Weathering, Soil, and Mass Wasting

Weathering, Soil, and Mass Wasting begins with a brief examination of the external processes of weathering, mass wasting, and erosion. The two forms of weathering, mechanical and chemical, are investigated in detail including the types, conditions, rates, and net effect of each. The soils section of the chapter begins with a description of the general composition, texture, and structure of soil. After examining the factors that influence soil formation, development, and classification, soil erosion, as well as some ore deposits produced by weathering, are presented. Mass wasting begins with a look at the role the process plays in landform development. Following a discussion of the controls and triggers of mass wasting, a general presentation of the various types of mass wasting concludes the chapter.

Learning Objectives
After reading, studying, and discussing the chapter, students should be able to: Describe the processes of weathering, erosion, and mass wasting. Explain the difference between mechanical and chemical weathering. Discuss soil composition, texture, structure, formation, and classification. Describe the controls of mass wasting. List and describe the various types of mass wasting.

Chapter Summary
External processes include 1) weathering the disintegration and decomposition of rock at or near the surface, 2) mass wasting the transfer of rock material downslope under the influence of gravity, and 3) erosion the incorporation and transportation of material by a mobile agent, usually water, wind, or ice. They are called external processes because they occur at or near Earths surface and are powered by energy from the Sun. By contrast, internal processes, such as volcanism and mountain building, derive their energy from Earths interior.
Mechanical weathering is the physical breaking up of rock into smaller pieces. Chemical weathering alters

a rock's chemistry, changing it into different substances. Rocks can be broken into smaller fragments by frost wedging, unloading, and biological activity. Water is by far the most important agent of chemical weathering. Oxygen in water can oxidize some materials, while carbon dioxide (CO2) dissolved in water forms carbonic acid. The chemical weathering of silicate minerals frequently produces (1) soluble products containing sodium, calcium, potassium, and magnesium, (2) insoluble iron oxides, and (3) clay minerals. The type and rate of rock weathering is influenced by a rock's mineral makeup calcite readily dissolves in mildly acidic solutions and silicate minerals that form first from magma are least resistant to chemical weathering. Climatic factors, particularly temperature and moisture, are crucial to the rate of rock weathering.

The rate at which rock weathers depends on such factors as (1) particle sizesmall pieces generally

weather faster than large pieces; (2) mineral makeupcalcite readily dissolves in mildly acidic solutions, and silicate minerals that form first from magma are least resistant to chemical weathering; and (3) climatic factors, particularly temperature and moisture. Frequently, rocks exposed at Earths surface do not weather at the same rate. This differential weathering of rocks is influenced by such factors as mineral makeup and degree of jointing.

23

24

CHAPTER 3

Soil is a combination of mineral and organic matter, water, and airthat portion of the regolith (the layer of rock and mineral fragments produced by weathering) that supports the growth of plants. Soil texture refers to the proportions of different particle sizes (clay, silt, and sand) found in soil. The most important factors that control soil formation are parent material, time, climate, plants, animals, and slope. Soil-forming processes operate from the surface downward and produce zones or layers in the soil that soil scientists call horizons. From the surface downward the horizons are designated as O, A, E, B, and C respectively. Although there are hundreds of soil types and subtypes worldwide, the three very generic types are 1) pedalfercharacterized by an accumulation of iron oxides and aluminum-rich clays in the B horizon, 2) pedocalcharacterized by an accumulation of calcium carbonate, and 3) lateritedeep soils that develop in the hot, wet tropics that are poor for growing because they are highly leached and bricklike. Soil erosion by wind and water is the ultimate fate of practically all soils. Rates of soil erosion vary from one place to another and depend on the soil's characteristics as well as such factors as climate, slope, and type of vegetation. Weathering creates mineral deposits by consolidating metals into economical concentrations. The process, called secondary enrichment, is accomplished by either (1) removing undesirable materials and leaving the desired elements enriched in the upper zones of the soil or (2) removing and carrying the desirable elements to lower soil zones where they are redeposited and become more concentrated. Bauxite, the principal ore of aluminum, is one important ore created by secondary enrichment. In the evolution of most landforms, mass wasting is the step that follows weathering. The combined effect of mass wasting and erosion by running water produces stream valleys. Gravity is the controlling force of mass wasting. Other factors that influence or trigger downslope movements are saturation of the material with water, oversteepening of slopes beyond the angle of repose, removal of anchoring vegetation, and ground vibrations from earthquakes. The various processes included under the name of mass wasting are classified and described on the basis of (1) the type of material involved (debris, mud. earth, or rock), (2) the kind of motion (fall, slide, or flow), and (3) the rate of the movement (fast, slow). The various kinds of mass wasting include the more rapid forms called slump, rockslide, debris flow, and earthflow, as well as the slow movements referred to as creep and solifluction.

Soil
I
INTRODUCTION

Soil, the loose material that covers the land surfaces of Earth and supports the growth of plants. In general, soil is an unconsolidated, or loose, combination of inorganic and organic materials. The inorganic components of soil are principally the products of rocks and minerals that have been gradually broken down by weather, chemical action, and other natural processes. The organic materials are composed of debris from plants and from the decomposition of the many tiny life forms that inhabit the soil. Soils vary widely from place to place. Many factors determine the chemical composition and physical structure of the soil at any given location. The different kinds of rocks, minerals, and other geologic materials from which the soil originally formed play a role. The kinds of plants or other vegetation that grow in the soil are also important. Topographythat is, whether the terrain is steep, flat, or some combinationis another factor. In some cases, human activity such as farming or building has caused disruption. Soils also differ in color, texture, chemical makeup, and the kinds of plants they can support. Soil actually constitutes a living system, combining with air, water, and sunlight to sustain plant life. The essential process of photosynthesis, in which plants convert sunlight into energy, depends on exchanges that take place within the soil. Plants, in turn, serve as a vital part of the food chain for living things, including humans. Without soil there would be no vegetationno crops for food, no forests, flowers, or grasslands. To a great extent, life on Earth depends on soil. The study of different soil types and their properties is called soil science or pedology. Soil science plays a key role in agriculture, helping farmers to select and support the crops on their land and to maintain fertile, healthy ground for planting. Understanding soil is also important in engineering and construction. Soil engineers carry out detailed analysis of the soil prior to building roads, houses, industrial and retail complexes, and other structures. Soil takes a great deal of time to developthousands or even millions of years. As such, it is effectively a nonrenewable resource. Yet even now, in many areas of the world, soil is under siege. Deforestation, overdevelopment, and pollution from humanmade chemicals are just a few of the consequences of human activity and carelessness. As the human population grows, its demand for food from crops increases, making soil conservation crucial.

II

COMPOSITION OF SOILS

Soils comprise a mixture of inorganic and organic components: minerals, air, water, and plant and animal material. Mineral and organic particles generally compose roughly 50 percent of a soil's volume. The other 50 percent consists of poresopen areas of various shapes and sizes. Networks of pores hold water within the soil and also provide a means of water transport. Oxygen and other gases move through pore spaces in soil. Pores also serve as passageways for small animals and provide room for the growth of plant roots.

Inorganic Material

The mineral component of soil is made up of an arrangement of particles that are less than 2.0 mm (0.08in) in diameter. Soil scientists divide soil particles, also known as soil separates, into three main size groups: sand, silt, and clay. According to the classification scheme used by the United States Department

of Agriculture (USDA), the size designations are: sand, 0.05 to 2.00 mm (0.002 to 0.08 in); silt 0.002 to 0.05 mm (0.00008 to 0.002 in); and clay, less than 0.002 mm (0.00008 in). Depending upon the rock materials from which they were derived, these assorted mineral particles ultimately release the chemicals on which plants depend for survival, such as potassium, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, sulfur, iron, and manganese.

Organic Material

Organic materials constitute another essential component of soils. Some of this material comes from the residue of plantsfor example, the remains of plant roots deep within the soil, or materials that fall on the ground, such as leaves on a forest floor. These materials become part of a cycle of decomposition and decay, a cycle that provides important nutrients to the soil. In general, soil fertility depends on a high content of organic materials. Even a small area of soil holds a universe of living things, ranging in size from the fairly large to the microscopic: earthworms, mites, millipedes, centipedes, grubs, termites, lice, springtails, and more. And even a gram of soil might contain as many as a billion microbesbacteria and fungi too small to be seen with the naked eye. All these living things form a complex chain: Larger creatures eat organic debris and excrete waste into the soil, predators consume living prey, and microbes feed on the bodies of dead animals. Bacteria and fungi, in particular, digest the complex organic compounds that make up living matter and reduce them to simpler compounds that plants can use for food. A typical example of bacterial action is the formation of ammonia from animal and vegetable proteins. Other bacteria oxidize the ammonia to form nitrogen compounds called nitrites, and still other bacteria act on the nitrites to form nitrates, another type of nitrogen compound that can be used by plants. Some types of bacteria are able to fix, or extract, nitrogen directly from the air and make it available in the soil. Ultimately, the decay of plant and animal material results in the formation of a dark-colored organic matter known as humus. Humus, unlike plant residues, is generally resistant to further decomposition.

Water

Soil scientists also characterize soils according to how effectively they retain and transport water. Once water enters the soil from rain or irrigation, gravity comes into play, causing water to trickle downward. Water is also taken up in great quantities by the roots of plants: Plants use anywhere from 200 to 1,000 kg (440 to 2,200 lb) of water in the formation of 1 kg (2.2 lb) of dry matter. Soils differ in their capacity to retain moisture against the pull exerted by gravity and by plant roots. Coarse soils, such as those consisting of mostly of sand, tend to hold less water than do soils with finer textures, such as those with a greater proportion of clays. Water also moves through soil pores independently of gravity. This movement can occur via capillary action, in which water molecules move because they are more attracted to the pore walls than to one another. Such movement tends to occur from wetter to drier areas of the soil. The movement from soil to plant roots can also depend on how tightly water molecules are bound to soil particles. The attraction of water molecules to each other is an example of cohesion. The attraction of water molecules to other

materials, such as soil or plant roots, is a type of adhesion. These effects, which determine the so-called matric potential of the soil, depend largely on the size and arrangement of the soil particles. Another factor that can affect water movement is referred to as the osmotic potential. The osmotic potential hinges on the amount of dissolved salts in the soil. Soils high in soluble salt tend to reduce uptake of water by plant roots and seeds. The sum of the matric and osmotic potentials is called the total water potential. In soil, water carries out the essential function of bringing mineral nutrients to plants. But the balance between water and air in the soil can be delicate. An overabundance of water will saturate the soil and fill pore spaces needed for the transport of oxygen. The resulting oxygen deficiency can kill plants. Fertile soils permit an exchange between plants and the atmosphere, as oxygen diffuses into the soil and is used by roots for respiration. In turn, the resulting carbon dioxide diffuses through pore spaces and returns to the atmosphere. This exchange is most efficient in soils with a high degree of porosity. For farmers, gardeners, landscapers, and others with a professional interest in soil health, the process of aeration making holes in the soil surface to permit the exchange of airis a crucial activity. The burrowing of earthworms and other soil inhabitants provides a natural and beneficial form of aeration.

III

SOIL FORMATION

Soil formation is an ongoing process that proceeds through the combined effects of five soil-forming factors: parent material, climate, living organisms, topography, and time. Each combination of the five factors produces a unique type of soil that can be identified by its characteristic layers, called horizons. Soil formation is also known as pedogenesis (from the Greek words pedon, for ground, and genesis, meaning birth or origin).

Parent Material

The first step in pedogenesis is the formation of parent material from which the soil itself forms. Roughly 99 percent of the world's soils derive from mineral-based parent materials that are the result of weathering, the physical disintegration and chemical decomposition of exposed bedrock. The small percentage of remaining soils derives from organic parent materials, which are the product of environments where organic matter accumulates faster than it decomposes. This accumulation can occur in marshes, bogs, and wetlands. Bedrock itself does not directly give rise to soil. Rather, the gradual weathering of bedrock, through physical and chemical processes, produces a layer of rock debris called regolith. Further weathering of this debris, leading to increasingly smaller and finer particles, ultimately results in the creation of soil. In some instances, the weathering of bedrock creates parent materials that remain in one place. In other cases, rock materials are transported far from their sourceblown by wind, carried by moving water, and borne inside glaciers.

Climate

Climate directly affects soil formation. Water, ice, wind, heat, and cold cause physical weathering by loosening and breaking up rocks. Water in rock crevices expands when it freezes, causing the rocks to crack. Rocks are worn down by water and wind and ground to bits by the slow movement of glaciers. Climate also determines the speed at which parent materials undergo chemical weathering, a process in which existing minerals are broken down into new mineral components. Chemical weathering is fastest in hot, moist climates and slowest in cold, dry climates. Climate also influences the developing soil by determining the types of plant growth that occur. Low rainfall or recurring drought often discourage the growth of trees but allow the growth of grass. Soils that develop in cool rainy areas suited to pines and other needle-leaf trees are low in humus.

Living Organisms

As the parent material accumulates, living things gradually gain a foothold in it. The arrival of living organisms marks the beginning of the formation of true soil. Mosses, lichens, and lower plant forms appear first. As they die, their remains add to the developing soil until a thin layer of humus is built up. Animals waste materials add nutrients that are used by plants. Higher forms of plants are eventually able to establish themselves as more and more humus accumulates. The presence of humus in the upper layers of a soil is important because humus contains large amounts of the elements needed by plants. Living organisms also contribute to the development of soils in other ways. Plants build soils by catching dust from volcanoes and deserts, and plants growing roots break up rocks and stir the developing soil. Animals also mix soils by tunneling in them.

Topography

Topography, or relief, is another important factor in soil formation. The degree of slope on which a soil forms helps to determine how much rainfall will run off the surface and how much will be retained by the soil. Relief may also affect the average temperature of a soil, depending on whether or not the slope faces the sun most of the day.

Time

The amount of time a soil requires to develop varies widely according to the action of the other soilforming factors. Young soils may develop in a few days from the alluvium (sediments left by floods) or from the ash from volcanic eruptions. Other soils may take hundreds of thousands of years to form. In some areas, the soils may be more than a million years old.

Horizons

Most soils, as they develop, become arranged in a series of layers, known as horizons. These horizons, starting at the soil surface and proceeding deeper into the ground, reflect different properties and different degrees of weathering.

Soil scientists have designated several main types of horizons. The surface horizon is usually referred to as the O layer; it consists of loose organic matter such as fallen leaves and other biomass. Below that is the A horizon, containing a mixture of inorganic mineral materials and organic matter. Next is the E horizon, a layer from which clay, iron, and aluminum oxides have been lost by a process known as leaching (when water carries materials in solution down from one soil level to another). Removal of materials in this manner is known as eluviation, the process that gives the E horizon its name. Below E horizon is the B horizon, in which most of the iron, clays, and other leached materials have accumulated. The influx of such materials is called illuviation. Under that layer is the C horizon, consisting of partially weather bedrock, and last, the R horizon of hard bedrock. Along with these primary designations, soil scientists use many subordinate names to describe the transitional areas between the main horizons, such as Bt horizon or BX2 horizon. Soil scientists refer to this arrangement of layers atop one another as a soil profile. Soil profiles change constantly but usually very slowly. Under normal conditions, soil at the surface is slowly eroded but is constantly replaced by new soil that is created from the parent material in the C horizon.

IV

SOIL CHARACTERISTICS

Scientists can learn a lot about a soils composition and origin by examining various features of the soil. Color, texture, aggregation, porosity, ion content, and pH are all important soil characteristics.

Color

Soils come in a wide range of colorsshades of brown, red, orange, yellow, gray, and even blue or green. Color alone does not affect a soil, but it is often a reliable indicator of other soil properties. In the surface soil horizons, a dark color usually indicates the presence of organic matter. Soils with significant organic material content appear dark brown or black. The most common soil hues are in the red-to-yellow range, getting their color from iron oxide minerals coating soil particles. Red iron oxides dominate highly weathered soils. Soils frequently saturated by water appear gray, blue, or green because the minerals that give them the red and yellow colors have been leached away.

Texture

A soils texture depends on its content of the three main mineral components of the soil: sand, silt, and clay. Texture is the relative percentage of each particle size in a soil. Texture differences can affect many other physical and chemical properties and are therefore important in measures such as soil productivity. Soils with predominantly large particles tend to drain quickly and have lower fertility. Very fine-textured soils may be poorly drained, tend to become waterlogged, and are therefore not well-suited for agriculture. Soils with a medium texture and a relatively even proportion of all particle sizes are most versatile. A combination of 10 to 20 percent clay, along with sand and silt in roughly equal amounts, and a good quantity of organic materials, is considered an ideal mixture for productive soil.

Aggregation

Individual soil particles tend to be bound together into larger units referred to as aggregates or soil peds. Aggregation occurs as a result of complex chemical forces acting on small soil components or when organisms and organic matter in soil act as glue binding particles together. Soil aggregates form soil structure, defined by the shape, size, and strength of the aggregates. There are three main soil shapes: platelike, in which the aggregates are flat and mostly horizontal; prismlike, meaning greater in vertical than in horizontal dimension; and blocklike, roughly equal in horizontal and vertical dimensions and either angular or rounded. Soil peds range in size from very fineless than 1 mm (0.04 in)to very coarsegreater than 10 mm (0.4 in). The measure of strength or grade refers to the stability of the structural unit and is ranked as weak, moderate, or strong. Very young or sandy soils may have no discernible structure.

Porosity

The part of the soil that is not solid is made up of pores of various sizes and shapessometimes small and separate, sometimes consisting of continuous tubes. Soil scientists refer to the size, number, and arrangement of these pores as the soil's porosity. Porosity greatly affects water movement and gas exchange. Well-aggregated soils have numerous pores, which are important for organisms that live in the soil and require water and oxygen to survive. The transport of nutrients and contaminants will also be affected by soil structure and porosity.

Ion Content

Soils also have key chemical characteristics. The surfaces of certain soil particles, particularly the clays, hold groupings of atoms known as ions. These ions carry a negative charge. Like magnets, these negative ions (called anions) attract positive ions (called cations). Cations, including those from calcium, magnesium, and potassium, then become attached to the soil particles, in a process known as cation exchange. The chemical reactions in cation exchange make it possible for calcium and the other elements to be changed into water-soluble forms that plants can use for food. Therefore, a soil's cation exchange capacity is an important measure of its fertility.

pH

Another important chemical measure is soil pH, which refers to the soil's acidity or alkalinity. This property hinges on the concentration of hydrogen ions in solution. A greater concentration of hydrogen results in a lower pH, meaning greater acidity. Scientists consider pure water, with a pH of 7, neutral. The pH of a soil will often determine whether certain plants can be grown successfully. Blueberry plants, for example, require acidic soils with a pH of roughly 4 to 4.5. Alfalfa and many grasses, on the other hand, require a neutral or slightly alkaline soil. In agriculture, farmers add limestone to acid soils to neutralize them.

SOIL CLASSIFICATION

As yet there is no worldwide, unified classification scheme for soil. Since the birth of the modern discipline of soil science roughly 100 years ago, scientists in different countries have used many systems to organize the various types of soils into groups. For much of the 20th century in the United States, for example, soil scientists at the USDA used a classification scheme patterned after an earlier Russian method. This system recognized some three dozen Great Soil Groups. In 1975 a new classification scheme known as soil taxonomy was published in the United States and is now used by the USDA. Unlike earlier systems, which organized soils according to various soil formation factors, the new system emphasizes characteristics that can be precisely measured, including diagnostic horizons (which give clues to soil formation), soil moisture, and soil temperature. In a manner similar to the kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species system used to classify living things, the USDA soil taxonomy employs six categories. From the general to the more specific, its categories are order, suborder, great group, subgroup, family, and series. This system has classified more than 17,000 types of soil in the United States. The top level of the system consists of 12 orders: alfisols, andisols, aridisols, entisols, gelisols, histosols, inceptisols, mollisols, oxisols, spodosols, ultisols, and vertisols. Each term employs a Latin or Greek word root to describe a range of soil characteristics. Mollisols, for example (from the Latin mollis, for soft) are soils with thick, dark surface horizons that have a high proportion of organic matter. Such soils can be found in the midwestern United States stretching up into Canada and in portions of northwestern North America. Regions in New England and the eastern portion of Canada, meanwhile, contain spodosols (from the Greek spodos, meaning wood ash), which are characterized by a light-colored, grayish topsoil and subsoil accumulation of aluminum, organic matter, and iron. Soil scientists classify soils in many of the southern United States as ultisols (from the Latin for last), heavily weathered soils with high concentrations of aluminum. In the southwest, meanwhile, aridisols (from the Latin aridus, for dry), featuring little organic matter, are found, as their name implies, in arid lands with little plant growth. The suborder and great group names of the soil taxonomy provide increasing levels of detail. The suborder aqualf, for example, combines aqu from the Latin aqua, for water, and alf from alfisol to describe wet soils. Using assorted roots and combining them in different ways, scientists describe soils in a highly specialized and specific language. Aeric fragiaqualfs, for example, are wet, well-developed soils with aerated surface layers and restrictive subsoils.

VI

SOIL USE

For most of human history, soil has not been treated as the valuable and essentially nonrenewable resource that it is. Erosion has devastated soils worldwide as a result of overuse and misuse. In recent years, however, farmers and agricultural experts have become increasingly concerned with soil management.

Erosion

Erosion is the wearing away of material on the surface of the land by wind, water, or gravity. In nature, erosion occurs very slowly, as natural weathering and geologic processes remove rock, parent material, or

soil from the land surface. Human activity, on the other hand, greatly increases the rate of erosion. In the United States, the farming of crops accounts for the loss of over 3 billion metric tons of soil each year. In a cultivated field from which crops have been harvested, the soil is often left bare, without protection from the elements, particularly water. Raindrops smash into the soil, dislodging soil particles. Water then carries these particles away. This movement may take the form of broad overland flows known as sheet erosion. More often, the eroding soil is concentrated into small channels, or rills, producing so-called rill erosion. Gravity intensifies water erosion. Landslides, in which large masses of water-loosened soil slide down an incline, are a particularly extreme example. Wind erosion occurs where soils are dry, bare, and exposed to winds. Very small soil particles can be suspended in the air and carried away with the wind. Larger particles bounce along the ground in a process called saltation.

Soil Management

To prevent exposure of bare soil, farmers can use techniques such as leaving crop residue in the soil after harvesting or planting temporary growths, such as grasses, to protect the soil from rain between cropgrowing seasons. Farmers can also control water runoff by planting crops along the slope of a hill (on the contour) instead of in rows that go up and down. Soil faces many threats throughout the world. Deforestation, overgrazing by livestock, and agricultural practices that fail to conserve soil are three main causes of accelerated soil loss. Other acts of human carelessness also damage soil. These include pollution from agricultural pesticides, chemical spills, liquid and solid wastes, and acidification from the fall of acid rain. Loss of green spaces, such as grassland and forested areas, in favor of impermeable surfaces, such as pavement, buildings, and developed land, reduces the amount of soil and increases pressure on what soil remains. Soil is also compacted by heavy machinery and off-road vehicles. Compaction rearranges soil particles, increasing the density of the soil and reducing porosity. Crusts form on compacted soils, preventing water movement into the soil and increasing runoff and erosion. With the world's population now numbering upwards of 6 billion peoplea figure that may rise to 10 billion or more within three decadeshumans will depend more than ever on soil for the growth of food crops. Yet the rapidly increasing population, the intensity of agriculture, and the replacement of soil with concrete and buildings all reduce the capacity of the soil to fulfill this need. As a result of an increased awareness of soil's importance, many changes are being made to protect soil. Recent interest in soil conservation holds the promise that humanity will take better care of this precious resource.

Contributed By: Christopher King

Microsoft Encarta 2009. 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Chapter Outline___________________________________________________________________
I. Earth's external processes include A. Weathering the disintegration and decomposition of material at or near the surface B. Mass wasting the transfer of rock material downslope under the influence of gravity C. Erosion the incorporation and transportation of material by a mobile agent, usually water, wind, or ice II. Weathering A. Two kinds of weathering 1. Mechanical weathering a. Breaking of rocks into smaller pieces b. Four processes

Weathering, Soil, and Mass Wasting

25

1. Frost wedging 2. Unloading 3. Biological activity 2. Chemical weathering a. Alters the internal structures of minerals by removing or adding elements b. Most important agent is water 1. Oxygen dissolved in water oxidizes materials 2. Carbon dioxide (CO2) dissolved in water forms carbonic acid and alters the material c. Weathering of granite 1. Weathering of potassium feldspar produces a. Clay minerals b. Soluble salt (potassium bicarbonate) c. Silica in solution 2. Quartz remains substantially unaltered 3. Weathering of silicate minerals produces a. Soluble sodium, calcium, potassium and magnesium products a. Insoluble iron oxides b. Clay minerals c. Can also produce physical changes by spheroidal weathering B. Rates of weathering 1. Advanced mechanical weathering aids chemical weathering by increasing the surface area

2. Important factors are a. Rock characteristics 1. Mineral composition and solubility a. Marble (calcite) readily dissolves in weakly acidic solutions b. Silicate minerals weather in the same order as their order of crystallization 2. Physical features such as joints b. Climate 1. Temperature and moisture are the most crucial factors

2. Chemical weathering is most effective in areas of warm temperatures and abundant moisture 3. Differential weathering a. Caused by variations in composition b. Creates unusual and spectacular rock formations and landforms III. Soil A. An interface in the Earth system B. A combination of mineral matter, water, and air that portion of the regolith (rock and mineral fragments) that supports the growth of plants C. Soil texture and structure 1. Texture a. Refers to the proportions of different particle sizes

1. Sand (large size) 2. Silt 3. Clay (small size) b. Loam is best suited for plant life 2. Structure a. Soil particles clump together to give a soil its structure b. Four basic soil structures 1. Platy 2. Prismatic 3. Blocky 4. Spheroidal D. Controls of soil formation

26

CHAPTER 3

b. Furnish organic matter to soil 5. Slope a. Angle 1. Steep slopes often have poorly developed soils 2. Optimum is a flat-to-undulating upland surface b. Orientation (direction the slope is facing) influences 1. Soil temperature, and 2. Moisture E. Soil Profile 1. Soil forming processes operate from the surface downward 2. Horizons zones or layers of soil a. Horizons in temperate regions 1. O organic matter 2. A organic and mineral matter 3. E little organic matter 4. B zone of accumulation 5. C partially altered parent material b. O and A together called topsoil c. O, A, E, and B together called solum, or "true soil" F. Soil types 1. Hundreds of soil types worldwide 2. Three very generic types a. Pedalfer 1. Accumulation of iron oxides and Al-rich clays in the B horizon 2. Best developed under forest vegetation b. Pedocal 1. Accumulate calcium carbonate 2. Associated with drier grasslands c. Laterite 1. Hot, wet, tropical climates

1. Parent material a. Residual soil parent material is the bedrock b. Transported soil parent material has been carried from elsewhere and deposited 2. Time a. Important in all geologic processes b. Amount of time to evolve varies for different soils 3. Climate 4. Plants and animals a. Organisms influence the soil's physical and chemical properties 2. Intense chemical weathering G. Soil Erosion 1. Recycling of Earth materials 2. Natural rates of erosion depend on a. Soil characteristics b. Climate c. Slope d. Type of vegetation 3. Soil erosion and sedimentation can cause a. Reservoirs to fill with sediment

b. Contamination by pesticides and fertilizers IV. Weathering creates ore deposits A. Process called secondary enrichment 1. Concentrates metals into economical deposits 2. Takes place in one of two ways a. Removing undesired material from the decomposing rock, leaving the desired elements behind b. Desired elements are carried to lower zones and deposited B. Examples 1. Bauxite, the principal ore of aluminum 2. Many copper and silver deposits V. Mass Wasting A. The downslope movement of rock, regolith, and soil under the direct influence of gravity B. Gravity is the controlling force C. Important triggering factors are 1. Saturation of the material with water a. Destroys particle cohesion b. Water adds weight 2. Oversteepening of slopes

a. Unconsolidated granular particles assume a stable slope called the angle of repose b. Stable slope angle is different for various materials c. Oversteepened slopes are unstable 3. Removal of anchoring vegetation 4. Ground vibrations from earthquakes D. Types of mass wasting processes 1. Generally each type is defined by a. The material involved

1. Debris 2. Mud 3. Earth 4. Rock b. The movement of the material 1. Fall (free-fall of pieces) 2. Slide (material moves along a well-defined surface) 3. Flow (material moves as a viscous fluid)

Weathering, Soil, and Mass Wasting

27

c. The rate of the movement 1. Fast 2. Slow 2. Forms of mass wasting a. Slump 1. Rapid 2. Movement along a curved surface 3. Along oversteepened slopes b. Rockslide 1. Rapid 2. Blocks of bedrock move down a slope c. Debris flow (mudflow) 1. Rapid 2. Flow of debris with water 3. Often confined to channels 4. Serious problem in dry areas with heavy rains

5. Debris flows composed mostly of volcanic materials on the flanks of volcanoes are called lahars d. Earthflow 1. Rapid 2. On hillsides in humid regions 3. Water saturates the soil 4. Liquefaction - a special type of earthflow sometimes associated with earthquakes e. Creep 1. Slow movement of soil and regolith downhill 2. Causes fences and utility poles to tilt f. Solifluction 1. Slow 2. In areas underlain by permafrost 3. Upper (active) soil layer becomes saturated and slowly flows over a frozen surface below parent material pedalfer pedocal permafrost regolith rockslide secondary enrichment sheeting slide slump soil soil profile soil texture solifluction solum spheroidal weathering talus slope weathering

Key Terms
angle of repose chemical weathering creep debris flow differential weathering earthflow eluviation erosion exfoliation dome external process fall flow frost wedging horizon lahar laterite leaching mass wasting mechanical weathering mudflow

Answers to the Review Questions

1. Earth's external processes, weathering, mass wasting, and erosion, occur at or near the surface and are powered by energy from the Sun. These processes are a basic part of the rock cycle because they are responsible for transforming solid rock into sediment. 2. Mechanical weathering simply yields smaller pieces of the same rock. Chemical weathering, however, yields new substances; that is, the minerals composing the rock are decomposed.

28

CHAPTER 3

3. By breaking rocks into smaller and smaller pieces, mechanical weathering increases the surface area available to chemical attack. 4. Exfoliation domes form when the reduction in pressure that accompanies unloading leads to sheeting. Fractures typically develop parallel to the surface and give these exhumed granite masses a domed shape. Continued weathering causes the slabs produced by sheeting to separate and spall off. Examples include Stone Mountain, Georgia, and Half Dome and Liberty Cap in Yosemite National Park. 5. (a) Moisture and warm temperatures accelerate rates of chemical reactions, thus chemical weathering will predominate. Also, mechanical weathering processes dependent on freezing and thawing will not be operative. (b) Basalt would probably weather more rapidly. Ferromagnesian minerals would be rapidly oxidized and decomposed under these conditions, and basalts have much larger percentages of these minerals than granite. 6. In general, high temperatures do raise chemical weathering reaction rates, but most of these reactions take place in an aqueous (watery) media or on the moist surfaces of rock and soil particles. Reaction rates decrease drastically under very dry conditions. 7. Carbonic acid is a very weak acid formed by the solution of carbon dioxide (C02) in water. Carbon dioxide is a minor component of the atmosphere but is often enriched in soil gases by the oxidation of organic matter. The common cations of feldspars (K = +1, Na = +1, and Ca = +2) are fairly soluble in acidic solutions, so reaction of carbonic acid with potassium feldspar causes the feldspar to chemically decompose. Potassium, sodium, and calcium are then released to the soil and precipitated as minerals. 8. A soil consisting of 60 percent sand, 30 percent silt, and 10 percent clay is a sandy loam. 9. Different soils are likely to form from the same parent material if the climates are different. Other factors, which would contribute to differences, would include the nature of the vegetation, the slopes, and the length of time the soils have been forming. Similar soils from different parent materials would result if the above named factors were essentially the same in each situation. 10. Climate is considered most important, for it determines the type and degree of weathering as well as being an important control on the type of plant and animal life present. 11. Slope greatly influences drainage and the amount of erosion that will occur. Because of accelerated erosion on steep slopes, soils are thin. Conversely, in flat bottomlands soils are often waterlogged. Optimum conditions for soil development are flat to undulating upland surfaces. Here erosion is at a

minimum and drainage is good. Slope orientation refers to the amount of sunlight received. This affects the soil temperature and moisture conditions that in turn influence the nature of the vegetation and the character of the soil.

Weathering, Soil, and Mass Wasting

29

12. O - This is a dark, surface layer of decaying plant matter (humus). A - The A horizon (just below the 0 horizon) consists of humus mixed with very tough, chemically resistant mineral grains like quartz that have survived the processes of disintegration, chemical weathering, and leaching associated with the soil-forming process. E - This is a light-colored horizon of resistant mineral grains as in horizon A, but depleted in silt and clay-sized particles that have been transported downward (eluviated) to the B horizon; humus is sparse or absent. B - The B horizon is often called the zone of accumulation. Small size soil particles eluviated downward from higher horizons accumulate in the B-horizon, and chemical constituents leached from the A horizon are precipitated there as well. These include the most insoluble minerals formed in soils such as the iron oxides and hydroxides and clays. This zone is usually red, yellow, or brown, depending on the nature of the finely divided iron oxides in the soil. C - The C horizon is the zone of partly weathered bedrock. Weathered fragments and chips of rock found here are evidence of the unweathered parent rock material at depth. The solum includes all the horizons above the top of the C-horizon. Recently exposed regolith lacks distinctive soil horizons because the soil-forming process is still in its infancy, and horizons have not had enough time to develop. A newly deposited, floodplain sediment is a good example of regolith. 13. These terms denote soil types. The prefix ped(o) comes from pedology, the scientific study of soils. In pedalfer, the al and fe refer to the elements aluminum (Al) and iron (Fe), which accumulate as iron oxides and clays in the B-horizon. In pedocals, the cal refers to calcium carbonate (calcite) that precipitates in the B-horizon. The B-horizon in pedocals generally has a whitish tinge because of the calcite; finely divided iron oxides impart shades of red, yellow, or brown to the B-horizons of pedalfers. Pedocals form in temperate climatic zones under marginally humid to semiarid conditions. Pedalfers develop in moist, temperate regions where enough water moving through the soil can remove (leach) most constituents from the B-horizon except for the highly insoluble iron oxides and clays. 14. Laterites are the soils most associated with tropical rain forests. Several factors contribute to the fact that laterites are poor soils for growing crops. First, because these soils develop under conditions of high temperature and rainfall, the nutrients have been removed by leaching. Moreover, when cleared of plants in preparation for agriculture, laterites are subject to accelerated erosion and can be baked to brick-like hardness. 15. Soil erosion is a natural process; it is part of the constant recycling of Earth materials that we call the rock cycle. However, soil erosion is a growing problem as human activities expand and disturb more and more of Earths surface. 16. Soil erosion contributes excess sediment loads to reservoirs, streams, and rivers, thus degrading water quality and adversely affecting aquatic and riparian habitats. It also diminishes the quality of outdoor recreational activities and raises the cost of maintaining navigational channels and hydroelectric power generation facilities. Blowing dust can seriously degrade air quality, causing health problems and

premature failure of machinery and electronics equipment.

30

CHAPTER 3

17. Bauxite is the primary ore of aluminum. Bauxite results when intense and prolonged chemical weathering leaches most of the soluble elements, leaving the highly insoluble aluminum concentrated in the soil. 18. Mass wasting is the downslope movement of soil and weathered rock debris. Streams can deepen valleys by down cutting (erosion), but widening or enlarging of the valley via erosion of the sides or slopes is accomplished largely through mass wasting. Mass wasting delivers the weathered rock material and soil to the streams, which carry it away to a site of deposition. 19. Gravity is the controlling force of mass wasting. Other factors that trigger or influence mass wasting includes water, oversteepened slopes, the activities of man, and earthquakes. 20. Fall refers to the free falling of detached individual pieces and is commonly associated with very steep slopes. Slides occur whenever material remains fairly coherent and moves along a well-defined surface. Flows usually involve saturated material that moves downslope as a viscous fluid. 21. The criteria that are used to classify mass-wasting processes include the type of material involved, the kind of motion, and the velocity of the movement. 22. The factors which contributed to the Gros Ventre slide include: the strata were dipping; the sandstone bed was underlain by clay that became saturated with water from heavy rains and melting snow; and the river had cut through the sandstone layer. 23. Mudflows of water-saturated volcanic ash, known as lahars, were triggered on the steep slopes of this volcano when large volumes of ice and snow were suddenly melted by the hot debris emitted during a violent eruption. 24. The alternate expansion and contraction of surface material caused by freezing and thawing or wetting and drying is one of the factors that contribute to the creep of earth materials. Other factors include saturation of the ground with water (resulting in a loss of internal cohesion) and disturbance of the soil (by plant roots, burrowing animals, or falling raindrops). 25. Solifluction is the downhill flowage of the water-saturated, surface soil layer above permanently frozen ground (permafrost). In the summer, the soil thaws to some depth below the surface, but the water is trapped in the thawed soil because the permafrost zone is impermeable. Thus solifluction occurs only in the summer when the surface soil layer is thawed. In the winter the surface soil layer is frozen solid.

Answers to the Earth System Questions

1. The production of carbon acid H2CO3), which forms when carbon dioxide (CO2) is dissolved in water (H2O), is associated with the atmosphere and biosphere, which supply the carbon dioxide, and the hydrosphere, the source of the water. 2. Increasing levels of carbon dioxide should ultimately result in higher levels of carbonic acid. Therefore, chemical weathering, which is primarily accomplished by carbonic acid, should also increase.

Weathering, Soil, and Mass Wasting

31

3. The burning of fossil fuels like coal and petroleum in power generating plants, industrial processes, such as ore smelting and petroleum refining, and vehicles of all kinds release large quantities of sulfur and nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere each year. Eventually these pollutants are converted into acids that then fall to Earth surface as rain or snow. 4. Soil is an interface where different parts of the Earth system interact. It forms where the solid Earth, the atmosphere, the hydrosphere, and the biosphere meet. Over time, the material of soil develops in response to complex environmental interactions among the different parts of the Earth system. The solid Earth and biosphere supply the mineral and organic materials of soil; the atmosphere along with the biosphere and hydrosphere furnish the acids and water to weather the material; and the atmosphere, biosphere, and hydrosphere help mix, transport, and sort the materials.

PowerPoint slides for each chapter of Earth Science are available on the DIGIT disc (ISBN 013-035431-7). There are instructions in the CD's ReadMe file for embedding QuickTime for use in the PowerPoint slides. For additional resources, visit http://www.prenhall.com/tarbuck. the Earth Science Home Page at

32
NOTES:

CHAPTER 3