Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 24 1999. 255267 www.elsevier.

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Network modelling of wettability and pore geometry effects on electrical resistivity and capillary pressure
H.N. Man, X.D. Jing )
Centre for Petroleum Studies, T.H. Huxley School, Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine, Prince Consort Road, London, SW7 2BP UK

Abstract Recent research efforts have focused on using simple non-circular cross-sectional pore shapes to honour the physics observed at the pore scale. For example, there is evidence to suggest variations of wettability occur at this level. These pores can exhibit water-wet and oil-wet regions, depending on the physics of wetting films, and hence the porous medium maybe of mixed-wettability character. For low water saturations, electrical resistivity cannot be physically simulated at the pore scale using cylindrical tubes, even though wetting film thickness and pore constrictions are taken into account. A three-dimensional network model that investigates the petrophysical characteristics, electrical resistivity and capillary pressure, is presented. The influence of saturation history is also modelled. Key pore geometrical attributes such as pore shape, aspect ratio, pore coordination number pore connectivity. and pore size distribution are included in the model. In addition, pore constrictions are introduced which may result in phase trapping via snap-off within the tube itself. Analysis of our developing network model starting from representing the pore shape as circular is presented. Using a simple non-circular cross-sectional pore shape we show bulk water retained in the crevices give rise to predictions that are in close agreement with electrical resistivity and capillary pressure trends observed in experiments. Numerical results are presented and compared with experimental data. q 1999 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: network model; electrical resistivity; capillary pressure; pore geometry; wettability

1. Introduction The petrophysical parameters, such as electrical resistivity and capillary pressure, are very dependent on the complex irregular pore space of rocks. One approach to simplify the real rock pore structure is to use an equivalent three-dimensional pore network system which captures the underlying physics and still be able to predict the petrophysical parameters
) Corresponding author. Tel.: q 44-171-594-7320; Fax: q 44171-594-7444. E-mail address: x.jing@ic.ac.uk X.D. Jing..

in question. Network modelling should not be viewed as a complete substitute for experimental work but the results are interpreted in order to improve the understanding of pore scale physics. For example, capillary pressure is a strong function of the narrowest regions of the void space in porous media. More sophisticated numerical models can implement pore shape Yale, 1984; Jing, 1990; Kovscek et al., 1993; Blunt, 1997a,b. and wettability alteration Kovscek et al., 1993; McDougall and Sorbie, 1995; Dixit et al., 1996; Blunt, 1997b.. It has been realized that these physical aspects also play an integral part in the understanding of the petrophysical properties of

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rocks. Network modelling can help to resolve conflicting experimental data or to provide data that is difficult to obtain in the laboratory with a certain amount of confidence, for example, in order to upscale. McDougall and Sorbie 1995. and Dixit et al. 1996. predicted capillary pressure and relative permeability curves incorporating the effects of wettability alteration. Blunt 1997b., using a wettability alteration scenario proposed by Kovscek et al. 1993., could designate an individual element having a variation of wetting. His work drew on experimental evidence that showed variations of wettability occur at the pore scale Fassi-Fihri et al., 1991.. Blunt 1997b. was able to reproduce Dixit et al.s 1996. results but because of the inclusion of pore scale non-uniform wettability, he was able to deduce that residual oil saturation depended on the fraction of elements exhibiting oil-wet regions. Hydrocarbon saturation is an important parameter for reserve estimates and prediction of future production performance. By using one of the more reliable techniques, namely electrical logging, we can estimate the hydrocarbon saturation based on the Archie types of equations, which relate the resistivity of a rock to its porosity and water saturation. However, many studies have shown that the Archie equations are not always obeyed. Contrary to popular belief, several authors Diederix, 1982; Swanson, 1985; Worthington et al., 1989; Moss et al., 1999. have experimentally observed the so-called non-Archie behaviour for water-wet rocks. This type of rock shows a point of inflexion in the logarithmic resistivity index vs. saturation plots such that for the lower water saturation range, the resistivity index curves toward the saturation axis. Swanson 1980. and Longeron et al. 1986. experimentally observed hysteresis for strongly water-wet sandstone samples during drainage and imbibition. They found resistivity indices were lower during imbibition than drainage. Other researchers have found that the reverse is true Dunlap et al., 1949.. For strongly water-wet carbonate samples, Longeron et al. 1986. observed virtually no hysteresis in their resistivity curve. Wei and Lile 1991. focused on the combined effects of saturation history and wettability. They have found for oil-wet sandstones below a finite water saturation that the resis-

tivity indices between drainage and imbibition were considerably different. In terms of network modelling, Sharma et al. 1991. looked at a range of factors that influenced the shape of the resistivity index curves. They incorporated wetting film thickness into their constricted circular pore shape. Zhou et al. 1996. tackled the problem using percolation concepts. Employing a pore shape with crevices their model could simulate the correct trends for different preferential-wet rocks. To conclude, it has been recognized that pore size distribution, pore geometry, saturation history and wettability influences the resistivity of a rock. This indicates that the saturation exponent is very dependent on the distribution of fluids in the pore space. 2. Theoretical model The current developing network model considers constricted pore tubes Sharma et al., 1991. Fig. 1., so that a pore body can be imitated by controlling the constriction factor pore body radius divided by pore throat radius, which we denote as the narrowest part of the pore tube. Fig. 1.. To calculate capillary pressure and electrical resistivity curves, the pore tube is divided into sections of infinitesimal constant thickness by making cuts perpendicular to the x-axis. In cross-section, each section is star-like characterized by a radius Fig. 1.. Four closely packed uniform rods form this cross-sectional shape Mason and Morrow, 1986., which consists of crevices. It is referred to as a grain boundary pore GBP. shape. The pore tubes described above adhere to form a cubic lattice Fig. 2.. The lattice can have a maximum pore coordination number of six, i.e., six tubes are connected to each junction. The coordination number is defined as the average number of pore tubes adjoined to each junction. Our network model into two-phase situations is based on Kovscek et al.s 1993. work. At the pore scale it has been recognized that crevices in the pore space may give rise to the mixed-wettability character. They proposed an idealized scenario where regions of the pore space contacted by oil, depending on the physics of wetting films, may become oil-wet. Assuming the system is initially fully water saturated, the crevices contain water and remain waterwet.

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Fig. 1. Different viewpoints from top clockwise: 3-D, circumferential and transverse. of constricted pore tube. Pore constriction description after Sharma et al. 1991..

Fig. 2. Schematic picture showing part of the cubic lattice filled with oil left.. Close-up of schematic picture showing pore constrictions and GBP shap right..

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For water-wet regions using a circular pore shape, water films can be significant in calculating electrical resistivity curves Sharma et al., 1991.. Using an approximate solution involving hyperbolic trigonometric functions Hirasaki, 1988., the contribution made by water films was incorporated. For pore shapes that exhibit crevices, the contribution can be excluded. This is because the bulk water retained in the crevices dominates the volume. In reality, wettability alteration at the reservoir scale occurs over geological periods of time. The critical capillary pressure, associated with wettability reversal, depends on mineralogy Wolcott et al., 1993., oil and brine properties, such as pH Dubey and Doe, 1993., reservoir pressure and temperature Hirasaki, 1988.. Experiments on core plugs show that the impact of wettability alteration on hydrocarbon recovery is significant Salathiel, 1973.. Kaminsky and Radke 1997. have showed mathematically that wettability alteration may occur by diffusion of surface active components in the oil even through thick water films. However, they do concede wettability alteration is likely to follow water film rupture, otherwise diffusion theory predicts that all reservoirs containing surface active polar compounds will become oil-wet. The actual mechanism of wettability reversal is still unclear. Whether or not the pore shape contains crevices, common to all pore shapes the following wettability alteration scenario proposed by Kovscek et al. 1993.

was implemented in our network model. The system was initially considered to be completely water-wet. Thick stable water films reside next to the whole solid surface Fig. 3a.. If the critical capillary pressure, unique for each section has been exceeded, the thick water film then ruptures into a molecular thin film by which the portion of the pore wall was separated from the oil. As a result, these regions allow polar surface active components in the oil to adsorb andror deposit on the pore wall Fig. 3b.. These regions are now oil-wet. In this paper, this dual occupancy of both oil-wet and water-wet regions within an infinitesimally thin section of the pore tube is referred to as mixed-wet. Similar to Kovscek et al. 1993., if we assume uniform mineralogy throughout the porous medium, the fluid system and the temperature is constant, then the curvature of the pore wall is the only dominating factor in determining the stability of the water film. Despite this, the idealized scenario proposed by Kovscek et al. 1993. gives a theoretical understanding of wettability alteration. 2.1. Numerical solution Considering the circumferential radius of curvature of the oilrwater interface near the corner of the crevices, it is much less than the transverse radius of curvature Fig. 1.. Therefore, the transverse radius of curvature in our calculations has been neglected

Fig. 3. a. Water-wet GBP shape with thick water films coating the pore wall. b. Mixed-wet GBP shape with molecular thin films, which allow wettability alteration.

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Chambers and Radke, 1991.. The electrical resistance of the pore tube is found by integrating the sections in electrical series. The junction where each tube meets is assumed to be a hypothetical mathematical point with no volume and negligible resistance relative to the pore tubes. The volume is purely effective here because the pore tubes take the volume into account. Simulations have been carried out for various network sizes of up to 15 = 15 = 15 junctions. The lengths of all the pore tubes are constant and are calculated to achieve the desired porosity. The throat radii are randomly assigned throughout our network either using various uni-modal or multi-modal pore size distributions. It is also possible to input more realistic pore size distributions deduced from, say, mercury porosimetry data. To calculate the electrical resistivity of the model, an arbitrary potential difference is imposed across the inlet and outlet faces. No-flow or periodic boundary conditions can be imposed in the direction perpendicular to the potential gradient. The voltages of the junction where each tube meets are calculated using Ohms and Kirchoffs laws. A successive over-relaxation technique is employed to solve the iterative algorithm Jing, 1990.. 2.2. Primary drainage At the beginning of each simulation the model is fully saturated with water. The whole surface of the model is designated as water-wet with a contact angle of zero. By increasing the capillary pressure, oil enters the network mimicking primary drainage into a reservoir. The primary indicates the reservoir is fully saturated with water initially. For clarity, drainage will be consistently defined as oil displacing water and imbibition as water displacing oil, irrespective which fluid preferentially wets coats. the solid surface. The capillary pressure will be defined as the oil pressure minus the water pressure. However, oil may only enter a tube if one of the adjacent tubes has already been penetrated by oil. An increase in the capillary pressure pushes the oilrwater interface in discrete steps to the opposite end of the pore tube by which it entered. Cross-sectionally, the oilrwater interface moves towards the crevices. The fluids are assumed to equilibrate so

that the capillary pressure is constant across the oilrwater interface. This in turn determines the meniscus shape. Capillary equilibrium is acceptable as long as the capillary number is no greater than 10y6 to 10y7 Blunt, 1997a,b.. The movement of the oilrwater meniscus as a function of water saturation was calculated based on Mayer and Stowe 1965.. Once capillary pressure equilibrium has been reached, the electrical resistance of each constricted pore tube is calculated by integration along the tube length. Infinitesimally thin sections of the pore tube where oil has broken through and which have their critical capillary pressure exceeded, will exhibit a molecular water film residing next to the pore wall. Hence, the contact angle is no longer zero Hirasaki, 1988; Kovscek et al., 1993.. The cross-sectional area of water and hence the volume of water retained is a function of contact angle. Not only does this affect volumetric and electrical resistivity calculations but using Kovscek et al.s 1993. wettability alteration scenario, these surfaces become oil-wet at the beginning of spontaneous imbibition Fig. 3b.. To describe the meniscus movement as the capillary pressure is decreased the wettability variation of the pore space needs to be distinguished. However, because our pore tube is of varying radii the idealized wettability pattern differs from an unconstricted pore tube. Once it is penetrated by oil and the critical capillary pressure has been exceeded the molecular water film spans the tube. Pore constrictions may prevent this from happening. 2.3. Spontaneous imbibition The drainage process in our simulations stops at a maximum capillary pressure. Portions of the pore wall with a molecular thin water film were assumed to become oil-wet. The preceding arguments by Kovscek et al. 1993. describe how oil-wet regions could be created in initially water-wet systems. The displacement of oil during spontaneous imbibition takes place only if there is a continuity of oil to the outlet provided by tubes penetrated by oil Lenormand and Zarcone, 1984.. If oil enters a tube but does not penetrate it, then oil may only escape by the junction that it entered by. Since the contribution

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from the pore nodes is considered implicitly by using constricted pore tubes and we assume strongly wetting conditions, this paper does not incorporate the co-operative pore filling process Lenormand and Zarcone, 1984; Blunt, 1997a; ren et al., 1998.. The co-operative pore filling process and its effect on the saturation distribution and electrical conduction at capillary pressure equilibrium is not quantitatively clear. In water-wet sections, as the capillary pressure is decreased, water will spontaneously imbibe away from the crevices along the same course as in primary drainage up to a point. Oil may then form an inscribed circle within the pore shape. Further increases in water may result in oil losing contact with the pore wall. When this happens an instability occurs Ransohoff et al., 1987.. Oil then becomes disconnected snapped-off. to achieve a stable configuration Roof, 1970.. For small constriction factors, the pore tube will almost spontaneously fill with water. Other conditions are also necessary in order for snap-off to prevail Chambers and Radke, 1991.. Water may also invade the pore tube by piston-like

advance Li and Wardlaw, 1986.. However, in our network model we have implicitly assumed water-wet regions having a contact angle of zero and capillary forces dominate the process. Therefore, snap-off is the dominant mechanism occurring here Dixit et al., 1996; Blunt, 1997a.. In mixed-wet sections water-wet and oil-wet regions co-existing in an infinitesimally thin section of the pore tube. there is no known trapping of oil. Surface active components adsorbed along the pore wall remain. Therefore, water cannot imbibe along the same course as in water-wet sections.

3. Results and discussion 3.1. Effect of pore geometry 3.1.1. Circular pore shape Fig. 4 shows a typical simulation of capillary pressure and resistivity index curve for a water-wet rock using circular pore geometry. The gradient is as expected for water saturations greater than 20%, but

Fig. 4. Circular pore shape.

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Fig. 5. GBP shape with no constrictions.

for water saturations less than this the resistivity indices are predicted to be too high. The reason for this can be explained as follows. Although water films can contribute to the conductivity of the rock Sharma et al., 1991., the magnitude of the film thickness is in the order of nanometres. A typical pore radius is in the order of microns to tens of microns. At a low saturation, most pore tubes are left with a thin water film residing next to their surface. These tubes with thin water films dominate the voltage iterative equation and a large change in gradient is thus observed. 3.1.2. GBP shape with no constrictions The previous model, with circular pore shapes, incorporated the contribution made to the volume and electrical conductance by thin residual films. For GBP shapes, the volumetric and electrical contribution of thin residual films can be ignored without loss of generality because the bulk water retained in the crevices dominates these properties. When no pore constrictions i.e., uniform pore size along the tube length. are implemented, the most striking feature about the simulated resistivity index curve is that the gradient is very close to unity

Fig. 5.. This is in agreement with theoretical expectation, because the electrical tortuosity factor is also nearly one. 3.1.3. GBP shape with constrictions Introducing pore constrictions into the model gives rise to predictions that are in close agreement with electrical resistivity and capillary pressure trends observed in experiments. A series of simulations have been performed to quantify the effects of pore constriction, coordination number and pore size distribution on capillary pressure and resistivity index curves. Table 1 summa-

Table 1 Input parameters used in the network model for Figs. 69 Figure Porosity No. of normal distributions Mean mm. Standard deviation mm. Constriction factor Coordination number
a

6 0.25 1 30 5 2 6

7 0.25 1 30 5 2 5

8 0.25 1 30 3 2 6

9 0.25 2 30, 10 a 3, 1a 2 6

Second normal distribution.

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Fig. 6. Effect of higher constriction factor compared with Fig. 5.

rizes the model parameters used in simulations of Figs. 69 The curvature of the electrical resistivity plot Fig. 6. can be explained as follows. Note that there appears to be two regimes. The points of both curves refer to equally spaced capillary pressures. In the first regime, after the threshold capillary pressure is exceeded in order to invade the inlet face, a small increase in the capillary pressure results in a large decrease in the water saturation. In the second regime, for the same increase in capillary pressure the water saturation decreases by a relatively small amount. Therefore, relative to the first regime, the gradient is larger. It can be inferred in the first regime that oil is penetrating the relatively large pore tubes and entering part of some small pore tubes. In the second regime, pore tubes penetrated by oil are dominating the electrical resistivity and a larger capillary pressure is needed in order to move the meniscus towards the crevices. Several authors have experimentally observed such curvature Diederix, 1982; Swanson, 1985; Worthington et al., 1989; Moss et al., 1999.. There also does exist experimental data in which the curvature is not observed at all. This observation is gener-

ally true for data sets that have relatively high endpoint water saturations. Diederix 1982. and Swanson 1985. explained these apparent conflicting trends. They both attributed the curvature effect to the micropore system in the porous media. Cores in which microporosity is not significant show no curvature. This is because the rough grain surface, which a non-micropore system lacks, retains water. Electrical conductance here is, therefore, more favourable which explains the lower saturation exponent relative to high water saturations. The conclusions in the network modelling results, of a decreasing negative gradient, are very much analogous to this. Note also that at low water saturations the gradient approaches unity, as expected theoretically. It is known that excess conductivity associated with electrical double layers in shaly sands also results in a curved resistivity index trend. However, double-layer excess conductivity is outside the scope of this paper. 3.2. Effect of saturation history Utilizing a contact angle of zero, our network model predicts significant hysteresis in the capillary

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Fig. 7. Effect of lower coordination number compared with Fig. 6.

Fig. 8. Effect of smaller standard deviation between pore radii compared with Fig. 6.

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Fig. 9. Effect of bi-modal normal distribution.

pressure and resistivity index curves Figs. 69.. For a given water saturation, the resistivity indices are lower in spontaneous imbibition than in primary drainage Figs. 68.. This can be explained with the help of the corresponding capillary pressure curves. The large decrease in capillary pressure resulting in a small decrease in water saturation signifies that the capillary pressure has not decreased low enough for the condition of snap-off to be met. The capillary pressure for the inscribed circle configuration, which in most cases propagates snap-off, is lower than the capillary entry pressure. The sudden increase in water saturation indicates that snap-off is occurring. Note the different gradients in this cycle Figs. 69.. Longeron et al. 1986. also observed such a two-tier gradient system. Hysteresis, between drainage and imbibition, is due to the different pore-level processes that occur during each cycle. 3.3. Effect of constriction factor An increase in the constriction factor does show a marked decrease in the conductivity of the rock compare Figs. 5 and 6.. This can be explained by the fact that for small constriction factors Fig. 5., for the same water saturation, the water phase is less

tortuous compared with large constriction factors Fig. 6.. By setting a constriction factor of one, we derive the same capillary pressure and resistivity curves as the model with no pore constrictions. 3.4. Effect of coordination number The network can simulate random removal of the conducting branches. If some pore tubes are removed then clearly the degree of interconnectedness between them is poorer. Consequently, the coordination number is lower and transport properties are reduced. The results show, as expected, that when the coordination number is decreased from 6 to 5, the saturation exponent increases compare Figs. 6 and 7.. Note also that for the lower coordination number of 5 Fig. 7., the resistivity indices are significantly higher than for the higher coordination number of 6 Fig. 6., i.e., the linear part of the curve is sustained until a lower water saturation. 3.5. Effect of pore size distribution When the standard deviation of the throat radii is decreased Fig. 8., the resistivity curves displays

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slight enhanced curvature compare Figs. 6 and 8.. It appears Fig. 8 has a higher saturation exponent than Fig. 6. The reverse argument holds true for changing the mean throat radii. In fact, Sharma et al. 1991. has hypothesized that the ratio between the two pore size characteristics is the controlling parameter. The investigation now extends to pore size distribution of the rock displaying two distinct normal distributions Fig. 9.. Consistent with experimental observations Worthington et al., 1989. our model predicts kinks in both the electrical resistivity and capillary pressure curves Fig. 9. although the kink is more pronounced in the resistivity curve. The kinks indicate that the oil at this stage is unable to invade the smaller normal distribution. Once it does, the curves revert back to the original pattern, because the water saturation can again decrease. 3.6. Effect of wettability alteration To study the effect of wettability alteration, regions of the pore space are assigned oil-wet during primary drainage by using a scenario proposed by Kovscek et al. 1993.. At the beginning of each simulation the model is fully saturated with water. The whole surface of the

model is designated as water-wet with a contact angle of zero. Regions with molecular films which we assumed to be created during primary drainage using the wettability alteration scenario proposed by Kovscek et al. 1993., have a non-zero contact angle Hirasaki, 1988; Kovscek et al., 1993.. Rather than determining the contact angle for each molecular film, which can be theoretically done Hirasaki, 1988; Kovscek et al., 1993., we have assumed a contact angle of 208 for each molecular thin film. In subsequent cycles these regions become oil-wet and were assigned a contact angle of 1808. Different sets of capillary pressure and resistivity curves are observed. Fig. 10 shows capillary pressure and resistivity index curves with mixed-wet sections. As expected, the hysteresis in the capillary pressure curves grows larger compare Figs. 610.. Comparing Figs. 610, it is interesting to note that a different hysteresis trend has been found, in the model where part of the open space has changed from water-wet to oil-wet. In Fig. 10, approximately 32% of the total pore surface is computed to be oil-wet as a result of wettability alteration. The predicted resistivity indices are now higher than that of primary drainage. This is due to mixed-wet sections dominating the electrical resistance of the tube

Fig. 10. Effect of wettability alteration compared with Figs. 69.

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H.N. Man, X.D. Jing r Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 24 (1999) 255267 tivity Index and Water Saturations in the Rotliegend Sandstone The Netherlands.. Transactions of the SPWLA 23rd Annual Logging Symposium, Corpus Christi, TX, July 69, 1982, Paper X. Dixit, A.B., McDougall, S.R., Sorbie, K.S., 1996. A Pore-Level Investigation of Relative Permeability Hysteresis in Water-Wet Systems. In: Symposium on Oilfield Chemistry SPE, Houston, TX. SPE 37233. Dubey, S.T., Doe, P.H., 1993. Base number and wetting properties of crude oils. SPE Reservoir Eng., 195, August.. Dunlap, H.F., Bilhartz, H.L., Shuler, E., Bailey, C.R., 1949. The relation between electrical resistivity and brine saturation in reservoir rocks. Trans. AIME 186, 259264, October.. Fassi-Fihri, O., Robin, M., Rosenberg, E., 1991. Wettability Studies at the Pore Level: A New Approach by the Use of Cryo-Scanning Electron Microscopy. In: 66th Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition SPE, Dallas, TX. SPE 22596. Hirasaki, G.J., 1988. Wettability: Fundamentals and Surface Forces. SPE 17367. Symposium on Enhanced Oil Recovery SPErDOE, Tulsa, OK. Jing, X.D., 1990. The Effect of Clay, Pressure and Temperature on the Electrical and Hydraulic Properties of Real and Synthetic Rocks. PhD Thesis, Imperial College, London. Kaminsky, R., Radke, C.J., 1997. Asphaltenes, water Films and wettability reversal. SPE J. 2, 485493, December.. Kovscek, A.R., Wong, H., Radke, C.J., 1993. A pore-level scenario for the development of mixed-wettability in oil reservoirs. AIChE J. 39, 1072. Lenormand, R., Zarcone, C., 1984. Role of Roughness and Edges During Imbibition in Square Capillaries. In: 59th Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition SPE, Houston, TX. SPE 13264. Li, Y., Wardlaw, N.C., 1986. Mechanisms of nonwetting phase trapping during imbibition at slow rates. J. Colloid Interface Sci. 109 2., 473486, February.. Longeron, D.G., Argaud, M.J., Feraud, J.P., 1986. Effect of Overburden Pressure, Nature and Microscopic Distribution of the Fluids on Electrical Properties of Rock Samples. In: 61st Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition SPE, New Orleans, LA. SPE 15383. Mason, G., Morrow, N.R., 1986. Meniscus displacement curvatures of a perfectly wetting liquid in capillary pore throats formed by spheres. J. Colloid Interface Sci. 109 1., 4656, January.. Mayer, R.P., Stowe, R.A., 1965. Mercury porosimetry breakthrough pressure for penetration between packed spheres. J. Colloid Interface Sci. 20, 893911. McDougall, S.R., Sorbie, K.S., 1995. The impact of wettability on waterflooding: pore-scale simulation. SPE Reservoir Eng. 10, 208213, August.. Moss, A.K., Jing, X.D., Archer, J.S., 1999. Laboratory investigation of wettability and hysteresis effects on resistivity index and capillary pressure characteristics. J. Pet. Sci. Eng. 24, 231242, this volume.. ren, P., Bakke, S., Arntzen, O.J., 1998. Extending predictive capabilities to network models. SPE J. 3, 324336. Ransohoff, T.C., Gauglitz, P.A., Radke, C.J., 1987. Snap-off of

because the resistance is found by integrating the sections of infinitesimally thin thickness in series. Note that snap-off is still possible, because 68% of the total pore surface remains water-wet. The electrical resistivity and capillary pressure trends agree with our experimental data Moss et al., 1999.. 4. Conclusions A three-dimensional pore network model has been developed to simulate rocks with various wetting scenarios. This model includes the effects of pore geometry, pore connectivity, saturation history and wettability alteration. The model is capable in predicting the generic behaviour of electrical resistivity and capillary pressure trends of non-shaly sands. Our chosen representation of pore shape retains bulk water in the crevices and leads to more realistic modelling of pore scale wettability alteration. We intend to predict electrical resistivity and capillary pressure characteristics of a range of reservoir samples and compare them with experimental data. This may require the implementation of contact angle effects and a further extension to secondary drainage. Long-term aims include unifying the effects of clay contents, clay distributions and the impact of varying confining stress in this model. Acknowledgements We would like to thank Carlos Grattoni, Adam Moss, Paul Worthington, Jonathan Hastings and Carolina Coll for their comments and stimulating discussions. We are also indebted to EPSRC for financial support. References
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H.N. Man, X.D. Jing r Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 24 (1999) 255267 gas bubbles in smoothly constricted noncircular capillaries. AIChE J. 33, 753765, May.. Roof, J.G., 1970. Snap-off of oil droplets in water-wet pores. SPE J., 8590, March.. Salathiel, R.A., 1973. Oil recovery by surface film drainage in mixed-wettability rocks. JPT 10, 12161224, October.. Sharma, M.M., Garrouch, A., Dunlap, H.F., 1991. Effects of wettability, pore geometry and stress on electrical conduction in fluid-saturated rocks. Log Anal. 32, 511 526, SeptemberOctober.. Swanson, B.F., 1980. Rationalizing the influence of crude wetting on reservoir fluid flow with electrical resistivity behavior. JPT 32, 14591464, August.. Swanson, B.F., 1985. Microporosity in Reservoir Rocks Its Measurement and Influence on Electrical Resistivity. Transactions of the SPWLA 26th Annual Logging Symposium, Dallas, TX, June 1720, 1985, Paper F.

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Wei, J.Z., Lile, O.B., 1991. Influence of wettability on two- and four-electrode resistivity measurements on Berea sandstone plugs. SPE Form. Eval. 6, 470476, December.. Wolcott, J.M., Groves, F.R. Jr., Lee, H.-G., 1993. Investigation of Crude-OilrMineral Interactions: Influence of Oil Chemistry on Wettability Alteration. In: Symposium on Oilfield Chemistry SPE, New Orleans, LA. SPE 25194. Worthington, P.F., Pallatt, N., Toussaint-Jackson, J.E., 1989. Influence of microporosity on the evaluation of hydrocarbon saturation. SPE Form. Eval., 203209, June.. Yale, D.P., 1984. Network Modeling of Flow, Storage and Deformation in Porous Rocks. PhD Thesis, Stanford University, Stanford, CA. Zhou, D., Arbabi, S., Stenby, E.H., 1996. Effect of Wettability on the Electrical Properties of Reservoir Rocks. SCA Conference, Paper Number 9624. .