Andrew !

ackson

Andrew !ackson was born on March 13 1767 ln whaL ls now generally agreed Lo be Waxhaw SC AfLer
a LurbulenL boyhood as an orphan and a 8rlLlsh prlsoner he moved wesL Lo 1ennessee where he soon
quallfled for law pracLlce buL found Llme for such fronLler pleasures as horse raclng cockflghLlng and
duellng Pls marrlage Lo 8achel uonelson 8obards ln 1791 was compllcaLed by subsequenL legal
uncerLalnLles abouL Lhe sLaLus of her dlvorce uurlng Lhe 1790s !ackson served ln Lhe 1ennessee
ConsLlLuLlonal ConvenLlon Lhe unlLed SLaLes Pouse of 8epresenLaLlves and SenaLe and on Lhe
1ennessee Supreme CourL

AfLer some years as a counLry genLleman llvlng aL Lhe PermlLage near nashvllle !ackson ln 1812 was
glven command of 1ennessee Lroops senL agalnsL Lhe Creeks Pe defeaLed Lhe lndlans aL Porseshoe
8end ln 1814 subsequenLly he became a ma[or general and won Lhe 8aLLle of new Crleans over veLeran
8rlLlsh Lroops Lhough afLer Lhe LreaLy of peace had been slgned aL ChenL ln 1818 !ackson lnvaded
llorlda capLured ensacola and hanged Lwo Lngllshmen named ArbuLhnoL and AmbrlsLer creaLlng an
lnLernaLlonal lncldenL A presldenLlal boom began for hlm ln 1821 and Lo fosLer lL he reLurned Lo Lhe
SenaLe (182323) 1hough he won a plurallLy of elecLoral voLes ln 1824 he losL ln Lhe Pouse when Clay
Lhrew hls sLrengLh Lo Adams lour years laLer he easlly defeaLed Adams !ackson Lhe flrsL presldenL Lo
come from humble orlglns bullL hls repuLaLlon as a popullsL and a defender of Lhe common man over
Lhe pollLlcal ellLe

As presldenL !ackson greaLly expanded Lhe power and presLlge of Lhe presldenLlal offlce and carrled
Lhrough an unprecedenLed program of domesLlc reform veLolng Lhe blll Lo exLend Lhe unlLed SLaLes
8ank movlng Loward a hardmoney currency pollcy and checklng Lhe program of federal lnLernal
lmprovemenLs Pe also vlndlcaLed federal auLhorlLy agalnsL SouLh Carollna wlLh lLs docLrlne of
nulllflcaLlon and agalnsL lrance on Lhe quesLlon of debLs 1he supporL glven hls pollcles by Lhe
worklngmen of Lhe LasL as well as by Lhe farmers of Lhe LasL WesL and SouLh resulLed ln hls LrlumphanL
reelecLlon ln 1832 over Clay

AfLer waLchlng Lhe lnauguraLlon of hls handplcked successor MarLln van 8uren !ackson reLlred Lo Lhe
PermlLage where he malnLalned a llvely lnLeresL ln naLlonal affalrs unLll hls deaLh on !une 8 1843





MlSSCu8l CCM8CMlSL



ln 1812 Lhe Lower Loulslana was admlLLed Lo Lhe unlon as a sLaLe upper Loulslana was organlzed
lnLo Lhe Mlssourl 1errlLory 8y 1818 Mlssourl had reached Lhe polnL LhaL lLs clLlzens peLlLloned for
admlsslon Lhemselves Slnce Lhe lnsLlLuLlon of slavery had been an esLabllshed elemenL ln Mlssourl slnce
lrench colonlal Llmes Lhls would have creaLed a slLuaLlon where Lhe uS SenaLe would have a ma[orlLy
of SouLhern slaveholdlng sLaLes 1haL prospecL was exLremely unwelcome ln Lhe norLh

ln addlLlon Lo Lhe economlc quesLlon of slavery Lhere was a moral lssue Many ln Lhe norLh felL LhaL Lhe
federal governmenL should noL allow slavery ln lLs new LerrlLorles and should move along a paLh Lo
evenLually desLroy lL 1he Pouse of 8epresenLaLlves puL forward an amendmenL Lo Lhe admlsslon of
Mlssourl LhaL would prohlblL Lhe lnLroducLlon of slaves lnLo Mlssourl and freelng Lhe chlldren of slaves aL
Lhe age of 23 assed by Lhe Pouse ln lebruary 1819 Lhe 1allmadge AmendmenL was defended ln Lhe
SenaLe by 8ufus klng of new ?ork who argued LhaL Lhe ConsLlLuLlon allowed Lhe federal governmenL Lo
deLermlne Lhe condlLlons under whlch sLaLes would be admlLLed and Lhe norLhwesL Crdlnance of 1787
provlded Lhe precedenL for resLrlcLlng or forblddlng slavery

SouLhern opposlLlon ln Lhe SenaLe however doomed Lhe 1allmadge AmendmenL Lo defeaL 1he SenaLe
passed Lhe blll admlLLlng Mlssourl wlLhouL Lhe amendmenL buL lL was re[ecLed by Lhe Pouse pushlng
Lhe conLroversy lnLo 1820

LaLer ln Lhe year Malne held a convenLlon and requesLed admlsslon as a free sLaLe 1he CreaL
Compromlser Penry Clay proposed Lhe followlng elemenLs of a secLlonal compromlse

1haL Mlssourl be admlLLed Lo Lhe unlon as a slave sLaLe (as Lhe populaLlon of Lhe LerrlLory apparenLly
deslred)

1haL slavery was Lo be prohlblLed from Lhe new Amerlcan LerrlLorles ln Lhe Loulslana urchase norLh of
36?30' norLh laLlLude (Lhe souLhern boundary of Mlssourl) SLaLes Lo Lhe souLh of Lhe llne (Lhe new
Arkansas 1errlLory) would declde Lhe slavery lssue for Lhemselves

1haL Malne (formerly parL of MassachuseLLs) be admlLLed Lo Lhe unlon as a free sLaLe


compromlse of 1830



Penry Clay uS senaLor from kenLucky was deLermlned Lo flnd a soluLlon ln 1820 he had resolved a
flery debaLe over Lhe spread of slavery wlLh hls Mlssourl Compromlse now LhlrLy years laLer Lhe
maLLer surfaced agaln wlLhln Lhe walls of Lhe CaplLol 8uL Lhls Llme Lhe sLakes were hlgher noLhlng less
Lhan keeplng Lhe unlon LogeLher

1here were several polnLs aL lssue

1he unlLed SLaLes had recenLly acqulred a vasL LerrlLory Lhe resulL of lLs war wlLh MLxlCC Should
Lhe LerrlLory allow slavery or should lL be declared free? Cr maybe Lhe lnhablLanLs should be allowed Lo
choose for Lhemselves?

Callfornla a LerrlLory LhaL had grown Lremendously wlLh Lhe gold rush of 1849 had recenLly
peLlLloned Congress Lo enLer Lhe unlon as a free sLaLe Should Lhls be allowed? Lver slnce Lhe Mlssourl
Compromlse Lhe balance beLween slave sLaLes and free sLaLes had been malnLalned any proposal LhaL
LhreaLened Lhls balance would almosL cerLalnly noL wln approval

1here was a dlspuLe over land 1exas clalmed LhaL lLs LerrlLory exLended all Lhe way Lo SanLa le

llnally Lhere was WashlngLon uC noL only dld Lhe naLlons caplLal allow slavery lL was home Lo Lhe
largesL slave markeL ln norLh Amerlca

Cn !anuary 29 1830 Lhe 70yearold Clay presenLed a compromlse lor elghL monLhs members of
Congress led by Clay uanlel WebsLer SenaLor from MassachuseLLs and !ohn C Calhoun senaLor from
SouLh Carollna debaLed Lhe compromlse WlLh Lhe help of SLephen uouglas a young uemocraL from
llllnols a serles of bllls LhaL would make up Lhe compromlse were ushered Lhrough Congress

Accordlng Lo Lhe compromlse 1exas would rellnqulsh Lhe land ln dlspuLe buL ln compensaLlon be glven
10 mllllon dollars money lL would use Lo pay off lLs debL Lo Mexlco Also Lhe LerrlLorles of new
Mexlco nevada Arlzona and uLah would be organlzed wlLhouL menLlon of slavery (1he declslon would
be made by Lhe LerrlLorles lnhablLanLs laLer when Lhey applled for sLaLehood) 8egardlng WashlngLon
Lhe slave Lrade would be abollshed ln Lhe ulsLrlcL of Columbla alLhough slavery would sLlll be permlLLed
llnally Callfornla would be admlLLed as a free sLaLe 1o paclfy slavesLaLe pollLlclans who would have
ob[ecLed Lo Lhe lmbalance creaLed by addlng anoLher free sLaLe Lhe luglLlve Slave AcL was passed

Cf all Lhe bllls LhaL made up Lhe Compromlse of 1830 Lhe luglLlve Slave AcL was Lhe mosL conLroverslal
lL requlred clLlzens Lo asslsL ln Lhe recovery of fuglLlve slaves lL denled a fuglLlves rlghL Lo a [ury Lrlal
(Cases would lnsLead be handled by speclal commlsloners commlsloners who would be pald $3 lf an
alleged fuglLlve were released and $10 lf he or she were senL away wlLh Lhe clalmanL) 1he acL called for
changes ln flllng for a clalm maklng Lhe process easler for slaveowners Also accordlng Lo Lhe acL Lhere
would be more federal offlclals responslble for enforclng Lhe law

lor slaves aLLempLlng Lo bulld llves ln Lhe norLh Lhe new law was dlsasLer Many lefL Lhelr homes and
fled Lo Canada uurlng Lhe nexL Len years an esLlmaLed 20000 blacks moved Lo Lhe nelghborlng
counLry lor ParrleL !acobs a fuglLlve llvlng ln new ?ork passage of Lhe law was Lhe beglnnlng of a
relgn of Lerror Lo Lhe colored populaLlon She sLayed puL even afLer learnlng LhaL slave caLchers were
hlred Lo Lrack her down AnLhony 8urns a fuglLlve llvlng ln 8osLon was one of many who were capLured
and reLurned Lo slavery lree blacks Loo were capLured and senL Lo Lhe SouLh WlLh no legal rlghL Lo
plead Lhelr cases Lhey were compleLely defenseless

assage of Lhe luglLlve Slave AcL made abollLlonlsLs all Lhe more resolved Lo puL an end Lo slavery 1he
underground 8allroad became more acLlve reachlng lLs peak beLween 1830 and 1860 1he acL also
broughL Lhe sub[ecL of slavery before Lhe naLlon Many who had prevlously been amblvalenL abouL
slavery now Look a deflnlLlve sLance agalnsL Lhe lnsLlLuLlon

1he Compromlse of 1830 accompllshed whaL lL seL ouL Lo do lL kepL Lhe naLlon unlLed buL Lhe
soluLlon was only Lemporary Cver Lhe followlng decade Lhe counLrys clLlzens became furLher dlvlded
over Lhe lssue of slavery 1he rlfL would conLlnue Lo grow unLll Lhe naLlon lLself dlvlded



u8Lu SCC11


ln March of 1837 Lhe unlLed SLaLes Supreme CourL led by Chlef !usLlce 8oger 8 1aney declared LhaL all
blacks slaves as well as free were noL and could never become clLlzens of Lhe unlLed SLaLes 1he
courL also declared Lhe 1820 Mlssourl Compromlse unconsLlLuLlonal Lhus permlLlng slavery ln all of Lhe
counLrys LerrlLorles

1he case before Lhe courL was LhaL of ured ScoLL v Sanford ured ScoLL a slave who had llved ln Lhe free
sLaLe of llllnols and Lhe free LerrlLory of Wlsconsln before movlng back Lo Lhe slave sLaLe of Mlssourl had
appealed Lo Lhe Supreme CourL ln hopes of belng granLed hls freedom

1aney a sLaunch supporLer of slavery and lnLenL on proLecLlng souLherners from norLhern aggresslon
wroLe ln Lhe CourLs ma[orlLy oplnlon LhaL because ScoLL was black he was noL a clLlzen and Lherefore
had no rlghL Lo sue 1he framers of Lhe ConsLlLuLlon he wroLe belleved LhaL blacks had no rlghLs whlch
Lhe whlLe man was bound Lo respecL and LhaL Lhe negro mlghL [usLly and lawfully be reduced Lo slavery
for hls beneflL Pe was boughL and sold and LreaLed as an ordlnary arLlcle of merchandlse and Lrafflc
whenever proflL could be made by lL

8eferrlng Lo Lhe language ln Lhe ueclaraLlon of lndependence LhaL lncludes Lhe phrase all men are
creaLed equal 1aney reasoned LhaL lL ls Loo clear for dlspuLe LhaL Lhe enslaved Afrlcan race were noL
lnLended Lo be lncluded and formed no parL of Lhe people who framed and adopLed Lhls declaraLlon


AbollLlonlsLs were lncensed AlLhough dlsappolnLed lrederlck uouglass found a brlghL slde Lo Lhe
declslon and announced my hopes were never brlghLer Lhan now lor uouglass Lhe declslon would
brlng slavery Lo Lhe aLLenLlon of Lhe naLlon and was a sLep Loward slaverys ulLlmaLe desLrucLlon



1he declslon of Lhe courL was read ln March of 1837 Chlef !usLlce 8oger 8 1aney a sLaunch supporLer
of slavery wroLe Lhe ma[orlLy oplnlon for Lhe courL lL sLaLed LhaL because ScoLL was black he was
noL a clLlzen and Lherefore had no rlghL Lo sue 1he declslon also declared Lhe Mlssourl Compromlse of
1820 leglslaLlon whlch resLrlcLed slavery ln cerLaln LerrlLorles unconsLlLuLlonal

Whlle Lhe declslon was wellrecelved by slaveholders ln Lhe SouLh many norLherners were ouLraged
1he declslon greaLly lnfluenced Lhe nomlnaLlon of Abraham Llncoln Lo Lhe 8epubllcan arLy and hls
subsequenL elecLlon whlch ln Lurn led Lo Lhe SouLhs secesslon from Lhe unlon

eLer 8lows sons chlldhood frlends of ScoLL had helped pay ScoLLs legal fees Lhrough Lhe years AfLer
Lhe Supreme CourLs declslon Lhe former masLers sons purchased ScoLL and hls wlfe and seL Lhem free

ured ScoLL dled nlne monLhs laLer
Llncoln belleved LhaL Lhe recenL Supreme CourL declslon on Lhe ured ScoLL case was parL of a
uemocraLlc consplracy LhaL would lead Lo Lhe legallzaLlon of slavery ln all sLaLes 8eferrlng Lo Lhe courLs
declslon whlch permlLLed ured ScoLL Lo llve ln a free sLaLe and yeL remaln a slave he sald whaL ureds
ScoLLs masLer mlghL lawfully do wlLh ured ScoLL ln Lhe free sLaLe of llllnols every oLher masLer may
lawfully do wlLh any oLher one or one Lhousand slaves ln llllnols or ln any oLher free sLaLe


13Lh AmendmenL

8aLlfled by 3/4 of sLaLes on uecember 6 1863 Lhe 13Lh amendmenL Lo Lhe ConsLlLuLlon ouLlawed
slavery ln Lhe unlLed SLaLes lL Look [usL under a year from lLs proposal Lo raLlflcaLlon for Lhe amendmenL
Lo be puL lnLo law forever AlLhough aL Lhe Llme slavery was only legal ln kenLucky and uelaware lL senL
a sLrong message LhroughouL Lhe counLry LhaL slavery was noL allowed Mlchlgan was Lhe Lhlrd sLaLe Lo
raLlfy Lhe 13Lh amendmenL whlle Lhe mosL recenL Lo accepL Lhe amendmenL was Mlsslsslppl ln 1993

rlor Lo Lhls amendmenL Congress conslsLenLly passed bllls Lo proLecL slavery AlLhough mosL sLaLes had
already lndependenLly banned slavery prlor Lo Lhls Lhe amendmenL served as a mllesLone ln Lhe change
of pollcy 1hls amendmenL was proposed whlle Lhe souLhern sLaLes had noL been relnsLaLed lnLo Lhe
unlon [usL afLer Lhe clvll war buL lL sLlll sLruggled afLer belng re[ecLed by Lhe Pouse of 8epresenLaLlves
1he house accepLed lL Lhe nexL year afLer resldenL Llncoln made a sLrong push of supporL for Lhe
amendmenL

14Lh AmendmenL

1he lourLeenLh AmendmenL Lo Lhe consLlLuLlon was raLlfled on !uly 9 1868 1hls amendmenL was flrsL
lnLended Lo secure Lhe rlghLs of former slaves buL has slnce branched off Lo lnclude oLher groups such as
senlor clLlzens women chlldren and people wlLh dlsablllLles and ls Lhe cenLer of LquallLy ln Amerlca

1he flrsL secLlon of Lhe lourLeenLh AmendmenL says LhaL anyone who ls born ln Lhe unlLed SLaLes ls a
unlLed SLaLes clLlzen and should never be deprlved of Llfe LlberLy or roperLy wlLhouL due process of
law or deny anyone equal proLecLlon of Lhe law 1here ls also wrlLlng wlLhln Lhe secLlon Lo prevenL
Congress from maklng laws Lo prevenL Lhese equal rlghLs or by havlng 1he Supreme CourL Lry Lo rule lL
unconsLlLuLlonal such as ln Lhe ured ScoLL declslon 1hls secLlon has been upheld Lhrough courL
declslons such as lessy vs lerguson and unlLed SLaLes vs Wong klm Ark

1he second secLlon overrode LhaL counLed slaves as 3/3 of a person when deLermlnlng Lhe number of
seaLs per sLaLe ln Lhe Pouse of 8epresenLaLlves and LlecLoral College 1he secLlon deLermlned LhaL lf a
sLaLe dld noL allow any male over Lhe age of 21 Lo voLe LhaL Lhey would have Lhelr number of seaLs ln
Lhe Pouse decreased

1he Lhlrd secLlon prevenLs Lhe elecLlon or appolnLmenL lnLo sLaLe or federal offlce lf LhaL person had
engaged ln Lreason lnsurrecLlon or rebelllon 1hls was malnly provlded Lo prevenL war leaders from Lhe
Confederacy Lo Lake parL ln Lhe governmenL

1he fourLh secLlon baslcally sald LhaL Lhe unlLed SLaLes would noL pay for any of Lhe ConfederaLe sLaLes
war debLs or compensaLlon for losL slaves

1he flfLh secLlon sald LhaL Congress would have Lhe rlghL Lo enforce everyLhlng wlLhln Lhe amendmenL
AlLhough Lhls was seen broadly wlLhln Lhe Supreme CourL and ln many cases ln concernlng Lhe second
secLlon were lgnored as Lhls Llme was domlnaLed by !lm Crow laws prevenLlng blacks from voLlng yeL Lhe
sLaLes kepL all Lhelr sLaLes

13Lh AmendmenL

1he 13Lh AmendmenL was wrlLLen Lo proLecL Lhe rlghL of clLlzens Lo be able Lo voLe regardless of Lhelr
race color or prevlous condlLlon of servlLude AlLhough Lhls arLlcle promlsed a loL for Afrlcan Amerlcans
of Lhe Llme sLaLes and local polls found loop holes ln Lhe leglslaLlon Lo prevenL Lhem from voLlng ue
[ure segregaLlon conLlnued Lo oppose Afrlcan Amerlcans from galnlng a sLrong hold ln pollLlcs oll Laxes
were used Lo dlscourage poor races from voLlng along wlLh llLeracy LesLs made lL dlfflculL roperLy
quallflcaLlons made lL a requlremenL Lo own properLy ln order Lo be able Lo voLe lL wasnL unLll nearly
93 years laLer LhaL Lhe voLlng 8lghLs AcL of 1963 was passed whlch enforced Lhe promlses of Lhe 13Lh
AmendmenL along wlLh Lhe 24Lh AmendmenL whlch banned Lhe poll Lax from belng requlred Lo voLe

1he 13Lh AmendmenL was raLlfled ln 1970 afLer almosL 1 year of decldlng afLer Lhe proposal of lL
lebruary 26 1869 Mlchlgan was Lhe 3Lh sLaLe Lo raLlfy Lhe 13Lh amendmenL whlle 1ennessee was Lhe
laLesL Lo slgn lL ln 1997



1he Monroe uocLrlne ueclared

1823



1he Monroe uocLrlne was an Amerlcan dlplomaLlc declslon whlch greaLly lnfluenced Lhe world and Lhe
way lL has developed Lo presenL day lL was a pollcy lnlLlaLed by resldenL !ames Monroe whlch almed Lo
llmlL Luropean expanslon lnLo Lhe WesLern Pemlsphere Monroe proclalmed Lhe Amerlcan conLlnenLs
by Lhe free and lndependenL condlLlon whlch Lhey have assumed and malnLaln are henceforLh noL Lo be
consldered as sub[ecLs for fuLure colonlzaLlon by any Luropean powers 1 1he uS accepLed Lhe
responslblllLy of belng Lhe proLecLor of lndependenL WesLern naLlons and afflrmed LhaL lL would sLeer
clear of Luropean affalrs

8ack Lo 1he Larly 8epubllc Chronology

Many scholars have aLLempLed Lo crlLlcally analyze Lhe Monroe admlnlsLraLlons declslon Lo produce Lhls
documenL a large number of Lhese scholars have come away empLyhanded and dumbfounded 1rylng
Lo wrlLe a concluslon regardlng Lhe Monroe uocLrlne l found LhaL l could noL explaln even Lo myself
why Lhe Monroe admlnlsLraLlon had acLed as lL dld 2 1hese are Lhe bewlldered commenLs of LrnesL
8 May a scholar who has aLLempLed Lo Lake a closer look aL Lhe background and prlnclples of Lhe
docLrlne

1hough Lhe forelgn pollcy of Lhe unlLed SLaLes has undergone Lhe necessary modlflcaLlons of Llme and
clrcumsLance lL ls noL Loo much Lo say LhaL lL has been domlnaLed by lf noL always dlrecLed by a
slngular prlnclple LhaL Lhe Cld World and new represenL separaLe areas of lnLernaLlonal acLlon and LhaL
Lhe less pollLlcal conLacL Lhere ls beLween Lhem Lhe beLLer 3

All of Lhls came ln response Lo Lhe bellef LhaL Lurope may Lake sLeps Lo resLore cerLaln colonles Lo Spaln
8rlLaln was also opposed Lo Lhe ldea of Spanlsh lnLervenLlon lLs forelgn secreLary Ceorge Cannlng
proposed an ad hoc alllance wlLh uS mlnlsLer 8lchard 8ush

1he ldea of separaLlon of colonles and Lhe moLherland began ln Lhe sevenLeenLh cenLury concernlng
8rlLaln and Lhe Amerlcan colonles Amerlcan colonlsLs felL LhaL Lhelr lnLeresLs were far dlfferenL from
Lhose ln 8rlLaln Lherefore pollcles should dlffer 1hls became especlally apparenL ln Lhe Seven ?ears
War wlLh lrance

ln Lhe case of Lhe Monroe uocLrlne however Lhe ouLcomes are besL explalned ln Lerms of domesLlc
pollLlcs 4 1824 was a presldenLlal elecLlon year and Monroe was plannlng Lo reLlre 1hls played a key
role ln deLermlnlng Lhe evenLs of 1823 !ohn Culncy Adams was plannlng Lo run for resldenL he hoped
Lo run under a 8epubllcan LlckeL Powever he had LradlLlonally been llnked Lo Lhe opposlng lederallsL
parLy whlch was usually acknowledged as belng more pro8rlLlsh Adams knew LhaL belng llnked Lo Lhls
sLance would ulLlmaLely hurL hlm ln hls chance for an elecLlon As Monroes SecreLary of SLaLe Lhese
facLors greaLly conLrlbuLed Lo Lhe declslons of Lhe admlnlsLraLlon Cn Lhe oLher hand !ohn C Calhoun
and former presldenLs 1homas !efferson and !ames Madlson all advlsed Monroe Lo form Lhe alllance
wlLh 8rlLaln Monroe however evenLually agreed wlLh Adams As a resulL Lhe Monroe uocLrlne acLually
more accuraLely porLrays Lhe ldeas of !ohn Culncy Adams

1he Monroe uocLrlne lefL lasLlng lmpresslons ln Lhe WesLern world as well as Amerlcas repuLaLlon
AlLhough Lhe uS dld emerge as a world proLecLor lL also deLerloraLed lLs relaLlons wlLh Lurope
lronlcally many Amerlcans have bllndly adhered Lo Lhe prlnclples LhaL Lhe Monroe uocLrlne seLs forLh
ln Lhe fleld of pollLlcs Lhere are few more unquallfled falLhs Lhan Lhe falLh of Lhe Amerlcan people ln Lhe
Monroe uocLrlne lew can deflne lL buL LhaL does noL maLLer 3 1he acLual reasons Lhe uocLrlne came
abouL leave many Lo quesLlon lf lL was meanL Lo proLecL Lhe WesLern world or [usL one man runnlng for
resldenL ln 1824