Spanish Immigration to the United States Author(s): R. A. Gomez Reviewed work(s): Source: The Americas, Vol. 19, No.

1 (Jul., 1962), pp. 59-78 Published by: Academy of American Franciscan History Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/979406 . Accessed: 12/11/2011 12:45
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TO SPANISHIMMIGRATION THE UNITED STATES* and of with the Spaniards earliercenturies our preoccupation on irnpact the historyof the UnitedStates,we theirsubsequent decades. of immigrants modern the to havetended overlook Spanish in familynames the United of of The presence largenumbers Spanish in States,pariicularly New York City and in westernstates,has obhave the scured fact thatveryfew Spaniards cometo the UnitedStates the of It directlyfromSpain.1 is the purpose thispaperto investigate in to of movements Spaniards the Americas general, dataon modern the and on emphasis the UnitedStates, to consider pattern with special in settlement the United Statesthat resultedfrom these of Spanish movements. IN during the from of of The emigration greatnumbers Spaniards Spain of and century thefirstdecades thetwennineteenth of lastdecades the enoughto placeSpainamongthe most tieth centurywas significant the behind UnitedKingranking peoples Europe, of activemigratory and closely with Austria-Hungary Gerdom and Italy and ranking has literature been thatmuchSpanish many.2So greatwas the exodus generstudies, university reports, with the subject:official concerned novels.3 The in treatment regional and books, occasional allydistributed in soul-searching its nature tenorof someof thiswritingis sufficiently writingof the categoryof the introspective to placeit in the general attencentury enough of " generation 98." By theturnof thetwentieth was that tion hadbeenfocusedon the problem legislation soonpassed someof the and emigration to lessen unnecessary to attempting prevent evilsof it.
Society for a travel grant # The authoris indebtedto the AmericanPhilosophical research the UnitedStatesand Spain. This paperis intended in which greatlyfacilitated for as a framework a book on the subject. when used hereafterin this paper,refer to " 1 The terms" Spaniard and " Spanish," who have come directly from Spainor who have come after only reasonSpaniards movementthroughother countries. able transitory Labor Office, MigrationIn Its VariousForms 2 League of Nations, International 1927. EconomicConference, for (Geneva,1926),pp. 7-9. Prepared the International a titles: Vicente Borregon Ribes, La emigracionespcmola 3 Some representative El America (Vigo, 1952);RamonBullonFernandez, problemade la emigracion.Los y de crgmenes ella (Barcelona,1914); Jose Casaisy Santalo,Emigracionespannola gallegaa Ultramar(Madrid,1915);DomingoVillar Grangel,La emiparticularmente (Madrids 1901);EduardoVincenti,Estudiosobreemigracio'n gallega (Santiago, gracio'n of 1908); and special publications the ConsejoSuperiorde Emigracionsuch as Lor 1911-191S. espzzolatransoceanica, emigracion 59

60

STATES IN UNITED SPANISH

since for machinery emigration Spantodaythereexistsofficial Even thanforty yearsago. lessernumbers in still iards leave,although far of Institute Emigrathe Spanish is of the UnderMinistry Labor foundthroughout countrywhere the offices with provincial provided tion emigrants. for madeavailable prospective are andassistance of information problems an interestin the broader has Spain long demonstrated anactivemember the Intergovernof and migrations hasbeen European The Churchhas often Migrations.4 for Committee European mental conand manyspiritual moralproblems its concernfor the expressed the Church where in places; Spain, to with nected emigration foreign this hasmeantclosecoordinanon activeinstitution, an is exceptionally agencies. and the between Church official EMIGRATION SPANISH ON STATISTICS who left of as the number Spaniards to It is impossible be precise to any particular Official country.5 in arriving or Spain as to the number themselves officials Spanish figuresare not precisefor reasonsby largenumbers left Spanish who represented out: the difficulty pointed have only thirdof keepingrecordson the countryillegally; practice (in accordance the with the legal ports leavingSpanish passengers class for lack of disiinction, some years, of definition "emigrant");the emigrated Spain;occasional from and Spaniards alienswho between to emigrants AfricaandEuroinclude figures as confusion to whether coming immigrants of tallying the and, countries; finally, problem pean in countries theAmericas of receiving into back Spain.Also,thefigures manycomplications. offer to adequate placethetotalnumber From1882to 1947it is reasonably5 million.6 this during However, at emigrants approximately ofSpanish
4

1961. See ABC, Madrid, in in Madrid September, The mostrecentmeetingwas held 19, forSeptember 23, and 30, 1961. movement. In 1922the Internaiional problemis difficultfor any migratory and Immigration 5 The Emigration of Compiling Methods LaborOice tried to assistwith represent Statistics. in presented this andfollowingparagraphs from migration on Spanish officialfigures 6 The figures sources:(1) Spanish the following of a comparison those found in inmigracion Espanafrom 1891 through 1923 (but de statistical de la emigracione Estadistica by the oilcial Spanish in year 1882),published ninevolumes del Insiituto Geograficoy coveringfromthe as Direccion General from agency known from 1891 to 1919 de Espoma, 1960. (2) U. S. figurestaken Anuarioestadistico also, Estadistico; and 1924. (3) Argeniinefigures of Laborfor 1923 migratorio the AnnualReportof the Secretary del estadistico movimiento of the Resumeo Generalde Inmigracion, from Direccion figuresfrom U. S. Bureau Argentina,18S7-1924.(4) Cuban and Republicof Cuba,Censode en la Republica 1907 History, Resources, Population, Census,Cuba. 1943.

R. A. GOMEZ
6t

period,approximately millionreturned Spain.A useable 3.8 to figure for net emigraiion, then,mightbe 1.2 million.The greatbulkof this emigration placein thequarter-century 1900to 1924; took from roughly two-thirds all Spanish of emigration from1882to 1947(approximately 700,000 net) took placedunngthatshortperiod. A certain pattern movements andfromSpain of to from1882to 1947 is observable follows: as
1882-1898: 1899-1900: 1901-1913:

Heavynet emigration Argentina Cuba to and Decline(Spanish-American War) Heavy net emigration; beginning substantial of movement to the U. S. 191+1918: Net immigration (World War I) 1919-1930: Heavynet emigration virtual but disappearance emigraof tion to the U. S. after 1921 1931-1947: Decline; net immigration 1931-1934 (depression); followed by CivilWar, WorldWar II

SPANISH MOVEMENT TO LATIN AMERICA Quitenaturally, Spaniards flockedto LatinAmerica exceptionally in greatnumbers, especially Argentina Cuba.Cuba to and was,of course, a Spanish colony until the end of the Spanish-American and it War served,therefore, an outletfor Spaniards as wishingto go to familiar surroundings the westernhemisphere. in Furthermore, inducements werebeingextended agricultural to workers.7 Argentina a much was greaterattraciion, havingmade a determined for immigrants.8 bid Argentina, indeed,in the recordsof international migraiion, ranks secondonly to the UnitedStatesin termsof immigration, gross both andnet.9 To a muchlesserextentstoodBrazil, Mexico,andUruguay as attractions Spaniards for wishingto emigrate LaiinAmerica. to Argentina accounted as muchSpanish has for emigration all other as countries combined (andmore,if the entire movement fromthe 1850's is considered). comparison Spanish Argentine A of and reports indicates that approximately of the entirenumber Spaniards half of emigraiing from1882to 1947is clearly attributable Argentina's to powerful attraction-about600,000 withthepossibiligr a higher net, of figure approach7 On the attractions Cuba,see ConsejoSuperior of de Emigracion(Spain),Emigracion transoceanica, 1911-19lS, pp. 135-136. Also, J. M. Alvarez Acevedo, La colonict espznola en la economia cubana (Habana,1936), passim. 9 In Anuario Estadistico Interamericano, 1942, immigration totals from 1820 to 1924 are given as follows: U. S. A.-33,188,000; Argentina-5,486,000; Canada-4,520,000; Brazil-3,855,000. All of these are gross figures,not accounting for departures. 8 Indeed, the preambleof Argentina's Constitution 1852-1853 extendedequality of

of treatment aliens. for

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STATES IN UNITED SPANISH

cent or so went to Cuba,probably 60 ingper cent.l Another25 per to from emigrants Spain theAmericas 300,000 about net. The remaining the Mexico, Brazil, among 15 per cent) wouldbe distributed (perhaps and States, United Uruguay, others. all havefurnished buta small areas greatgeographical of Spain Atlanticcoastsfromthe Three and the of emigrants: Cantabrian percentage with special near Franceto GalicianearPortugal, Murcia; provinces Basque and coastof Valencia the on Galicia; Mediterranean Someatteniion emphasis mustalso corner. in Andalusia the southwestern and The great centraltableland as given to the CanaryIslands well. Catalonia, its centerof be with few comparatively emigrants; contributor its imporcontributed as a has in Barcelona, not beenasgreat a representative population period, as suggests.Takingthe years1910-1915 (thefigures tance representwereasfollows twentymostactiveprovinces the emigrants): of the ing grossnumber transoceanic
11. Barcelona 61,560 12. Valencia 53,106 13. Santander 52,745 14. Alicante 51,883 15. Granada 47,652 16. Malaga 36,722 6. Almeria 17. Burgos 30,270 7. Canarias 18. Murcia 29,415 8. Leon 19. Logrono 9. Salamanca 20,969 20. Vizcaya 19,087 10. Zamora 602,0811l Total for all 49 provinces:

1. Coruna 2. Pontevedra 3. Orense 4. Lugo 5. Oviedo

15,682 12,230 11,837 10,911 10,770 8,676 8,512 7,978 7,735 7,709

two geography, great termsof Spanish possible in Speaking the largest northerly-toa are represented: of currents migratorymovement northern adding provinces, andAtlantic flow westerly fromCantabrian Castile(Burgos, SantanLogrono, part and Leon the northern of Old out of Andalusia, Levantine the flow and der); a southerly-to-westerly terms, regional the Employing traditional Islands. and coast, theCanary theorderwouldbe as follows: 36.4%
Lugo, Orense,Pontevedra) 1. Galicia(Coruna, Zamora) 2. Leon (Leon,Salamanca, Malaga) Granada, 3. Andalusia (Almeria, (Oviedo) 4. Asturias Alicante,Murcia) 5. Levant(Valencia,
219,294 69,471 56,168 47,652 31,119 11.5 9.3 7.9 5.2

one million, from 1857place the numberat about for 10Estimates the longer period 1960, p. 48. as does Anuario estadistico de Espana, 1911-191S, (Spain), Emigracion transoceanica, 11Consejo Superior de Emigracion
passim.

R. A. GOMEZ

63

6. Canary Islands 30,270 5.0 7. OldCastile (Santander, Burgos, Logrono) 28,084 4.7 8. Catalonia (Barcelona) 15,682 2.6 (Vizcaya omitted fromthisgrouping) It is to be notedthatGalicia stands clearly frontasthe mostsubstanin tial contributor Spanish to emigraiion.If we speakof the regional groupsin larger terms, nearlyjcwo-thirds per cent) arenorthern (63.1 provinces(Galicia,Leon, Asturias, Castile, Catalonia Old and representingthe regionalgroupings these); of these, the northeastern of regionsdominate (55.8 per cent) in the picture(Galicia,Leon, Asturias); Galicia, itself,accounts 36.4percent. Thesepatterns and by for may be safely employed representative the Spanish as of emigratory
* * .

experlence

m general.

Specialattention, then,shouldbe paidto the massive movement of Spaniards Galicia American from to countries. This movement so was spectacular muchof the Spanish that literature emigraiion focused on is on it. Mostof the Golllegos went to Argentina settledin Buenos and Airesand vicinity. In 1953one estimate statedthat therewere over 700,000 Golllegos Buenos in Aires,thusmaking quiteeasilythe largest it &alician of the world.l2In addiiion Buenos city to Aires,largegroups of Golllegos to be foundin Caracas, are Havana, Montevideo. and The Centro Golllego a widelyknownmutual is benefit organization Latin in American cities. The Gallegos camefromall vocational groups with especially large numbers agricultural of laborers, sailors, fishermen, waiters, small and shopkeepers. manycitiesof LatinAmerica became In they middle-class merchants theirchildren moved professional and have into classifications. Calicians, amongthe Spanish stereotypes, havelong been knownfor theirshrewdness havebeensaid to possess and more of the qualiiies necessary successful for businessmen mostotherSpanards.13 than THEMOTIVATIONS FOR EMIGRATION The reasons Spanish for emigration offer no new sourcefor the contemplation international of migrations. Largely,the motivations
12 Faro de Vigo. Numero especialconmemoroltivo centenario, del 18S3-19S3. Two contributors this issuewrite aboutGaliciain Argentina: to AntonioLozano,pp. 92-93; Salvador Lorenzana, 172-173. pp. 13 General Franco, Spain'sChief of State, is a Galician. It is sometimes said that his nativeshrewdness providedhim with the necessary has qualities achievesuccess to militarilyand politically. Recently, in ABC (Madrid), in the special twenty-fifth anniversary issue honoringFranco'saccessionto power, October 1, 1961,Jose Maria Pemanof the SpanishRoyal Academy,referredto this prudencia galleg.

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SPANISH UNITED IN STATES

appear be centered economic to on pressures desires.Somedoubt or existsas to whetheror not so much emigration justified the was by existing economic conditions. old popular An songdaangfrombefore the turnof the century speaks onepointof view: for
A las Indiasvan los hombres, a las Indias por ganar: las Indiasaqui las tienen si quisierantrabajar.14

Certainly Spaniards were " west-minded and naturally Long " so. beforethe Germans, Russians, Austrians, Poles,and even the Italians formedvery widelydistributed desires a westward for movement, the Spaniards akeadyestablishedsortof national had a highway it. And to even thoughthe independence movement Latin Americalargely in erased colonial the system, Spaniards likelyto lookto theAmericas were quiteasnaturally thefrontiersmen earlyNorthAmerica as of considered the western landsbeyondthe mountains. The situation agricultural in areasrepresented almostconstant an pressure emigration. the first place,the seasonal for In character of agricultural employment aroused desires seekemployment to elsewhere for partof the year. Thusarose fantastic the golondrinol movement by means whichthousands Spaniards of of annually attempted gainthe to advantages workingin two growingseasons: of one in the springsummer Spainandanother the spring-summer SouthAmerica, of in of mainly Argentina, wherethe warmseason extended fromNovember to April.l5The golondrinars not, properly were speaking, emigrants, but they were so recorded the officialrecordsof embarkation. in The Italiansengagedin this swallow-like movement between Italy and Argentina an even greater to degreethanthe Spaniards. lesserbut A still significant temporary emigration the Americas also to be to was found in otherthanannual agricultural movements. Manywere the Spaniards emigrated Argentina, who to Cuba, the UnitedStates or only long enoughto gainsufficient savings general at skilledlaboror mercantileactivity,afterwhichone livedin Spainat a rather higherlevel than beforethe venture. Indeed,there were Spaniards who " commuted" betweenSpainand somewhere the Americas in over a long period years, of usually maintainingprincipal a household Spain. in Anotherpressure emigrate, to with an agricultural base, resulted
14
_

Quotedby J. M. de Peredain "A Las Indias a shortstory in the volumeentitled "

,

tscenas montanescls.
15

See MarkJefferson, Peopling the Argentine Pclmpcl(New York, 1926),pp. 182ff.

R. A. GOMEZ

65

frompopulation pressure the land. In southern on Spain, the sugarin caneandfruitregions Andalusia the Levannne of and coast,population pressure thatof an excessive was supplyof laboron largeplantaiions. In Galicia, the north,the pressure largelyof another in was kind:the minifundio, excessively or dividedlandinto plots too smallfor subsistence.16 scrupulously So were landsdividedamongchildrenthat therewereparcels landno larger of thanthe few square necessary feet to surround tree. In the caseswhere,as someiimes the interior a in of Galicia, landswere keptlargerby primogeniture, resultwouldbe the thesame-theothersonswouldhaveto moveon, either lands to available through theirwivesor out of the areaentirely.SinceGalician families tendto run very large,the problem pressure the landwas often of on acute. Not alwaysprimarily economic nature, very strongin effect, in but was the attraction provided the lettersfrom relatives friends by and akeadyin residence the Americas.Once a sewlement Spaniards in of was established therewas a natural follow-upof relatives friends and fromtheold country.It mightbe pointed thatmostSpaniards out were literate thusencountered difficulty communicating their and no in with friends.In Cuba, example, 1907,it wasreported as manyas for in that 74 per cent of the "foreignwhites" wereliterate; nearlyall of these wereSpaniards.l7 addition appeals In to fromabroad, Spaniards the who returned theircitiesandvillages to aftersomeyears'absence, perhaps withsavings sufficient mark to themasamong moreaffluent their the of communities, appealing were advertisements theAmericas. for It appears the military that draftlawswere to someundeterminable extentinfluennal causing in emigration. Sinceemigration statistics show thatmales the age groupfrom 15 to 55 constituted bulkof emiin the grants(outnumbering females aboutthreeto one),18 is obvious by it that thousands prospective of drafteeswere amongthem. Indeed, reports portinspectors of citedthe desire avoidmilitary to service a as common inducement emigrate.19 to It is saidthatmanySpaniards emigrated solelyout of the desire for adventure, although is likelythatthisnumber not sipficant. Galiit is
16Vicente BorregonRibes, La emigracionespanolaa Ame'rica(Vigo, 1952), pp. 155-156. 17 U. S. Bureau the Census, of Cuba,p. 206. 18 United Nations. Department of SocialAffairs. Population Division,Senc Age mnd of International Migrants:Statistics 1918-1947 for (New York, 1953),pp. 261ff. 19DireccionGeneraldel InstitutoGeograficoy Estadistico, Estadistica de la emigracion de Espoma, 1891-1895.

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SPANISH UNITED IN STATES

ciansareapparently constrained cite thismoiivaiion pointing to by out thatthey haveoccupied of the finisterres worldandthat,as one of the mariners, taking the seais natural them.20 maywell be thatthe to to It number motivated so may be oumumbered Spanish in experience by " reluctant emigrancswho werecompelled emigrate " to with husband, father, elderbrother.21 or A mostsignificant in encouraging force emigraiion might described be as external Spain,family,or friends:the inducements to extended by American republics, agricultural by interest groups, evenby steamand shipcompanies. Argentina, Brazil, Cubaextended and inducements involvinglandand/oremployment; sugar planters CubaandHawaii in 22 and the Panama Canalenterprise were acive recruiters. Agentswere frequently to Spainto recruitsuchworkers perhaps consent and to tractfor theirservices beforeembarkation. Special attention should perhaps givento steamship be companies and t zelractlvltles stlmu m atmgemlgratlon. he lterature emlgratlon ot and immigration filled with usuallycondemnatory is descripaons of theirroles.23 Somesteamship companies apparently drummed busiup nesswithoutany particular concern the welfareof the prospective for passengers, perhaps even deceiving themas to theirdestination some in cases. Or, at the very least,thischarge may be laidto the agentsemployedby suchcompanies. Therewere,of course, perfectly legitimate and honorable enterprises thiskind,performing adequate of an service withoutanyskullduggery involved.Unscrupulous agents therewerein good number, however,who cheatedmany emigrants; some, it was charged, were closelyalliedwith localpolitical chieftains.24 Whatever theextentof thesepractices, is a recognizable it economic advantage for a steamship company, otherwise facingthe possibilijcy returning of with empty holds,to returnwith humancargounderthird-class steerage arrangements-the kind of cargo,sinceit frequently best required no handling whatever.It was even possible havethe passengers to carry on thecotsandotherfurnishings necessary theirpassages.25 to With respectto economicmotivations, therehas existedfor some timea debate the trueeconomic on effectsof massive emigration: one
. * * * . . * * * * , s * r * @

Salvador Lorenzana Faro de Vigo. Numero Especial, pp. 172-173. in 21The author'sfather alwaysmaintained that he was reluctantto leave Spain and that he was trickedinto leavingby his older brother. 22 See laterparagraphs the Andalusian on migration Hawaii. to 23 Ramon BullonFernandez, problema de la emigracion (Barcelona, El 1914),pp. 32ff. 24 J. Casais Santalo, y Emigracion espomola,p. 9. 25 J. M. de Pereda, A Las Indias," " Escenas montcmesas,has a description this. of
20

R. A. GOMEZ

67

schoolof thoughtholdsthat emigration results a loss of skilledor in poteniially skilled manpower whichis necessary a nation's to economic health growth; otherlineof thought and the holdsthatmassive emigration carries away an economic liabilityin the form of unemployable population in addition, and, maybe the means the introduction for of new incomefrom external sources.In the caseof Spain,thereis impressive evidence newincome the formof savings that in earned abroad, and then introduced the Spanish into economy,by meansof money orders backfor the mostpart,hasbeena significant sent factor.26 EMIGRATION PROCEDURES Spain beenadmirably has supplied with sea portsfor the transportation of emigrants. Indeed, suchreadyoutletto the seamayitselfhave beena veryimportant to emigration. glanceat themapof Spain spur A will confirm therearemajorsea portslocatedvery conveniently that to allparts thecountry-almost if spaced design easyoutlet. of as by for Beginning the northand movingaroundthe coast of Spainin a in counter-clockwise direction, findBilbao, we Santander, Gijon,Coruna, Vigo, Cadiz, Malaga, Almer1a, Alicante, Valencia, Barcelona. and The Galician portsof Coruna Vigo havebeenthe busiest and embarkation centers, carrying or moreof allthe passengers half involved.27 Theseportshaveserviced, addinon Galicia, in to neighboring Leonand Asturias. The secondbusiest groupof portsarein Andalusia-Almerla, Cadiz,and Malaga, which haveservedsouthern Spain.Barcelona has beenimportant the embarkanon for passengers Catalonia, as point from Aragon,Navarre,and the Balearic Islands.Two other groupsare worthyof mention: Cantabrian of Bilbao, the ports Gij6n,andSantander (servingthat areaand someneighboring areasto the south) and theportsof Palma Tenerife theCanary and on Islands. Until 1907 therewas no substantial legislation emigranon on procedure. There existeda scattered seriesof laws, royal decrees,and ministerial thatpertained the subject.28 rules to Central all thesewas to the established principle freeemigration whichSpanish of to policyhad adhered manydecades.Probably basiclaw was bestexpressed for the by the Royal Orderof 1888which placedthe responsibility the on
Vicente BorregonRibes, Emigracio'n espanola, discusses this. All ofiicial Spanishreportsgive details on ports of embarkation; especially see ConsejoSuperior Emigracion, de Nuestraemigracio'n los puertosespanoles 1917. por en 28Eduardo Vincenti,Estudiosobreemigracion (Madrid,1908),pp. 26ff. gives a good surveyof law applicable until 1907.
26 27

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STATES IN UNITED SPANISH

A and provinces portinspectors. prospective of governorsthe maritime province of the would emigrant haveto contact officialdom themaritime a to which he proposed leave. The law provided delay of through plus Theserequirements, for days fifteen to followa request clearance. workedmost officials, governmental in hurdles contacting ordinary the If provinces. onewereto seek of maritime of the to advantage residents going throughthe law required from departure a foreignport, the consul and of of one'sown province residence alsotheSpanish governor as convenient proved that the in foreignport-a procedure sometimes if therefore, it weretO be port. Emigration, froma Spanish leaving as and planned mightinvolveconhad accomplished, to be well legally to all travelin Spainitself. In addition, thishadto be geared siderable thereexisted Also on passage a steamship. of thepossibility securing from,or buying clearance securing of either in problem, manycases, the for The law provided buyingup service. way out of, military one's at in service the military the rateof 2,000pesetas. one's the emigrants, aforementioned For a large numberof prospective who of agents emigration not only meant complications actingthrough contact alsocouldestablish but complications the handle official could activelyengaged were in lines. Usually, fact,the agents steamship with company. steamship of inthe interest a certain One was emigration very common.29 form of this cenClandestine conand froma foreignport. Gibraltar Bordeaux, on tered departure used extensively were to venient the southandnorthrespectively, very since to forthat purpose.Agentswere very important this procedure port a through distant in a foreign connections onehadto makepassage simplyleft Spainas a choosingthis route, country. The emigrant, of direction the ship andboarded underthe general visitor temporary This to agent,and withoutbothering clearthroughany officialdom. the arrangement, agentsin these begunas a contract was occasionally workers often beingpaidso muchper head. Agricultural negotiations methodof By took by the thousands this routetO the Americas. this at complications homeor succeedwhere one emigration could avoid he the legalroutehadfailedhim;and,in addition, mighthaveemployhim. mentpromised mightbe takinga the channels, emigrant In usingthe clandestine agent. He wheninvolvedwith an unscrupulous greatrisk,especially of a in mightfind himselfstranded a foreignport, eitherthe victim
29

about the subject. Consejo Superior, Emigracion, 1911-191S,is quite candid

R. A. GOMEZ

69

deception thevictimof having longer or a timeto awaitpassage his than financial position allowed.Eventodaytheoffices theSpanish of Institute of Emigration display colored posters warning against placing one'sself in the hands agentswho conductclandestine of emigration procedure. The precise number clandestine of emigrants neverbe determined. can A comparison figures of published Spain receiving by and countries for the sameyearsindicates, however, clandestine that emigration some in yearsmayhaveapproached percentof all departures; 40 Spanish figures for 191 1-1915 indicate least25 percent.30 at Whetherlegal or clandestine, emigration the procedure frequently brought aboutdistress. manypointsalongthe way hardships At might be encountered. mightstartat homewiththe diiculty of raising It the moneynecessary makeall the arrangements; mightrequire to this submittingto usurious ratesfor loans,perhaps highas 30 per cent,31 as or otherwise suffering financially. Frequently unnecessarily coman high mission wouldbe paidfor the services various of peopleinvolved-perhapseven an occasional publicofficial.Later,in the port, awaiting transportation, were the preyingsharpsters all kinds. Upon there of embarking emigrant the mightfindthe third-class passage overcrowded, unsanitary, poorly fed. The journeymighttake weeks (as for and example Andalusians went to Hawaii) with fatalities the who along the way. Uponarrival theremightbe unemployment for manythe and loneliness separation one'shomeandfriends. of from The Church long beendistressed not only the possibilities has by of the miseries aforementioned alsoby the fact thatreligious but devotion appears declineamongthe newly-arrived foreignplaces.Thereto in fore the Church triedto prevent muchunjustified has as emigration as possible alsoto holdforeign and communities Spaniards closely of more to theiroldreligious habits.A veryprominent efort for a timewasthe organization theAssociation SanRafael, of of s-everal chapters which of were in evidence 1913.32 by Throughthis organization attempts were madeto remedythe adverse religious, moral,and economic eflTects of emigration, particularly someof theports. in With the passage a comprehensive of emigration in 1907,new law administrative machinery provided: Superior was a Councilof Emigration, localjuntas, machinery tighterinspection the ports and for in 30 p. 227. Ibid., 31 ConsejoSuperior, Nuestraemigraciotn, 468. p.
32EncicZopedia universaZ ilustrada(Barcelona), XIX, 985.

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SPANISH UNITED IN STATES

of embarkation, including medical care.33 Clandestine emigration was attacked only by the tightermachinery alsoby the attempt not but to oSermoreaccessible assistance allthe provinces. in Clandestine emigrationwasnot halted theseapproaches, by however. MODERN SPANISH IMMIGRATION UNITED IN THE STATES If it were not for the presence very largenumbers Spanishof of speaking peopleof Mexican PuertoRicanorigin,Spanish and family names the UnitedStateswouldbe as scarceas Turkish in namesand wouldbe muchscarcer thanFinnish names.34 Although Spainis numberedamongthe mostmigratory nations, only a comparatively small number Spaniards directly the UnitedStates. of came to In the nineteenth centurythe number Spaniards cameto the of who United Stateswas quite insignificant, only approximately 42,000reported oicial U. S. figures by from1820to 1900,an average about of 500peryear.35 Thiswasnegligible whencompared the considerable to numbers otherEuropeans of comingduring sameperiod.In much the of thereporting thattime,Spain of usually appeared the " all others in " category.The censusof 1900showsonly 7,050Spaniards amongthe foreign-born of a totalof 10.3million out foreign-born all origins.36 of They werelargely resident fourmaritime in states:New York,Louisiana,California, Florida thatorderof significance). and (in The overwhelming majority theSpaniards came theUnited of who to Statesdid so in the quarter-century 1900through1924,particufrom larlybeginning 1903andwithespecially in largenumbers 1917,1920, in and 1921.37 Indeed, percent of themarrived the lastthreeyears 30 in mentioned. Thus,Spanish immigration actually concentrates, then and fallsto negligible numbers, the shortspaceof five yearsbeforethe in passage the firstquotalegislation 1921. Somewhat of in over 174,000 Spanish immigrants in the years1900through1924;over 52,000 came of thesecamein the years1917,1920,and 1921; 1922,as a resultof in the QuotaLawof 1921,the number dropped 665. to 33siblioteca Iegislativa Gaceta Madrid, y reglamento provisional para dela de Ley Zaaplicacio'nde lczley de emigracio'nde 1907 (Madrid, 1908). 34 Mexicans Puerto and Ricans notsubject quotas. are to 35 AnnuczlReport of the Secretary of Labor, 1923,appends a detailed for the chart years 1820-1923. 36 table cc see on Foreign-born Population byCountrysirth inHistorical Statistics of
of t1oeU.S., p.66. 37 aMnnual Report of the Secretary of Labor, 1923and 1924.

R. A. GOMEZ

71

gross are so The figures farmentioned thoserepresenting immigraiion. to who of hasto be takenof the numbers Spaniards returned Account indiU. UnitedStates.Official S. figures in aftertheirarrival the Spain 72,000 Spaniards cate that from 1908 through1940, approximately Not fromtheUnitedStates.38 allof theseareactually to returned Spain but to chargeable the periodfrom 1900 through1924, of course, it is of the full flowsincea high in to only realistic viewthereturnees terms to are of percentage them,certainly, chargeable the period. This exis from of of perience emigration Spaniards the UnitedStates a signifiif takenas a ratioof 72,000 to the grossnumber cant 41 per cent, effectovera longer as 174,000; and,evenif considered the emigratory during would be very high. Many returned period,the percentage followingthat conWorldWar I or in the slumpyearsimmediately afterthe firstimpactof the returned largenumber flict;an extremely of greatdepression the 1930's. for 1924 (but usingthe 1908-1940 figures the returnees) 1900 through wouldbe a reasonably 110,000 102,000. Certainly wouldapproximate to contributions the uncerfor safefigureto employ,allowing various formed of records.This smallnumber Spaniards taintyof the official the formed foundation Spanish of of the impact modern the foundation to immigration the UnitedStates. Spanish of of the impact modern to of The net immigration Spaniards the UnitedStates,then,from

immigration Acts The Immigration of 1921 and1924 cut of Spanish The point.39 QuotaLawof 1921, whichgeared to almost the vanishing to countries a ratioof three from of the number immigrants European as in of percentof thenumber eachcountry the UnitedStates of 1910, which quotaof 912. The Act of 1924, however, a provided Spanish Euroand the severely influxof southern eastern at wasaimed reducing broughtthe Spanish per cent of 1890 numbers, peans,basedon two upto quotadownsharply only 131per year. This quotawasrevised wardto 252 in 1929. since1924 have Spaniards cometo the UnitedStates A few thousand improvided.Somecameas non-quota smallquotas to in addition the to join resirelatives allowing with provisions in migrants accordance havebeenadmitted dentsin the UnitedStates.A very smallnumber in bills private passed the Congress. through
Rosenfeld, ImmigrationLaw and Procedure pp. legislaiion, Sff. (Albany,1959)gives a good brief surveyof U. S. immigraiion before 1908. No 38 figuresavailable Charles Gordon and Harry N. 39

72

SPANISH UNITED IN STATES

Spaniards a few yearsbenefited for through special legislation. Acts passedin 1954, 1955,and 1956 provided the admission the for into UnitedStates a totalof 1,135sheepherders, of a laborspecialty critiin cally shortsupplyat the time.40 Although Acts did not singleout the Spaniards specifically, effectwas to admitSpanish French the and Basquesfor the mostpart. The numbers admitted, however, werechargeableto national quotas theresult to mortgage Spanish and was the quotas entirelythrough1960and partially a few yearsthereafter. for This special legislation not renewed 1957dueto the recommendation was in of the Committee the Judiciary the Houseof Representatives of of in a report delivered February, in 1957.41 report The charged theprothat visions thethreebillshadbeensubject abuses.It wascharged of to that somesheepherders brought overwere actually engaged otherkinds in of work;somewerenot filingalienaddress cards; somewereviolating the provisions the Selective of Service Act; andsome,it was charged, werebrought overin the firstplacewho werenot sheepherders all. at Sincethoseadmitted underthe special wereconsidered bills permanent residents, not temporary and workers, someoutrage beenexpressed had at the abuses. The followingtablewill serveto showthe general pattern settleof mentandmigration Spaniards the UnitedStates: of in
States in Order of Number of U. S. Residents Indicating Spain as Country of Origin 1860-1950
1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950

La. La. N.Y. N.Y. N.Y. Cal. N.Y. N.Y. N. Y. La. La. Haw. Fla. Cal. Cal. Cal. Cal. Cal. Fla. N. Y. Fla. Fla. Cal. Haw. Pa. La. Ida. N. J. Tex. Haw. Ariz. W.Va. Ida. Ohio La. Conn. Nev. Tex. Ariz.

N.Y. Cal. N. J. Fla. Pa. Haw. Ohio W. Va. Mich. Nev. Ida. Ill. Conn. Tex.

N.Y. N.Y. Cal. Cal. Fla. N. J. N.J. Fla. Pa. Pa. Haw. Ohio Ohio Ida. W. Va. Mich. Ida. Conn. Mich. Nev. Nev. W. Va. Ill. Ill. Conn. Mass. Tex. Tex.42

Sinceonly stateshavebeenincluded showany significant that number of Spaniards the timeof eachcensus, firstservicethe tableperat the
40 41 42

85th Congress, Session, 1st House Report67 (1957).

Ibid.

Compiled from U. S. Bureauof the Census. census 19SO. of

R. A. GOMEZ

73

forms to showthe lightdistribuiion is geographically the census until of 1920. In addition, followingobservations, chronological the in order, appear slgmecant: 1. Until 1890 the Spaniards the United Stateswere largely in centered two natural in settings:New YorkCity,the major port of entryfor mostshipping lines,andthe centers the old Spanish of colonial influence California Louisiana. in and 2. With the censusof 1890 we find recorded the first modern settlement Spaniards Florida, centerof concentration of in a that is stillimportant tody. To someextentFlorida beena Spanish had interestfrom colonialdays but had not furnished attraction an similar thatNew Orleans to provided Louisiana. for 3. The censusof 1900 bringsinto the picturethe beginning of oneof themostspectacular movements Spaniards theUnited of into States-Andalusian sugarworkerswho went to Hawaiiin very largenumbers. Hawaii appears significantly thecensuses 1890 in of through1940, although movement California a to beganshortly aftertheirarrival continued and untilmosthadgoneto the mainlandby 1920. The California was so strongthat California flow out-ranked New Yorkas a " Spanish ' in the census 1910. state of 4. In the yearsfrom1900 to 1910, a new pattern introduced is in the mountain West andSouthwest. Spaniards beganturning in up the greatgrazing lands, particularly Idaho. in 5. Finally, censuses 1920 and1930, andcontinued little the of with change 1940 and1950, showa movement in greatlyinfluenced by the expansion heavyindustry of followingWorld War I. The New York contingent expands into New Jerseyand Conout necticut; appreciable numbers discovered such are in industrial states asIllinois, Michigan, Ohio,andPennsylvania; West Virginia in are foundAsturian miners metalworkers. coal and The censusof 1950 sets forththe followingstateswith appreciable numbers residents claimed of who Spain countryof origin. as
* *

New York 14,705 Michigan California 10,890 Connecticut New Jersey 3,382 Nevada Florida 3,183 West Virginia Pennsylvania 1,790 Illinois Ohio 1,141 Massachusetts Idaho 985 Texas Total: all states 45,565 43
43

890 886 815 712 714 659 604

Ibid.

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SPANISH UNITED IN STATES

New YorkCityAre. Closeto half (41 percent) of all thoseSpaniardswho claimed Spain countryof originin 1950livedin the area as of New YorkCity-thatis, in New YorkCity itselfandnearbyConnecticutandNew Jerseycommunities. urban This settlement charis acteristic the laterwavesof immigration general.The 1950census of in showsSpaniards largelyurbanwith only California, still Idaho,and Nevada indicating appreciable settlement. any rural Spaniards New Yorkgathered firstin a number tenement in at of districts, especially Brooklyn.Theseclusters in werefairlycompact in their Spanish identitywith close associations sociallyand with wide subscription mutual to benefit societies.44 Laborers, restaurant workers, cigarsalesmen, seamen, smallshopkeepers were for the most and they part,withvery largerepresentation Galicia.The nextgeneration from movedout into the generalflow of American and most of the life settlements losttheircompactness thelate1920's early1930's. had by and TodaySpaniards to be foundscattered all parts the greater are in of New York areawith some specialconcentrations northern in New Jerseyand Greenwich Village. On any fine day one can find groups of themin thevicinityof Columbus Circle.New Yorkfurnishes very a widely distributed Spanish language newspaper, Prensa, La which is especially evidenttoday due to the greater circulation brought about by the arrival a very considerable of community PuertoRicans.In of New YorkCitymaybe foundoffices theCasa of Galicia theCentro and VascoAmericano, among othermorebroadly defined organizations. Collifornior. Ranking next to New Yorkis a largeconcentration of Spaniards California-about percent of the 1950total. Theseare in 24 foundlargelyin the Los AngelesandSanFrancisco areas although appreciable numbers settled therichagricultural are in valleys. The SanFrancisco hasa sizeable area groupfromall partsof Spain. Thereis a specialqualityof Spanish representation, however, that in there are manyAndalusians, of whom camefrom Hawaii (see most followingsection). SanFrancisco hasa distinctive also Basque touch; in the area Broadway Columbus of and Avenuearea number Basque of restaurants hotels. The UnionEspanola California, Union and de the Espanola Benefica, Basque a club,andothers, provide socialandmutual benefitprograms. Spanish picnicsareheldfairlyfrequently underthe sponsorship one or moreof suchorganizations. of
44 See Prudencio de Pereda's novel, Windmills Brooklyn(New York, 1960) for a in delightful descriptionof a fictional Spanishgroup based on the author'syouth in Brooklyn.

R. A. GOMEZ

75

Spaniards is In the Los Angelesareathe emphasis moreon northern such to who havebeenattracted theheavyindustry asthosein Fontana, Mutua de steel of the locaiion a Kaiser mill. The Sociedad Beneficencia in is prominent the areawithan officein LosAngeles.An organizaiion is interests alsolocatedin Los cultural to of greatsignificance Spanish by founded Dr. The Foundation, Angeles:the Del Amo Foundaiion. proexchange cultural in Del Gregorio Amo, is engaged maintaining is its California; secretary Eugenio gramsbetweenSpainandsouthern Cabrerowho came to the United States from the province of Santander.45 Migroltion. TheAndalusza-Haivolii-Collifornia Oneof themostnumerUnitedStatescamefromthe sugarand in ousgroupsof Spaniards the a Although number to of fruitplantations Andalussa workin Hawaii.46 in mostcamein six shiploads the years1907, 1911, earlier, hadarrived clandesis 1912, and 1913. This migration one of the morespectacular enucarryno ofiRcial records for from tine emigrations Spain, Spanish after contactswere of meration it. The shipssailedfrom Gibraltar For Association. Planters Sugar for agents the Hawaiian madethrough of took placein the provinces Almerla, the mostpart,the recruiiing somewerecontacted although in and Granada, Malaga Andalussa Cadiz, were transported involved in in Murcia.All together the six shiploads tooktheirtoll in livesandsickness.47 7,735workers.The longjourneys free free great: transportation, housing were The inducements however, in at employment a wagestipulated advance. andguaranteed beto Shortlyafterthe firstmovements Hawaii,the sugarworkers to in cameinterested movingon to the mainland, the city of SanFranin Manywentto workas laborers the taskof cleanciscoandviciniJcy. and ing up the city afterthe earthquake fire of 1906. World War I had workers moreof themandby 1920 mostof the original attracted Bay in the made move,settling thecity orin other citiessuchasLeandro, communiagricultural in and Hayward, Crockett.Manysettled nearby where they owned, or View and Sunnyvale ties such as Mountain on, worked fruitacreage. pp. York, 1937), 388-394. Our Racial and National Minorities (New Subjective Factors in the Migration of Spanish from F. see 46 George Schnack, 1940; Hearing university, also, Stanford M. A. Hawaii to California, unpublished thesis, 67th on Immigration into Hawaii Before Committee on Immigration, U. S. Senate,
47

and in on the contributedsection spain F. J. srown J. s. Roucek, Mr. 45 Cabrero

1st congress, session. of is p. 76, Emigracio'n,Appendix, there a reprint a news Fernandez, Insullon that it March in that story appearedNoticiero universal (sarcelona) 7 1912; states to and adults on children three died the Willisden enroute Hawaii. forty

76

SPANISH UNITED IN STATES

Once these settlements been established, had later contingents of Andalusians came directlyfrom Spainto California join relatives to andfriends.
Floridol.Florida long beena centerfor Spaniards, has particularly in

Tampaandvicinity. This movement beeninfluenced the proxhas by imityof Cuba the cigarindustry.The tGrbGrqueros and of Spain-almost all of whomwere Asturians originally-migrated Cubain considerto ablenumbers during latterhalfof the nineteenth the century.Eventually someof the cigar-makers established themselves Key West; in in 1886,followinglabordifficulties, number establishments a of movedto Tampawith thousands employees. of The concentration Spaniards of in this vicinityhasremained strongsincethattimewith a population from3,000to 5,000. YborCity,a district of Tampa's east business section, has been the centerof the Spanish communicy, featuring such organizations Centro as Asturiano Centro and Espanol.48
MountGlin West. In the mountainous rangecountryof the western UnitedStatesare to be foundappreciable numbers Spaniards of engagedin sheep cattleranching and alongwithsomeengaged servicing in industries the townsandcitiesof the area.This clustering Spanin of iardsis especially characterized a concentration Basques the by of in sheepcountryof the northern Rocky Mountains, centering chieflyin Idahoand Nevadawith some distribution neighboring in California, Oregon,and Washington.13asque sheepherders, to some extent and Spaniards otherSpanish from sheepherding provinces, begancoming to the UnitedStates about1910. In somewaysthishasconstituted of one the mostdistinctive Spanish of migranons. Spain one of the nations is that has been continuously engagedin sheep-raising hundreds for of yearsbackintoantiquity. is carried in itsmostspectacular It out fashion in the mountains northern of Spain-theBasque provinces, Santander andNavarre: regionof incredibly a steeppasturelands greengrass, of rounded into pinnacles deep valleys. To see a herdof sheep of by under careof a Spanish the shepherd themountains Idaho oneof in of is themostancient old-world of scenes, transferred anAmerican to setting.

Boise,as the urbancommunity the centerof the Idaho-Nevada in sheepranges, becomethe Basque has capitalof the UnitedStates,as somehavedescribed Thereis a sort of Boise-San it. Francisco in axis
48 In SouthernFolklore Quarterly, in the volumesfor 1937, 1938, 1939,and 1941, appeara numberof articleson the Spaniards Tampa,writtenby RalphSteeleBoggs in andothers.

R. A. GOMEZ

77

Basqueland S. A. with SanFrancisco U. serving a greatrecreational as capital Basques manystates. for in Industrioll Midivest. In the heartof the industrial empireof the UnitedStates-inthe midwest alongwith Pennsylvania West Virand ginia-a few thousands Spaniards of have settledin the employment patterns presented heavyindustry.In 1950 therewere 5,157 Spanby iardsresident the industrial in statesof Illinois, Michigan, Ohio,Pennsylvania, West Virginia.The mostcompact and groupconsisted a of concentration Asturian of coal minerswho settledin West Virginia decades in suchnumbers to rankthat stateas sixthor seventh ago as " Spanish " in the censuses 1920, 1930, and 1940. In addition state of to these,therewerealsometalworkers otherWest Virginia in locations, such as Clarksburg. the steel citiesof Ohio and Pennsylvania In can be foundGalicians Vizcayans; the rubber and in factories Ohioare of othersof the sameregions. Assimiloltion. descendants Spanish The of immigrants of course, have, movedinto the generalcoursesof American and, exceptfor an life occasional gathering suchas a Spanish picnic,they are roughlycrosssectional thecitizenry theUnitedStates.The number Spaniards of of of who cameasimmigrants, who stayed and permanently, dwindled had to 45,456 according the census 1950,49 to of largely virtueof the deaths by of the earlierarrivals.This number will undoubtedly diminish very speedilyto a very smallnumber 1970. Thus, the alienSpaniards by coming suchtiny quotas thelastfortyyearswill be unable keep in in to alivethe Spanish identity the UnitedStates. in Spaniards have demonstrated decidedtendencyto cling to their a Spanish roots,as indicated the high percentage themthat have by of remained aliens. In the tsventy-year periodfrom 1923 through1942, only 20,722 Spaniards became naturalized citizens theUnitedStates.50 of A few months later, early1943, therewerestill 39,670 Spanish in aliens according thealienregistration to (whichhadjustbegunitsnow annual enumeration).5l figureapproximated per cent of all Spaniards This 70 then in the United Stateswho claimedSpainas countryof origin; further, approximated percentof the wholenet number immiit 35 of grantsto the UnitedStatesfromSpainin modern decades.With the comingof WorldWar II, andto someextentin the late 1930's, many
49 50 51

HistoricalStatisticsof the U. S., p. 66. See Annual Report of the lmmigration and Naturalization Service,19SO. Ibid.

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SPANISH UNITED IN STATES

thousands Spaniards become of did citizens, however, in 1960there and wereonly 17,526 registered Spanish aliens.52
CONCLUDING OBSERVATIONS

Speaking mostbroadly, foregoing the paragraphs furnish foundaa tionuponwhichto builda number generalizations the numeriof about calandsocial impact Spanish of immigration theUnitedStates. to In spiteof the prevalence Spanish of familynames somepartsof in the UnitedStates,a smallnumber Spaniards of camedirectlyto the UnitedStates.The net number (arrivals departures) the period less in from1900through 1924, period the whichbrought mostof them, would probably number than110,000.Forthemostpartthey camein the less few yearsbeforethe passage the Immigration of 1924andtheir of Act numbers beennegligible have sincethatAct. Spanish immigration the UnitedStateshasbeenbut a very small to partof Spanish immigration a whole. MostSpanish as migrants wentto LatinAmerica, particularly Argentina Cubawith somesmaller to and numbers Brazil,Mexico,and Uruguay.Spanish to immigrants the to UnitedStates perhaps percentor lessof thetotal. are ten The settlement Spaniards the UnitedStateshasresulted five of in in majorregionalconcentrations: New York City area,California, the Florida(particularly Tampa),the Mountain West, and a scattered pattern the industrial in midwest.Therearevast areas the United of Stateswhere few would be found, particularly grain-producing the plains states, ruralmidwest, mostof the south. The settlement the and pattern beenlargelyurban has with substantial settlement in rural only California the rangecountry Idaho Nevada.Therearevery and of and few Spanish communities any compact in sensetoday;Tampa,Boise, andGary (WestVirginia) offersomeaspects this. of R. A. GOMEZ University Arizona, of Tucson,Arizona

52 Courtesyof Department of Justice,Immigration and Naturalization Service, by letter.