = 0.5730 (b) = -tan-1(10/100) = 5.70 (c) = -tan-1(100/100) = 450 (d) = -tan-1(1000/100) = 84.30 (e) = -tan-1(10,000/100) = 89.40

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Example. Determine Aol for the following values of f: (a) f = 0 Hz (b) f = 10 Hz (c) f = 100 Hz. Assume fc(ol) = 100 Hz and Aol(mid) = 100,000.

Open-Loop Frequency and Phase Response

Example: A certain op-amp has three internal amplifier stages with the following gains and critical frequencies: Stage 1: Av1 = 40dB , fc1 = 2000Hz Stage 2: Av2 = 32dB , fc2 = 40kHz Stage 3: Av3 = 20dB , fc3 = 150kHz Determine the open-loop midrange gain in decibels and the total phase lag when f = fcl. Solution: Aol(mid) = Av1 + Av2 + Av3 = 92dB (tot) = tan-1
2k 2k 2k tan-1 tan-1 = 48.60 2k 40k 150k

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Closed-Loop vs. Open-Loop Gain

Effect of Negative Feedback on Bandwidth: The closed-loop critical frequency of an op-amp is: fC(CL) = fC(OL) ( 1 + A (mid) ) The bandwidth of a closed loop amplifier is: BW(CL) = BW(OL) ( 1 + A (mid) ) Gain-Bandwidth Product An increase in closed loop gain causes a decrease in the bandwidth and vice versa, such that product of gain and bandwidth is constant. Condition is true as long as the roll-off rate is fixed at -20dB/decade. The gain bandwidth product is always equal to the frequency at which the op-amps open loop gain is unity (unity gain bandwidth). AC(OL) fOL = AC(CL) fCL = unity gain bandwidth Example. Determine the BW of each of the amplifiers below. Both op-amps have an open-loop gain of 100dB and a unity-gain bandwidth of 3MHz. 1 Rf 220k (a) Acl =1+ =1+ = 67.7 Ri 3.3k
fc(cl) = BWcl = 3MHz 67.7 Unity-gain BW Acl

BWcl = (b) Acl =

= 44.3kHz

Rf = 47 Ri 3MHz = 63.8kHz 47

BWcl =

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Positive Feedback and Stability

Positive Feedback With negative feedback, the signal fed back to the input of an amplifier is out of phase with the input signal, thus subtracting from it and effectively reducing the voltage gain. As long as the feedback is negative, the amplifier is stable. When the signal fed back from output to input is in phase with the input signal, a positive feedback condition exists and the amplifier can oscillate. Oscillation is an unwanted voltage swings on the output when there is no signal present on the input.

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