The Study of al-azl Author(s): W. Montgomery Watt Source: Oriens, Vol. 13/14 (1960/1961), pp.

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THE STUDY OF AL-GAZALI

by

W. Montgomery Watt
Edinburgh

The recently booksofDr. Farid Jabreon al-Gazdli, published together withtheposthumous the 'essay' ofMaurice Bouyges1,onceagain direct attention students Islam to thisimportant of Muslimthinker. of There La has been littledetailedworkon him sinceA. J. Wensinck's Pensde de Ghazzdlf and Dr. MargaretSmith's Al-Ghazdl the Mystic (1940) the of character such daunting (1944). The reasonis doubtless somewhat an undertaking. Thereare fewthoroughly reliable texts,and muchwork to be doneon manymanuscripts. about the authentiThereareproblems is or several Aboveall there therichness, as Wensinck called works. cityof it the 'Protean character'of al-Gazdli'sthought.He was pioneering, the applicability freshideas to a varietyof of constantly exploring of his own,his thought a vast is To use a favourite subjects. metaphor are liable to lose ocean in whichall but the most skillednavigators theirway. The present somepreliminary considerations articlecontains about the navigationof this ocean.
? I. QUESTIONS OF METHOD

The methodological Jabre'sworkare imporassumptions underlying consideration thanhe himself of tant,and worthy fuller givesthem.Out a of the largenumber booksascribedto al-Oazdlihe regards scoreas of a textus and makesthesethe basis of his studyof constituting receptus, as al-Gazdli'sthought(which, will be seen in ? 2, he holds to be selfThe consistent throughout). books includedin this textus (and receptus
selonGhazali dans ses origines et 1 La Notionde Certitude psychologiques historiques (ftudes Musulmanes,VI), Paris, Vrin, 1958; La Notion de la Macrifa chezGhazali (Recherches, VIII), Beirut, Lettres Orientales, 1958. (Referredto as Certitude and Macri/a). Essai de Chronologie Oeuvresde al-Ghazdli.Beirut, 1959; edited des by Michel Allard with notes on subsequent publications.The editorhas earned the gratitudeof scholarsby his competentand painstakingwork. This is not affected by one or two small slips; e.g. (p. 50 note) the translationby J. Robson is of the ioth principleof the second part of the Arbacin; (p. 80 note) there seems no in difficulty supposingthat a falsifier mightquote the Ihya', and call it 'our book'.
121

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W. Montgomery Watt

is placed in chronological order)are thosewhoseauthenticity generally In thusselecting certain works primary for consideration and accepted. othersJabre intendsto leave open the questionwhether neglecting or the latterare authentic not (Certitude here and 41); and remarks is theresuggestthat his inclination not to reject any work without than can usuallybe given. muchmoreconclusive proofof its falseness of This method beginning a from textus receptus appearsto be thebest way of dealingwiththe vast and amorphous corpus 6azalianum. A solid is foundation necessary from whichto commence If operations. a body of acceptedtextssuch as Jabreuses showsthat al-Gazdli'sthought has a highdegree consistency evenwhere develops, continuity it of has and, withinthe development-andthereis good reason for thinking this of possible-thenthiswillbe a basis fordealingwithquestions authenWherea workclaimsto be by al-Gazdliit mustnow be possible ticity. in to show that the views expressed it are somehowcontinuous with thosein the textus even whenthereare superficial differences. receptus, and continuity Such a procedure admittedly consistency presupposes in al-Gaz~li'sthinking, the morethisis shownto be present the but in the morejustification its thereis forassuming existence textus receptus, his throughout genuine writing. An illustration thispointmaybe found Wensinck's in of treatment of of Firsthe quotespassagesfrom Ihyd' and the the conception cabarfit. of is as theImld'where sphere thecabarit described being the intermediate between thoseof the mulkand the malakit(theworldsof senseand of and corresponding feeling man1. But a fewpages later to in thought) malakft and cabariithave (Pense'e f.) he quotesotherpassages'where 98 so that the latteris the highest';and he adds that this changedplaces, is since the mutualrelationof change in terminology 'not surprising and cabaritis not constant al-Fdrdbi in and Avicenna, authors malakft whomGazdlilargely from borrowed cosmological his This terminology'. is hardly has If al-Gazdli anything theconsistency adequate. approaching To Jabreclaimsforhim,he could not have executedsuch a volte-face. maintain Wensinck's on thispointthere wouldhave to be much position morediscussion theideas underlying terminology, an attempt of the and to showsomecontinuity theseideas despitethe changes the words in in used. If, as seemslikely, suchcontinuity be found, no can thiswouldbe
1 Pense'e 83-85; there is a much fullerbut essentiallysimilar discussionof the Ghazali's Cosmology and his Mysticism, point in his article On theRelationbetween Mededeelingender Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen,AfdeelingLetter-

kunde, Deel 75, serie A (Amsterdam, 1933), 183-209 (= no. 6). Al-Gazdll has a fuller account in Arbac~n (Cairo 1344). 49.

The study of al-Oazall

123

the where second reason holding an additional for thatad-Durraal-/fxira, is set ofpassagesis found, not authentic. writer honourof usingan articleon 'The the Jabredoes the present to the Worksascribed al-Gazdl~'to supportthe details of Authenticity of to 1. Sincehe proceeds, ofhistextus however, say thatquestions receptus the is notin factaccepting mainarguments are authenticity leftopen,he list of the articlebut only the chronological of works (based mainly further The listhas received to references previous on al-Gazdli's works). fromBouyges' Essai de Chronologie This work confirmation 2. general was completed 1924 but not published, perhapsbecause the author by made a careful withit 3. He had, however, was not satisfied studyof and his conclusions carrymore weightthan those many manuscripts, texts.The orderof the main generally-accepted based onlyon printed well established. is thusfairly worksof al-Gazdli He calls for comment. places the One point of Jabre's chronology in first the workshe considers (Certitude thus rejecting 9), Mustazhiri to a thatit contained reference theTahdfut theviewofIgnaz Goldziher 4. without ofhis datingoftheMustazhiri, A brief any though justification is to reference Goldziher's arguments, givenlater; but it is based only of on subjectiveimpressions style,and does not give any solid reason the or forrejecting thesearguments any alternative way of explaining and the Tahdfutnoted by between the Mustazhirf correspondences Goldziher (Certitude 316, cf. 371). The comparative neglect of thispoint of is unfortunate, it is one of the chiefsupports Jabre'sfinalconfor clusions. in a to It is also strange findhimincluding workby al-Cuwayni the is that this work,al-'Aqfda textusreceptus al-Gazdli. The reason of was transmitted al-Oazdli(Certitude note).But this 78, by an-Niyzdmiya, ownworks, however it is no justification including amongal-Gazdli's for
but reasons forholdingit to be unauthenticare given by A. S. Tritton,in BSOAS,
22/1959, 353.
2

JRAS 1952, 24-45. In this article there was no mention of Macaric al-Quds,

is The chiefdifference the discoverythat the Ilcam was apparentlycompleted be only a few days beforeal-Gazdli's death and must therefore his latest work. 374 Jabre is aware of this dating and has accepted it (Certitude note, 401), though alteration in his opening list of al-Gazall's he has not made the corresponding
works. G. F. Hourani, in JAOS, 79/1959, 225-33, is also aware of the date of the

been overtakenby the much fullerworkof Bouyges. Ilcam, but has unfortunately 3 His dissatisfaction was doubtless due to a realization of the vastness of the total task. This can be seen by comparingthe relevant section of Bouyges with Fr. Meier's full treatmentof Nasihat al-muliikand at-Tibr al-masbiikin ZDMG,
93/1939, 395-408.

to 4 Streitschrift... gegen die Bdtinijja-Sekte,Leiden, 1916, 28, 45 (referring 32, Tahafut,ed. Bouyges, 260). Bouyges,Chronologie accepts Goldziher'sargument.

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W. Montgomery Watt

to of close his relation al-Cuwayni may be. Actuallythe treatment the the distinguished between relation pupil and his chiefteacheris one of theweaker for from study, onceagainhe argues subjective partsofJabre's 'is visibly embarrassed the scholasticpreal-Gazdli by impressions; and he the sentation.. .' (80o), in theIqtisdd 'finds himself prisoner a of and him' (88; terminology of a complexof ideas whichdo not satisfy view of the Iqtisddin Arba'fn, contrast al-Gazdli'sown favourable 24; written afterIhyd'). in of Despitetheseweaknesses matters detailand despitethe absence of is method a sound ofa fulljustification theprocedure adopted, Jabre's of between one and oughtto lead to a decision the question himand the of whichacceptsthe existence partisansof such a view as Wensinck's in of seriousinconsistencies the thinking al-Gazdli.If Jabre'smethod of of it can showthe existence a largemeasure consistency, willbe diffiinconsistent that al-Gazdliwas a completely cult to go on maintaining thinker. ? 2. UNITY AND CONTINUITY OF THOUGHT Jabretendsto the view that thereis an essential unityin al-Gazdli's the wholeofhis textusreceptus; it mustbe said and thought throughout thisview. a to thathe has marshalled vast amountof evidence support all In the future scholarswho do not accept the unitarycharacter of have the onus laid upon themof demonstrating the al-Gazdli'sthought In the contrary. particular view of Duncan Black Macdonald(cf. EI1 willhave to be re-examined. viewat thepresent to time, According this careerfallsintotwodistinct viewal-Gazdli's he phases,one where was a and one wherehe was a mysticwho had largely scholastictheologian scholastictheology.Jabre,afterwide researches withinthe rejected selectedlimits, of givesit as his view that 'in the sphereof the truths dogma,properly speaking,the masterin his interpretations keeps to in the AM'arite system its broad lines' (Certitude Cf. J.-M.Abd-el171. de la Sincerite' Jalil, Autour d'al-Cazzdl, MelangesLouis Massignon, It from confirmation the discovery seriously. has now received powerful by Bouygesofa date forthe Ilcdm whichmakesit the latest of all alwith problemsof ta'bh1t 1; Oazhli's works for the Ilcdm is concerned
1 Chronologie 8o-82; there seems no good reason for rejecting this date. It requires a change in the position given to the Ilcam in the list in JRAS 1952, order,and such a change does not p. 44; but that list is not in strictchronological affectthe principleson which it is based.

s.v. al-Ghazzdli; also JAOS 20/1899,71-132), the most widely accepted

Damascus 1956, 57-72, esp. 70). This is a point which must be taken

The study of al-Oazall

125

within universe discourse the which of (anthropomorphism) areessentially of scholastictheology. Thus, even if al-Gazali in 1095 abandonedhis careerto adopt a kind of monastic life,he did not cease to be a jurist he permitted himself some freedom specuin and theologian. Though within broadlinesofthecentral the Sunnite he remained tradition. lation, to It is important, this however, go on to ask whether essential unity It rulesout all development. mightbe expected of al-Oazdli'sthought the studiesof the that the crisisof 1095, not to mention philosophical and thegrowth theinner in theyears of life years, immediately preceding in after,would lead to modifications al-Gazali's intellectual position. fail but be Such modifications might gradual, theycouldhardly to come. of on hand,tendsto disallowthepossibility suchmodiJabre, the other fications Certitude '~ ce pointde vue, la penseede Gazdli n'a 138: (cf. as al-Gazdliby himself far as pas change').His methodis to interpret '. possible,that is, to comparepassages with one another This is in but an of ofcourse, excellent method, in his application it Jabre general, abouttheunitary unchanging and in seemsto bring a dubiousassumption the This may be illustrated from conof character al-Gazdli'sthought. and from experience of divinethings) (sc. ceptionof dawqor immediate above reason. of the closelyrelatedconception a faculty article on The Authenticity the Works In the above-mentioned of that in the Munqid and the to al-Cazdliit was maintained attributed of the existence a sphereabove the sphereof Miskdtal-Gazdliasserted reason,whichhe called the sphereof dawq; this was the characteristic and saintsbut was sharedin to some extentby ordinary of prophets a forward criterion men. In makingthispointI was primarily putting was also of authenticity thoughchronology (and not of chronology, that a worklike Mi'rdc as-salikin and claiming whichspeaks involved), could not belongto the closing of reasonas the highest faculty yearsof life.At the same timeI said that 'so faras I have been able al-Gazdli's is to discover, word_dawq notused in thisspecialsensein theIhyd',' the view of the Iihyd'was that the results reachedby and that the general intuitionwere identicalwith those reached by reason, and did not a In of to sphere. justification thisstatement passagewas belong a higher K. book of the Ihyda', at-Ta/akkur 'the 2: fromthe second-last quoted
1 Ib. 268. A complete understanding,of course, requires also a comparison with earlier Islamic thought. This is particularlyilluminatingin the case of alO;azll, and the discussion of 'certainty' would have benefitedfroma study of the previous use of the word yaqin. Jabre deliberatelyneglects the background; cf. his slip (p. 18) in attributing Qit al-quliibto al-Mulhisibi. 2 iv. 354 (363f.); anotherpassage whichmighthave been quoted is the definition to of caql in i. 73 f. (75f.), translated in Certitude ff. (In references the Ihyia' 449

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Watt w. Montgomery

of and profiting from(sc. such knowledge the methodof employing as one alreadyhas) sometimes comesthrough Divine light a knowledge in the heartarising as in thecase of from naturaldisposition the (/itra), studyand discipline'. calls attention a numberof passages priorto the to Jabre rightly is to sense,and it is veryuseful Munqid where _dawq usedin thetechnical material Part of the interest thismaterial in of lies 1. have thisfurther the way in whichal-Gazdliseemsto be working towardsthe gradually 'technicalsense' (as foundin the Munqid). In severalof the passages in the Ihyd' to whichJabrerefers, means 'immediate actual or _dawq but to 2. experience' is not restricted mystical experience The threefold of classification the Munqid,namely, imdn,'ilm,_dawq, be said to may be implied in some passages of the Ihyd', and is explicitlystated
the prophets... and sometimes-and this is more usual-comes from

added one fromthe Maqsad whereal-Gazdlisays that knowledge by fannI, (Cairo,'Almiya n.d., 2o ffi: dawqofGod's essenceis impossible of fasl4); thisshowsthe complexities the matter. Despitethe existence the of of thesepassages,however, usefulness _dawq (and the conception thanreason),as a criterion authenticity respect of in of a spherehigher of booksascribedto al-Gazali'sclosingyears,is not impaired. The only is thatthe beginning the '_dawq to of adjustment be made period'has to is and in be placedmuch earlier, thatthere a greater continuity al-Gazdli's than had been realized.To say this,however, not to solve is thought for the problem completely, the passagesin the Ihyd' whichappear to to of be contrary theconception dawqhave stillto be explained. Now Jabrealso quotes the above passage fromK. at-Ta/akkur and that in it no facultyhigherthan reason is attributed the to agrees prophet;but he thengoes on to arguethatbecauseof thisthe passages in the Munqid and the Milkdtwhichspeak of a facultyhigherthan reason cannot mean what they say-they only mean that prophets knowby reasonin its stateoforiginal He purity. goesso faras to assert that'it is a factthatin theIhyd' al-Gazdli affirms reality (types the of of)
the firstfigureis that of the edition of Cairo, 1316, the second that of the edition
used by Jabre, Cairo 1346 (i), 1352).
1
2

in the Arba'(n (esp. Ihyd' iv. 255 (265f.); Arba'zn 57; Munqid, Damascus 1939/1358, 135). To the passages listed by Jabre might be

i. 18 of Jabre's edition (=

to Certitude 147, note; the second reference the Ihyd' should probably be to
16 of that of 1316).

E.g. iv. 67 (69) -a man may know by tacribaand dawq that it is possible to become so accustomed to thingsformerly unpleasant to one that one cannot do without them. Cf. Iqtisad (Cairo, Ticiriya, n.d.) 102; also Tahafut 347.6; also tr. Ibn Rued, Tahafutat-Tahafut, S. van den Bergh,London 1954, ii. II f.

The study of al-Oxazll

127

... reason grasps nothingof the domain of the Lord. What is in this domain is known by another light,nobler and higherthan reason. This light rises in the world of prophethoodand of friendship with God. It is to reason what reason is to imagination and to the sensuous, estimative faculty (wahm). (Certitude185;

in reserved prophets to without effect knowledge autant) attributing (pour to the latteranotherfacultythan that of reason' (Certitude 263). Yet he the somepages earlier has quoted a passage from Ihyd' in whichhe it uses theword'faculty' (though is onlyimplied theArabic): by

Ihya' IV 98/Ioo).

It is difficult to conclude not thatJabrehas overstated case and been his carriedaway by his theories about al-Gazdlito such an extentthat he is has failedto noticethatthere at least a superficial contradiction which may perhapsbe explainedaway, but whichcertainly requiresmuch is fuller confused Jabre'suse of the discussion.-Thematter further by term 'raison-instinct'; 'instinct'is a modernmeaningfor gariza, for whichLane gives 'a naturalor innatedisposition, qualityor property' Paris 1938, s.v.). Perhaps 'faculty'would be a betterrendering, but since al-Gazali also applies the word to 'life', the underlying ma'nd in requires any case to be discussed. The rootofthetrouble about thenature appearsto be his assumption to of the consistency be foundin al-Gazdli.He has taken it to be so that one passage can be interpreted another absolutea consistency by forchronology Yet thisis not the kindof consistency without 1. regard whichWesterncriticsexpect to findin greatphilosophers Hume like and Kant (cf. NormanKemp Smith'sdistinction betweenearlierand in toKant's'Critique PureReason', laterlinesofthought A Commentary of reach a facileunified systembut, because theyare aware of the comat timespursuedivergent of theirproblems, different lines of plexity reconcile. whichtheynevercompletely This would see to be thought the way in whichto understand of al-Gazdli.The conception a faculty line of thoughtwhich he followedin certain above reason was one in and line.The contrary contexts, which hislast yearswas thedominant constitute least one otherline of at by emphasized Jabre conceptions in and it is prominent manyparts of the Ihyd', thoughless thought, in laterworks.The conception _dawq of noticeable seemsto have grown in attraction al-Cazdli duringthe composition the Ihyd', which of for wereno breaksin musthave occupieda considerable time,evenif there
1
IOO.

(cf. A.-M. Goichon, Lexique de la Langue Philosophique d'Ibn Sind,

London 1923). One of the marks of their greatness is that they do not

and illustrativematerial; cf. Ma'rifa 92, He admits changes in terminology

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W. Montgomery Watt

the courseof the workand no laterrevisions. Littlewouldprobably be to distinguish betweenearlierand laterpartsof that gainedby trying whichmay be takenas thatK. al-Arba'in, work;but it is worth noting a brief of the expression the viewsheldby al-Gazaliwhenhe completed follows the mainly dawqlineofthought. Ihyd', Anotherpoint at which Jabre seems to overemphasize al-Oazdli's earlierthinking and to neglecthis later views is the questionof the centralproblem his lifeand thought. For Jabrethisis the question of of certitude or howto attaincertainty aboutthemaintruths Islam. of Now thiswas undoubtedly centralproblem the timeof his first at the intellectual But he whenfortwo months doubtedeverything. at crisis, in the timeofthesecondcrisis 1095, whenhe leftBaghdad,thethought that was uppermost his mind(according his own later accountin in to theMunqid)was theavoidanceofhelland theattainment everlasting of life.This was recognized Wensinck: Saul it was said thathe went 'of by out to look forasses and founda kingdom; Gazdliit can be said that of he wentout to look forcertainknowledge foundGod' 1. The quest and forcertainty but a marks stateofdoubtand uncertainty, whenal-Gazdli wrotethe Ihyd' and his laterworkstherewas no longer any doubtand in his life.He did not doubt the truths God, the Last of uncertainty his was to avoid God's condemnation Day and prophethood; concern and to learn how to 'come near' to him. On the intellectual side his concern and explainthe experiences the siffiswas how to describe of and hulill (inherence) were incorrect descriptions, (unification) ittihdd but qurb(nearness) permissible adequate2. and was In the form, his then,in whichal-Gazali conceived centralproblem therehas been,as was onlynatural,a development his thought, in and has made the earlierthoughtthe basis of his account. Some Jabre would have produceda moresatisfactory of recognition development In accountofthethinker. matters thiskindthetruth in thegolden of is mean betweenabsolutelogicalconsistency inconsistency and a without traceof continuity. aim of the scholarand critic The shouldbe to show that beneathdifferences expression, emphasisand even of view of of thereis a discernible What was desiderated the previous in continuity. sectionwas such a limited whichincludedthe possibility of consistency development.
1 Semietische Studien uit de Nalatenschap, Leiden 1941, 167; Wensinck thinks it was not so much fearof hell in the future that moved al-Oxazlil a presentsense as of being abandoned by God (ib. 169). 2 It is that qurbdoes not occur in Jabre's 'Index Lexicographique' noteworthy in Certitude.

The study of al-(azali

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et l'Oeuvre de Ghazdli....' (MIDEO 1/1954,73-102) Jabre has valuable in-

? 3. AL-GAZALi AND CONTEMPORARYPOLITICS BothinLa Notion Certitude inhisearlier de and article 'La Biographie on

for of sightsinto the importance al-Cazdli'sthought thecontemporary In movement theBdtinites, of Ta'limitesor Assassins. emphasipolitical this has how the needforcountering movement helpedto shapealzing and havebeenshaken of by Oazdli'sconception prophethood, howhemust in as al-Mulk 1094, Jabrehas made of suchevents theassassination Nizdm a real contribution ourunderstanding. to Once again,however, allows he his ownideas to runaway withhimso thathe exaggerates unnecessarily. is One exampleof this,alreadymentioned, the weakness his justiof for the Tahdiut.Another, fication datingthe Mustazhiri before closely that the philosophers is weremerely another connected, his contention and that it was in orderto refute movement the facetof the Bdtinite Bdtinitesthat al-Gazdli took up the study of philosophy(Certitude is against 291-3,316f.,etc.; on p. 371 the Tahdfut said to be directed and a group of Bdtinites).Now therewere links betweenphilosophy withphilosophical and somepersons connected became Batinism, groups of musthave Bitinites.But the main exponents each type of thought one another. distinct The men againstwhomthe argufrom remained were directed(and whoseviews are summarized mentsof the Tahd/ut could hardlyat the same time have held that in Maqdsid al-faldsifa) to was attainedby resort the infallible truth imdm. ultimate ofal-Gazdli's on thecentral reactionto Bdtinism Frominsisting place fromBaghdad in 1095 Jabre goes on to suggestthat his departure motive'as he himself claimsin was not due to 'an exclusively religious to theMunqid, but to a certainsense of politicalopportunism; put it Even ifthishypothesis heran away to avoid beingassassinated. bluntly, motivecannotbe considered 'the religious is to be replacedby another, as the sole source of the master'sdecisionin this situation;the real mustbe soughtelsewhere' 388 (Certitude f; cf.La Biographie explanation Aboutthisthereare twopointsto be made. 89 f). as The first pointis thatto speakofthe'real' explanation beingsought motivealone is to implythat the latter than in the religious elsewhere 1 which has a certain interpretation' unreality-a lapse into 'positivistic on verdict thematter Jabre'sviewis can hardly Jabre'sconsidered be 2.
1 Abd-el-Jalil(Milanges Louis Massignon 72) pleads with scholars not to take to away the religiouscontent of al-Oazali's work by resorting 'positivistic'interpretations. 2 It contradicts his claim that the problemof certaintywas centralthroughout al-Gazdll's life.

Oriens XIII-XIV

I30

W. Montgomery Watt

as just as one-sided it wouldbe to say thathis owntwo booksmay be sincetheyare 'really'a literary as a studyofal-Gazdli, dismissed expresHis is from political sionofArabnationalism. work notfree this influence, but nevertheless is worthy discussion a contribution scholarit of as to it is one ofthemostdistinguished contributions Islamic to ship-indeed the pen of an Arab during last half-century. the from The scholarship the truthis that religion permeates whole of life,even if the modern West tries to thinkof it as a separate compartment. Every human decisionhas its religiousaspect, thoughin many cases this may be and Sometimes there are groundsfor distingunimportant negligible. between what a manalleges dominant his to motive be and what uishing it 'really' though makesucha distinction alwaysa delicate to is matter. is, The morea man'slifeis an integrated of whole,themorehe is conscious all thatmoveshimto act and the morehe sees everything a religious in The the aspectis notseparatefrom social,political perspective. religious and economicaspects but is intertwined with them,sometimes a as kind of resultant the otherfactors, but at othertimesexercising from control overthem. the second-that it is not possibleto From this first point follows fieldand tryto explainal-Cazdli's singleout a smallpartofthepolitical conversion thisalone.All theIslamicreligious of movements previous by centuries had politicalaspects,even if it was only politicalimpotence inthefaceof 'Abbdsid, musthave B-iyidor Selcdiq autocracy. Al-Oazdli been influenced thepoliticalattitudes linkedwiththe variousmoveby mentswhichwentto his formation-theologians, jurists,philosophers, Batinites,mystics.Was Barthold rightin speakingof the Bdtinite as movement 'the last struggle the IranianRittertumn'? was the of What effect thesupport As'arism theSelcdiqs Whywas there growof of ? a by in ing interest siifism among As'arites and even Hanbalites? Had it to of something do withthe break-down the powerof the caliph? If we are to understand views in the contemporary social and al-Gazdli's an to politicalsetting, answerhas to be attempted all these questions and many like them1. In the above remarks attention been concentrated one or two has on fundamental in ofmethod, Jabre's treatment hissubject. of points, chiefly Therehas beenno attempt summarize argument detailor even to his in to outlinehis main conclusions. much groundis coveredthat any So such undertaking would be difficult. it suffice warn the reader Let to
1 Jabre does not considerthe previous religiousmovementseven in theirintellectual aspect. Thereis no mention the use ofyaqin by siifI of writers. is significant It that in his Bibliography(p. 18) he ascribesQiital-quli!bto al-Muh.isibi.

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has thatthe treatment been of thiskind.What has been said, however, of is will make it clear that Jabre'sstrength not in the presentation a in view of al-Cazili, forhis account is unsatisfactory various general respects.His two books are indeed most valuable, but it is fortheir of and discussion passages linkedwith the themesof yaqin collection it and ma'rifa.If there is one point that stands out particularly, is Islam to the end of his life.From to al-Oazdli'sattachment orthodox to of now on all students al-Oazdliwill have to pay carefulattention him.They will also and willhave muchto learnfrom what Jabresays, of to look forward the publication the Lexiqueon whichhe appearsto be working.