ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

Systems Ecology 1 – An introduction to systems analysis

What is Systems Analysis? It is a method that attempts to understand complex

interactions between processes and components. It
identifies the fundamental units of a system, how they
interact, and how they function in response to changing
conditions.
An example of conventional versus systems analysis:

We don’t look at the composing elements of photosynthesis, but rather the

rate of photosynthesis and how it is controlled. We also look at how it
interacts with transpiration, etc. We look at the role and affects of
photosynthesis on a system rather than understanding its operation.

Important words - see slides: Energy balance, whole, external,

controlled, rate.

Systems analysis thus looks at the whole thing, rather than the function of a
chloroplast in a leaf. It emphasizes factors controlling rates of photosynthesis (water
stress; nutrient availability; shading within the canopy; climate; genetic potential of
species; movement of energy/carbon, nutrients, and water).
These principles equally apply to other processes.

e.g.: Organic matter decomposition, nutrient cycling (N, P,K, Ca, Mg),
succession, climate control, water control, carbon control.

Ecosystems analysis focuses on rates of organic matter decomposition and

how this process interacts with plant uptake and nutrient
cycling rather than focusing on how this is achieved
biochemically.

The conventional approach is reductionism, whilst the system analysis is looking at

the whole system. The idea here is that the sum of the parts does not make up the
whole. Systems thinking is holism.
Reductionism vs. Holism Ecosystem analysis must be built on a substantial
database of solid information. Therefore we must
understand individual parts (reductionism) in order to
understand the system (holism).

There exists three levels of Ecosystem Analysis.

1. Single component and its response to the environment

2. Interactions between the components
3. Integrated response(s) of the whole system to an external factor
Concepts pertaining to Single Components

i. Systems state
a. Describes the current condition of the systems.
b. Analogy – a light switch is either on or off
ii. Ecosystem state
a. The quantity and capacity of a component to carry out a
function.
b. Analogy: how much organic matter, nutrients, water; actively
photosynthesizing and growing or senescent and dormant.
iii. Turnover Rate
a. The fraction of material that enters or leaves the system in a
specific time interval.
iv. Residence time
a. The inverse of turnover rate (1/T)

The relationships between inputs to, outputs from, and storage within
components.
e.g.: A reservoir holds 10,000,000 liters of water from which 1
million litres are pumped out every month. What is the turnover
rate?

T= 1,000,000L leaving
10,000,000L capacity

Take home calculation example

A prairie soil contains 200 t of organic matter, and plant death and
senescence contributes 4 tons of new material each year.

1. What is the turnover rate of the prairie soil? 0.02 t/year

2. What is the residence timem of the organic matter? 50 years

Concepts pertaining to Interaction

i. Resource use efficiency

a. The quantity of water, energy, nutrients (i.e.: Resources)
required for an ecosystem process (e.g.: Decomposition).
b. E.g.: A deciduous forest takes up, cycles, and uses more N
per unit area than a evergreen forest: The deciduous forest
has a lower N-use efficiency because it needs more N.
ii. Feedback
a. Negative feedback, e.g: as the temp falls the office switches
on to release heat. When the thermostat rises past a set
level, the thermostat switches off. Body heat control is also
an example – cyclical.
 b. Positive feedback, e.g.: The office is too hot. This leads to the
destabilization and may ultimately lead to the destruction of
the system; never turns off. The ice caps melting is also an
example, the albedo decreasing and more head reflecting
into the atmosphere.

Concepts pertaining to the Whole Systems

Resistance is little response to disturbance. It needs severe

disturbance to change system state. Resilience is the opposite of
resistance. The system is altered easily to find equilibrium. Once the
disturbance stops, it returns rapidly to its old state.

Ecosystems Research The HBEF (Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest) was one
of the first ecosystem research projects. Established in
1955 by the US Forest Service, it was a major centre for
hydrologic research. It’s located in the White Mountain
National Forest, Central New Hampshire. The area was
chosen because it presented unbroken areas of northern
hardwood, and spruce and fir at higher elevations. The
area had not experienced logging in the past 80 years.
The ecosystem (more than hydrology) study did not start
until 1960. It was awarded LTER (long term ecological
research site) until 1987. LTER mission: To understand
northern hardwood ecosystem response to large-scale
disturbance.
Specific LTER Goals (for most projects)

• Evaluation of vegetation structure, composition, and

productivity.
• Evaluation of dynamics of dead organic matter.
• Evaluation of atmospheric-terrestrial-aquatic linkages.
• Evaluation of silviculture and land-use disturbance.
• Evaluation of air pollution.
• Climatic disturbance and change.

Undisturbed forests exhibit regularity and predictability in their input-output

balances. The removal of trees raises soil and stream temperatures by 6
degrees Celsius, stream flow increases by 40%, and an increase in NO3- in
soil solution and leached out of system (to streams). Up to 80% of the slash
was decomposed in 14 years after the harvest. However, there is no
appreciable increase in erosion and sedimentation, due to slash being left on
soil.
Ecological Footprint

Carrying Capacity The maximum population of a given species that can be

supported indefinitely in a defined habitat without permanently
impairing the productivity of that habitat.

For our continued existence on Earth we need adequate land and resources
for extraction. However, at present the human population and general
consumption is increasing, but our resources (like productive land and
resources) are fixed or in decline. Therefore our traditional definition of
carrying capacity needs to be revised: humans eliminate competing species;
import scarce resources; use technology to maximize resource extraction.
Thus, the new definition is “An environment’s carrying capacity is its
maximum supportable load.” (Catton, 1986).
What is meant by load? The maximum “load” that can be safely imposed
on the environment by people. Load being a
function of population and per capita
consumption.

New technology has increased our need to extract resources. They require
more but do not increase the carrying capacity. Because of this, the average
energy consumption in the US went from 11,000kcal in 1970 to over 200,000
in 1980.

Ecological Footprints The corresponding area of productive land and aquatic

ecosystems required to produce the resources used, and to
assimilate the wastes produced by a defined population of living,
where ever on Earth they may be located.

Or in professor Oeelbermann’s words: Ecological footprints are a

measure of our use of resources and deposal of wastes.

To calculate the ecological footprint is: EF = (C/P) x N

C = average annual consumption (kg/capita)
P = average annual productivity (kg/ha)
N = Population size
The traditional concept of carrying capacity addresses what particular region a
population can be supported. But now, it is “how large of an area of productive land
is needed to sustain a defined population wherever on Earth that land is located?”
in ecological confines.

Ecological vs Geographical Locations High population densities, increase in per

capita energy and material, consumption through
technological innovation, universal dependence on
trade are all ecological locations of human
 settlements that no longer coincide with their
geographic locations.
Modern cities and Industrial regions We depend on a vast and increasing global
hinterland of ecologically productive landscapes for
survival growth.
“Modern settlements have become the
human equivalent of cattle feedlots”
– W. Rees, 1996
Netherlands: A Global Example of an Ecological Footprint
33,920km2, but the people require land area 14-15 times greater than their
country can support (energy, food, forests). In reality, they need 140,000km2
to support their life style. Thus, they get most of their products from
developing nations.

Vancouver: A regional example of an Ecological Foot print

114km2, 472,000, according to the average Canadian life style, each
Vancouverite needs 4.2 ha – total of 1.98 ha of land.

MISSED CLASS – SEPTEMBER 29

– Water Characteristics
– Water Cycle
– Global Water Resources
– Who is using Water
– Water Scarcity
A word on reading scientific papers
Focus On: The overall story of the paper and what they are trying to examine.
And of course, the reasons for doing this investigation; what they have
found.

Forget: Methods or to understand and memorizing complicated equations.

Read these sections only if interested.

Water as a Major Resource

What determines Water Quality?Rivers and lakes that appear healthy are not pure.
They contain naturally occurring substances
(impurities) – even in distilled water.

These substances include bicarbonates, sulphates,

sodium, chlorides, calcium, magnesium, potassium.

They get there through soil and sediments in the

catchment, surrounding vegetation and animals
 (erosion). Precipitation and runoff are also factors
that can cause the input of substances – biological,
physical, and chemical processes in water as well;
and finally, human activities (pollution).

How does water clean itself?
Energy drives photosynthesis of aquatic plants that
produce oxygen. The oxygen breaks down plant
and animal wastes (a source of decomposition).
The process of decomposition releases carbon
dioxide, food for aquatic biota.

Aquatic decomposition is a natural process. But if

other substances are added, we get pollution in our
water. We can get persistent and non-persistent
substances.

These toxins come from agricultural run-offs

(pesticides, animal wastes, fertilizer), erosion from
irrigation – non point source pollution; industrial
wastes – point source pollution; and disposal by
people.

Pollution affects:
The aquatic ecosystems through harming plant and animal; reproduction,
biodiversity, causes animal and plant death, and leads to cancerous growths
on animals, e.g.: fish.

It also affects human health by compromising our drinking water. For

example, drinking water that contains a lot of hormones will not be very good
for us.

It also affects our recreational activities, like swimming.

The irrigation water used in agriculture will also get polluted.

And finally, it affects the aesthetic quality of lakes and rivers.

How do we measure Water Quality? Water sample collections analysed in

laboratories is a good way. Using specialized
instruments and specific procedures is required.
With these tools are can measure small quantities
of toxins. Parts per trillion is measured, like a
teaspoon of salt dissolved in an Olympic-sized
swimming pool.

What are persistent substances? They are very toxic and break down very
slowly or not at all. Thus, they remain, or “persist”
in our environment for a long time. They are also
 bioaccumlator – they pass through the food chain.
They have very complex molecular structures and
as a result are very difficult to break down.

Pesticides, landfill leachates, petroleum and

petroleum products, PCBs, dioxins, radioactive
(strontium, radium, cesium, uranium), and heavy
metals (lead, cadmium, mercury) all need
decades/centuries to repair damage from these
substances.

What are non-persistent substances? They are more readily degradable. They
enter the aquatic ecosystems in large quantities:
domestic sewage, agriculture fertilizers, and some
industrial wastes. They lead to low oxygen levels,
eutrophication, minimal input reverses problem.

Water Quality and Ecosystems

We know that pollution affects water quality, and affects biota and humans.
Thinking at the systems level helps to regain aquatic ecosystem balance, and
restore them as well.

FINAL EXAM FROM THIS POINT ON

Agriculture and Soil Conservation – Part I

The origins of agriculture began with a shift to cultivation form hunter gatherer
(swidden). In about 10,000 BC, we saw the roots of agriculture begin.
Because it was short term, it was not permanent or settled – we worried about
getting food today and not next week. There was short cultivation followed by a long
fallow – and area about 1 hectare is deforested and used for 4 to 5 years until the
yield decreases, than is abandoned for 20 years. Usually this kind of agriculture took
place on levelled ground with rich soil. The long fallow allowed the soil to recover,
and there was minimal soil degradation. This still occurs in some areas today. But,
with today’s population increases, there is a great need for agricultural land.

From 8,000 to 500 AD this nomadic nature began to decrease.

However, it was still subsistence oriented. Slowly as time went on,

domestication took place. Evidence of first settling is found in present day Iraq – we
found a stone hand sickle that dates from 11,000 years ago. Settled agriculture leads
to increased human population. The increase leads to a larger demand for food and
thus more pressure on soil resources.

These days there is only a certain amount of land for agriculture. This amount of
land and its fertile soils are declining. This has caused soil degradation (movement
of soil by water and wind), and a loss of soil nutrients (erosion and over
exploitation). This leads to marginal lands.
In Mesopotamia that had an increase of population. Because of that they began to
run out of land, and had no choice but to start deforesting forests on steeper slopes.
That with overgrazing and the cultivation of crops leads to soil degradation and the
sedimentation of riverbeds. Also, because of the deforestation they changed their
microclimate. They needed to start to irrigate their crops with lead to salinization
problems and the eventual desertification and abandonment of land.

Soil Degradation in the Middle East After the collapse, they began to cultivate on
slopes. They needed to do something about the soil
loss and degradation, they developed terraces.
Some of the ancient terraces are still functioning
today.

Soil Degradation in Africa
Africa has different kinds of soil. Overgrazing is one
of the major problems in the grasslands, as is
intense cultivation with no erosion control. They
have lost the first metre of their topsoil. They are
all the way down to the bedrock and have
abandoned the land. The presence of laterites is
found (self preservation method) – aluminum
oxides react with rainfall forms hard lumps; these
lumps protect the small amount of top soil left.

Soil Degradation in Europe They often had severe erosion problems from
deforestation. Particularly mountain areas like the
alps used terraces. They developed cross-slope
cultivation.

Soil Degradation in China
They had and still have a population problem.
Cultivation on steep slopes was necessary. A long
time ago they were already concerned with soil
conservation, and terraces have been found from
956 BC.

Soil Degradation in Australia
They also have major problems. They have about
150 years of extremely exploitive agriculture. At
one point in time they began to become concerned
about soil resources. So, in the 1930s they
developed and implemented soil conservation
policies. A lot of barren or wastelands that exist
today did n. ot look like that before – we created
unproductive land.
Soil Degradation in the Americas In Latin America the Incas developed a
terrace system. Macchu Picchu is the World’s most
effective erosion structure and is still functional
today. 1,000 – 2,000 years old today. They are very
well known for their agricultural practices – like the
diversification of crops and we still use them today
(potatoes, corn, etc).

Soil Degradation in Central Americas Mayans cultivated on steep slopes and used
complex terracing structures. They also had water
diversification structures to mitigate heavy rainfall.

Soil Degradation in the USA There was a philosophy of Unconcern – because of

the abundance of land; this lead to -major- erosion
problems. The Dustbowl in the 1930s – 12% of the
cropland was ruined completely, 12% severely
damaged, 20% had 50% of topsoil loss, 24% had
measurable erosion loss, and 28% was unaffected.
They implemented conservation measures – today
they still have very good measures at work.

Soil Degradation in Canada We had a similar philosophy of unconcern. It lead to

soil degradation in all parts of Canada, and severe
problems in southern Ontario. We thus established
tree nurseries (late 1800s, early 1900s – North of
Lake Erie). This resulted in the school of forestry at
U Toronto (began in Guelph). He grew red pines
because he figured they would grow well in the
very nutrient poor soil. This saved the areas from
complete degradation. In 1987 the Soil
Conservation Council of Canada was formed.

Soil Organic Matter (SOM)

It is the backbone of soil. Some of it is high, others is low. Humus is rich, sandy is
low. It maintains soil moisture and is formed by the decomposition of leaves – as
well as animal residue. Every year during harvests we return crop residue to the soil
to compensate for the lack of leaves. It maintains not only the moisture, but fertility
and structure (organization of soil minerals and organic matter) – decreases erosion.
It is the glue of soil.

It is derived from plant residues and is decomposed over time (climate, pH, and
nutrient availability all play a role). There is fast decomposition of sugars, amino
acids, and proteins. As decomposition slows, more SOM accumulates. To sequester
carbon, more must be stored than is released by decomposition. Soil humus is
composed of two parts: lignin (a stable form of carbon hard to break down) and
physical protection that binds to clay. Thus soil humus can be 1,000 of years old.

Soil Organic Carbon (SOC)

SOM = 58% soil organic carbon. The shortcut for soil is taking the % of SOM and
divided by 1.742 to give us the % of carbon in the soil. By the same way, we
multiply SOC by 1.742 to find the percentage of SOM. However, if were told
10,000kg/ha of biomass in a forest, we would multiply it by 50% to estimate the
amount of carbon. This is important because the long-term storage of C in the soil is
C sequestration.

A Word on Soil Coverage Once bare soil is exposed by water and wind, we lose SOM
(and SOC) and the soil loses its fertility. Covered soil
reduces erosion and loss of soc + som.

MISSED CLASS: OCTOBER 16th

○ How we used to practice agriculture
○ The green revolution (what we tried to achieve and what
we achieved)
○ High Tech agriculture
○ Soil Formation
○ Soil loss and loss of tolerance levels

Agriculture and Soil Conservation – Part III

How can Soil loss be predicted? We developed empirical models that incorporate
actual data from field experiments. It is then
calibrated and predicts outcomes. Good models are
flexible and can accommodate change. Universal
Soil Loss Equation (USLE) is an empirical and
standard model. It was developed in 1954 at
Perdue University. It is still used widely because of
its flexibility. It is designed to predict erosion by
water; a separate model exists for wind erosion. It
predicts the average soil loss and compares these
losses to tolerant levels.
A = R * K * LS * C * P
Soil Loss Equation
A = Estimated average soil loss (t/a/y or t/ha/y)
R = Rainfall and runoff factor (MJ mm/ha/h)
K = Soil erodibility factor, the soil texture (t h /mj/mm)
LS = Slope length and steepness factor (unitless)
C = cover management factor (unitless)
P = Support practice factor, the cultivation type (unitless)
Why conservation in Agriculture? The green revolution tried to lower the world
poverty problem at the time, but the problem with
it was its intense way of doing agriculture and thus
promoted the intensification of agriculture leading
to poor practices that degraded the soil. It was then
realized that a sustainable approach to agriculture
was needed.

We then began integrated practices, like crop rotation, secondary

(conservation) or no till, and soil cover (30% or more). These practices
were promoted by the UN-FAO. They called it the next green revolution,
and it has been adapted for grain crops, vegetables, and sugar cane.
Conservation agriculture has thus been adapted to 58 million ha of
land of land globally.
US = 20 mill. Ha
Brazil = 13.5 mill. Ha
Argentina = 9.5 mill. Ha
Canada = 4 mill. Ha
Paraguay = 0.8 mill. Ha

Why do we Till the Soil in the first place?

Conventional tillage is done to prepare the soil for the seeding. It is

also used as a method of weed control and helps the incorporation of
plant residues. It is classified by the quantity of soil disturbance.

Primary tillage is a major soil disturbance. It completely turns over the

soil, inverts the top layer, and makes it at great risk for erosion. This
works great in Europe because of their gentile rain, but in North
America our heavier rain makes this practice awful.

Secondary tillage disturbs the soil a lot less. They simply loosen up the
soil, rather than turn it over. It leaves at least 30% of the residue on
top of the soil to prevent erosion. This kind of tillage is also used for
weed control and seedbed preparation. It`s much more gentle than
primary tillage.

The no till is the ultimate of tillage. The plants are seeded directly into
the soil. It cuts into the soil and drops a seed without disturbing the
soil. It requires specific equipment because the soil is much harder.
However, it costs less in fuel and machinery. Conventional tillage
requires you to pass over at least three times (pass over, smooth soil,
plant). It also benefits wildlife, it provides food and wildlife. The only
disadvantage to not ill is that it requires more herbicide because there
is no way to remove herbs. Thus, it`s more pesticides verses more
greenhouse gasses. Ultimately, studies say no till has a greater yield.
 Good for sandy soil but not clay soil. It doesn`t matter what you do,
there will always be harm done to the environment. It`s about
balancing.

Crop Rotations: What is it and why?

Crops are changed in a yearly sequence. Rotation with legumes increases
nitrogen input. It also increases organic matter input, because the biomass
yield is higher. An increase in crop diversity influences soil biodiversity and it
decreases pests and weeds (good for organic farmers).

Organic Farming
Focuses on balancing the soil: no pesticides or herbicides are input, no
inorganic fertilizers. There is an input of organic fertilizers, crop rotation and
conservation tillage.

The balanced soil rids itself of weeds, pests, erosions, and maintains crop
yield. Higher yield in corn and soybeans, 30% less energy, less water, no
pesticides – study by David Pimental 22 years in the making.