CMPLT Seminar Report

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Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Miniature RF Technology Demonstration
ABSTRACT
The Miniature Radio Frequency (Mini-RF) system is manifested on the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) as a technology demonstration and an extended mission science instrument. Mini-RF represents a significant step forward in space borne RF technology and architecture. It combines synthetic aperture radar (SAR) at two wavelengths (S-band and X-band) and two resolutions (150 m and 30 m) with interferometric and communications functionality in one lightweight (16 kg) package. Previous radar observations (Earth-based, and one bistatic data set from Clementine) of the permanently shadowed regions of the lunar poles seem to indicate areas of high circular polarization ratio (CPR) consistent with volume scattering from volatile deposits (e.g. water ice) buried at shallow (0.1-1 m) depth, but only at unfavorable viewing geometries, and with inconclusive results. The LRO Mini-RF utilizes new wideband hybrid polarization architecture to measure the Stokes parameters of the reflected signal. These data will help to differentiate true volumetric ice reflections from false returns due to angular surface regolith. Additional lunar science investigations (e.g. pyroclastic deposit characterization) will also be attempted during the LRO extended mission. LROs lunar operations will be contemporaneous with Indias Chandrayaan-1, which carries the Forerunner Mini-SAR (S-band wavelength and 150-m resolution), and bistatic radar (SBand) measurements may be possible. On orbit calibration, procedures for LRO Mini-RF have been validated using Chandrayaan 1 and ground-based facilities (Arecibo and Greenbank Radio Observatories).
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Al Ameen engg.college
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CHAPTER NO.
TITLE
ABSTRACT LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF TABLES LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
PAGE NO
iv vi vii viii 1 2 3
1. 2. 3. 4.
INTRODUCTION Why we require Mini RF technology What is Mini RF Technology Comparison of Mini RF Technology With other Radar Systems
4 5 7 10 11 14 14 14 15 16 18 19 20 21
5.
Mini-RF Instrument Description 5.1Hybrid-polarity architecture 5.2 Antenna 5.3 Transmitter 5.4 Interconnect Module 5.5 Receiver 5.6 Control Processor 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Calibration Data analysis and Interpretation Stokes Parameters as clear evidence of lunar ice Applications Conclusion References
11.
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LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO. NAME PAGE NO
1 2 3 4 5 6
Dual scattering caused by ice or roughness LRO Mini-RF system functional block diagram Hybrid-polarity architecture Mini-RF antenna design Mini-RF transmitter block diagram Mini-RF Microwave Power Module Traveling Wave Tube (MPM/TWT)
2 6 7 10 12
13 17
Mini-RF calibration strategy
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LIST OF TABLES
TABLE NO
NAME
PAGE NO
Radar System Comparisons with Mini RF Technology 4
Communications System Comparison with Mini RF Technology 4 18
Significant and Derivative of stock parameters
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
LRO Mini-RF- Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Miniature Radio Frequency NASACPRSARMPMFPGA OCSCTWT IMQDWSART GBT POCPRFUAVNational aeronautics and space administration. High Circular Polarization Ratio Synthetic Aperture Radar Microwave Power Module Field Programmable Gate Array Opposite Sense Same Sense Traveling Wave Tube Interconnect Module Quadrature Digital Waveform Synthesizer Arecibo Radio Telescope The Green Bank (Radio) Telescope Payload Operations Center Pulse Repetition Frequency Unmanned Airborne Vehicles
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Chapter 1 Introduction
The Miniature Radio Frequency (Mini-RF) system is manifested on the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) as a technology demonstration and an extended mission science instrument. Mini-RF represents a significant step forward in space borne RF technology and architecture. It combines synthetic aperture radar (SAR) at two wavelengths (S-band and X-band) and two resolutions (150 m and 30 m) with interferometric and communications functionality in one lightweight (16 kg) package. Previous radar observations (Earth-based, and one bistatic data set from Clementine) of the permanently shadowed regions of the lunar poles seem to indicate areas of high circular polarization ratio (CPR) consistent with volume scattering from volatile deposits (e.g. water ice) buried at shallow (0.11 m) depth, but only at unfavorable viewing geometries, and with inconclusive results. The LRO Mini-RF utilizes new wideband hybrid polarization architecture to measure the Stokes parameters of the reflected signal. These data will help to differentiate true volumetric ice reflections from false returns due to angular surface regolith. Additional lunar science investigations (e.g. pyroclastic deposit characterization) will also be attempted during the LRO extended mission. LROs lunar operations will be contemporaneous with Indias Chandrayaan-1, which carries the Forerunner Mini-SAR (S-band wavelength and 150-m resolution), and bistatic radar (S-Band) measurements may be possible. Data quality and instrument characteristics suggest that hybrid polarity is highly desirable for future exploratory radar missions in the Solar system. The new technologies being qualified on LRO Mini- RF include: Microwave Power Module (MPM) based multi-frequency transmitter, wideband dual-frequency panel antenna, all digital receiver and waveform synthesizer incorporating field programmable gate array (FPGA) and analog-to-digital conversion at 1 GHz sampling. The Mini-RF parts qualification program, which included commercial technology, allowed innovative components to gain space qualification.
Chapter 2
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Why we require Mini RF technology

The LRO Mini-RF payload will address key science questions during the LRO primary and extended missions. These include exploring the permanently shadowed Polar Regions and probing the lunar regolith in other areas of scientific interest. The nature and distribution of the permanently shadowed polar terrain of the Moon has been the subject of considerable controversy. Previous earth based observations uses that when an incident circularly polarized radar wave is backscattered off an interface, the polarization state of the wave changes. For most surfaces, this leads to a return with more of an opposite sense (OC) polarization than a same sense (SC) polarization, so the circular polarization ratio (CPR=SC/OC) remains less than 1. However, in weakly absorbing media (such as water ice) the radar signal can undergo a series of forward scattering events off small imperfections in the material, each of which preserves the polarization properties of the signal . Those portions of the wave front that are scattered along the same path but in opposite directions combine coherently to produce an increase in the SC radar backscatter .This coherent backscatter effect leads to large returns in the same sense (SC) polarization and values for CPR that can exceed unity. Note that CPR > 1, while diagnostic of water ice, is not a unique signature for water ice. Very rough, dry surfaces have also been observed to have CPRs that exceed unity. The CPR may increase in such regions due to double bounce scattering between the surface and rock faces. In order distinguish between true ice and false ice mini RF technology will be helpful.
Figure .1 Dual scattering caused by ice or roughness
Chapter 3
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What is Mini RF Technology

The Mini-RF architecture is new. The hybrid-polarity design (transmitting circular polarization and receiving coherently two orthogonal linear polarizations) provides data sufficient to measure the 2 2 covariance matrix of the backscattered field, which in turn lead to the four Stokes parameters. Analysis of these data, either by standard radar astronomy methods or by applying matrix decomposition techniques, extracts all information available in the radar reflections, thus providing a sharper tool than CPR alone to help differentiate between true (ice) and false (regolith blockiness) lunar returns. Mini-RF can operate as a dual-frequency, hybrid-polarity imaging radar designed to collect information about the scattering properties of the permanently dark areas near the lunar poles at optimum viewing geometry. As the LRO Mini-RF system probes the lunar regolith at two frequencies (S-band and X-band) it will provide additional information on the physical properties of the upper meter or two of lunar surface. Under the proposed observational constraints, Mini-RF can identify areas of high CPR (1), which could be caused by ice deposits. Areas that do show high CPR can be analyzed with greater sensitivity through their backscattering features. It is hypothesized that ice and regolith will have differentiable characteristics as seen through their respective Stokes parameters at two wavelengths. When supported by Chandrayaan-1 and other LRO data (e.g. neutron spectroscopy, shadow and lighting, roughness and surface texture, thermal environment), the LRO Mini-RF measurements should provide more conclusive evidence as to the likelihood that ice deposits occur in permanently shadowed areas. Mini RF technology will be also be helpful to find the several volatile deposits and lot of valuable minerals such as silver ,mercury, helium on the portions of moon where there is no sunlight for several lakhs of years.
Chapter 4
Al Ameen engg.college Dept. of E.C.E
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Comparison of Mini RF Technology with other Radar Systems

Table 1. Radar System Comparisons with Mini RF Technology
Table 2. Communications System Comparison with Mini RF Technology
Chapter 5
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Mini-RF Instrument Description

The Mini-RF observations are made possible within the mass and power constraints imposed by LRO via application of a number of technologies. Two key technologies are a wideband Microwave Power Module (MPM) based transmitter and a lightweight broadband antenna and polarization design. The Mini-RF Instrument is comprised of the following elements: (1) Antenna, (2) Transmitter, (3) Digital receiver/quadrature detector waveform synthesizer, (4) Analog RF receiver, (5) Control Processor, (6) Interconnection module (7) Supporting harness, RF cabling, and structures.
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Figure.2 The LRO Mini-RF system functional block diagram
5.1Hybrid-polarity architecture
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Figure 3. Hybrid-polarity architecture The mini RF architecture is unique in planetary radar; it transmits right circular polarization radiation and receives the horizontal (H) and vertical (V) polarization components coherently, which are then reconstructed as Stokes parameters during the data processing step. Both the communications and the radar astronomical objectives
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impose a requirement for circular polarization on the transmitted field. Conventional radar that would measure CPR then would have to be dual-circularly polarized on receiver. The hybrid-polarity approach provides weight savings by eliminating circulator elements in the receiver paths, which reduces mass, increases RF efficiency, and minimizes cross-talk and other self-noise aspects of the received data. The H and V signals are passed directly to the ground-based processor. It is well known that the Stokes parameters comprise a full characterization of the backscattered field. The values of the four Stokes parameters do not depend on the choice of receiver polarization, so this architecture minimizes hardware while maintaining full science value. The result provides significant advantages over the conventional CPRmeasuring dual-circular-polarized approach, yet the radar is simpler. The use of possible Stokes parameter-based products (e.g. CPR, degree of- depolarization, degree-of-linear-polarization, and phase double bounce) have a number of significant advantages over traditional radar systems: less hardware is needed, resulting in fewer losses and a cleaner, simpler flight instrument. The signal levels are comparable (within 2 dB) in both channels allowing relatively relaxed specifications on channel-to channel cross-talk and more robust phase and amplitude calibration. The processor has a direct view through the entire receiver chain; including the antenna receives patterns and other radar parameters (e.g., gain and phase). These parameters are applied in processing Levels (Level 0, 1) which correspond to successive data processing stages. The design allows selective Doppler weighting to maximize channelchannel coherence (e.g., reduce the H & V beam mismatch). As CPR is less sensitive to channel imbalance by at least a factor of 2 with respect to explicit RCP/LCP, Stokes parameter-based backscatter decomposition strategies can help distinguish false from true high CPR areas. The hybrid-polarity approach provides weight savings by eliminating circulator elements in the receiver paths, which reduces mass, increases RF efficiency, and minimizes cross-talk and other self-noise aspects of the received data. The H and V signals are passed directly to the ground-based processor. It is well known that the Stokes parameters comprise a full characterization of the backscattered field. The values of the four Stokes
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parameters do not depend on the choice of receiver polarization, so this architecture minimizes hardware while maintaining full science value. The result provides significant advantages over the conventional CPR measuring dual-circular-polarized approach, yet the radar is simpler. The use of possible Stokes parameter-based products (e.g. CPR, degree of-depolarization, degree-of-linearpolarization, phase double bounce) have a number of significant advantages over traditional radar systems: less hardware is needed, resulting in Fewer losses and a cleaner, simpler flight instrument. The signal levels are comparable within 2 dB) in both channels allowing relatively relaxed specifications on channel-to channel cross-talk and more robust phase and amplitude calibration. The processor has a direct view through the entire receiver chain; including the antenna receives patterns and other radar parameters (e.g., gain and phase). These parameters are applied in processing Levels (Level 0, 1) which correspond to successive data processing stages. The design allows selective Doppler weighting to maximize channelchannel coherence (e.g., reduce the H & V beam mismatch). As CPR is less sensitive to channel imbalance by at least a factor of 2 with respect to explicit RCP/LCP, Stokes parameter-based backscatter Decomposition strategies can help distinguish false from true high CPR areas. Compact polarimetric encompasses those options that fall between dual-polarized and quad-pole SARs. Compact polarimetric radars transmit on only one polarization, and receive on two orthogonal polarizations, retaining their relative Phase. In the radar remote sensing world assumed to include only linearly polarized systems, coherent dual-polarimetric imaging radar was disregarded. However, if alternative transmit polarizations (such as circular or 45_ linear) are considered, then compact polarimetric radars deserve recognition as a potentially important SAR option. The major motivation for compact polarimetric is to strive for quantitative backscatter classifications of the same finesse as those from a fully polarized system, while avoiding the principal disadvantages (mass, power, and limited coverage) associated with a quad-pole SAR.
5.2 Antenna
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An egg crate antenna allows a broadband, dual-frequency design with a single antenna panel, without any deployable mechanisms (e.g. feeds) while also meeting stringent weight and volume constraints. The elements are sized to allow a 3:1 frequency range. Each element incorporates radiators and physical phasing combines their power. The thermal design, materials selection, manufacturing, and test qualification heritage of single-frequency Chandrayaan Mini-SAR antenna was applied to the dual frequency LRO Mini-RF unit. Because of this heritage, the MiniRF antenna is robust and lightweight (4 kg) while satisfying all technical requirements.
Figure.4 Mini-RF antenna design
5.3 Transmitter
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The LRO Mini-RF transmitter takes full advantage of the capabilities of the wideband antenna. The transmitter is the first implementation of Microwave Power Module (MPM) technology on a long-duration spaceflight, which affords a significant breakthrough in available bandwidth and power efficiency with reduced mass as compared to previous traveling wave tube (TWT) systems. The MPM combines a solid state RF driver/preamplifier with a traveling wave tube amplifier, a hybrid approach combining the advantages of both solid state and vacuum electronic technology. Flight-testing the MPM technology is a major goal of the Mini-RF demonstration. The MPM is enabling in giving Mini-RF its dual band capability within the challenging mass, power, and volume constraints of the LRO spacecraft. MPM technology has extensive heritage in airborne and other tactical systems but the Mini-RF development program had to make significant efforts to qualify it for spaceflight. The transmitter consists of a low-voltage CCA, high-voltage potted assembly, solid-state driver amplifier, and a miniature helix TWT. A compartmentalized EMI filter is also included in the transmitter, along with an RF power monitor port with analog voltage output for power sensing and control. The highly integrated nature of MPMs allowed for the implementation of several control features to achieve the multi-mode, multi-band requirements for the Mini-RF transmitter.
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Figure.5 Mini-RF transmitter block diagram
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Figure.6 Mini-RF Microwave Power Module Traveling Wave Tube (MPM/TWT) The primary Mini-RF transmitter challenge is adapting these proven airborne designs for space application. These include materials and part selection, out gassing, reliability, and radiation tolerance. The technical challenges overcome in the transmitter included developing low out gassing, high voltage insulators and space qualification parts screening for miniature high-voltage power supplies. The transmitter complied with the overall Mini-RF parts screening program which screened parts to a total dose of 20 kRad, no destructive latch-up, and tolerance of non-destructive latch up at 75 MeV. Meeting the stringent mass and power limitations required some parts to carry wavers but the overall parts program was compatible with the Class S and LRO Class B requirement with de-rating criteria in accordance with established procedures. Mini-RF uses PEMs (Plastic Encapsulated Microcircuits) with the screening operable over the temperature range of 55 to +125C. The MPM thermal design necessitated integration with the LRO heat-pipe system, which allowed for effective dissipation of heat generated by the transmitter.
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5.4 Interconnect Module

The Interconnect Module (IM) combines and splits the RF energy and serves as the interface between the transmitter, receiver, and antenna. Its design specifically handles issues such as multination using selected materials and geometry.
5.5 Receiver
LROs receiver section is consisting of analog RF receiver and digital receiver/quadrature detector waveform synthesizer. Receiver section is responsible for receiving signals transmitted from the Mini RF transmitter and also responsible to carryout required operations. Analog receiver is responsible for down conversion of RF to IF and provides gain control. Digital receiver is responsible for digitalize the IF. The digital receiver and quadrature digital waveform synthesizer (QDWS), based on airborne radar heritage, were adapted to lunar orbital requirements. These systems enabled the flexibility and reprogrammability required by the mini-RF system in LROs low-altitude lunar orbit.
5.6 Control Processor

Control Processor is responsible for coordinating the entire functions Mini RF system. Functions of Control Processor are digitizing antenna temperature, accept commands from bus electronics, control and configure payload electronics and provide router interface from digital receiver to bus electronics for radar data.
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Chapter 6 Calibration
Polari metric measurements imply more stringent calibration of the radar than required by a single channel system; since quantitative Polari metric measurements depend on the relative phase and magnitude between signals in the two receive channels. Hybrid polar metric architecture has the unique and appealing property that it is self calibrating. Calibration of the mini-RF instruments proved challenging for several reasons. Prior to launch no opportunities for end-to-end measurements of the complete radar system were available; only standalone characterizations of the radar electronics and antenna were possible. Once in flight, conventional calibration techniques used by Earth orbiters .The mini-RF calibration campaign included direct and separate characterizations of the transmit and receive portions of the radars via Earth-based resources, hence obviating the assumption of perfect circularity of the transmitted signal from the calibration analysis. The two mini-RF radars are the pioneers of this calibration strategy. The onorbit calibration experiments measured the mini-RF receive and transmit characteristics on separate days, using different Earth-based antennas, as the corresponding transmitter or receiver platforms. The Arecibo Radio Telescope (ART) in Puerto Rico acted as a transmitter to the mini-RF receiver. The Green Bank (Radio) Telescope (GBT) in West Virginia received mini-RF transmissions. For both sessions; the spacecraft was maneuvered to generate cross sections of the elevation and azimuth antenna patterns. Effects due to the Earths ionosphere proved to be negligible. In a separate operation, the spacecraft was rolled to point the radar antenna towards the Moon at nadir. In this orientation, the expected radar backscattering properties in the H and V polarizations are known to be (on average) the reflection of the transmitted signal, comprising a practical means of collecting an end-to-end data set of known characteristics.
Chapter 7
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Data analysis and Interpretation

Following in-flight calibration, a set of coefficients will be derived and applied to the radar data as part of the standard processing stream prior to computing the Stokes parameters that in turn are used to calculate daughter products (e.g. CPR, degree of linear and circular polarization). A joint Chandrayaan/LRO Mini-RF Payload Operations Center (POC) is located at APL to support the Mini-RF experiments. The POC will provide the following functions: forward data acquisition sequences to GSFC, receive raw telemetry from GSFC, process raw telemetry, produce mosaics, and catalog data for the PDS and other repositories. The POC team is comprised of the POC lead engineers, Science Team representatives and the POC engineers. The Calibration and Collect commands have embedded argument lists that configure the radar with respect to waveform, pulse repetition frequency (PRF), pulse width, burst time, burst duty factor, number of bursts, and position of receiving gate, bandwidth, start frequency, and other supporting parameters. Once the acquired data and the required ancillary data have been received by the POC, the data will be processed according to the data type. This processing will use the ephemeris data supplied to the POC to create products to be checked for completeness and quality. To calculate the circular polarization ratio of the received signal (CPR = SC/OC), we must be able to calculate the total power returned in the same polarization as was transmitted (SC = EH2) and the total power returned in the opposite polarization (OC = EV2). These values can be expressed in terms of the Stokes vector, which represents the time averaged Polarization properties of the backscattered field .It is a straightforward matter to determine the Stokes vector from the total power received in the H and V channels and the real and imaginary parts of their complex conjugate, HV* Circular polarization ratios can then be calculated from the Stokes vectors.
For example, CPR = SC/OC = (S1 S4)/ (S1 + S4), where S1 represents the total received power, S1=[|E(H)|^2+ |E(V)|^2], S2= =[|E(H)|^2-|E(V)|^2],S3=2Re[E(H)E(V)*] and
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S4=-2Im [E (H) E (V)*] =.It is possible to derive lot daughter products from stock parameters such as , , m, .where m is degree of polarization
m=sqrt(S2^2+S3^2+S4^2)/S1; is circular polarization ratio =(S1-S2)/(S1+S2); = (S1-S4)/(S1+S4); is linear polarisation ratio
is relative phase
=arctan(S1/S2).
Figure 7 Mini-RF calibration strategies
Chapter 8 Stokes Parameters as clear evidence of lunar ice
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Stokes parameters as described earlier, are useful tools to study the scattering properties of various features on the lunar surface. The magnitude and sense of polarization of the reflected signal associated with various lunar morphological features as well as water-ice inside the craters were examined using Mini-SAR data. Traditionally, the key parameter used to determine whether ice is present is the CPR. CPR was used in the present study to find evidence of subsurface scattering due to dielectric in homogeneities like water-ice. Apart from high CPR, parameters like degree of polarization (m) and relative EHEV phase () are also important parameters to study the scattering mechanisms associated with lunar ice. The m together indicate the type of scattering mechanism associated with the target, because at higher m value (m > 0.5), values close to 90 and +90 indicate surface and double bounce scatterings respectively, and all other values of indicate diffused scattering mechanism. The problem with using CPR alone is that higher values can be obtained from very rough surfaces, such as a rough, blocky lava flow, which has angles that form many small corner reflectors. In this case, the radar signal could hit a rock face (changing LCP into right circular polarization (RCP)), and then bounce over to another rock face (changing RCP back into LCP) and hence to the receiver. This double bounce effect also creates high CPR in that same sense reflections could mimic the enhanced CPR one gets from ice targets. Hence, the CPR values estimated from Mini-SAR have been analyzed along with m and values for indicating the presence of water-ice Table 3.
Daughter Products Degree of polarisation (m) Linear polarisation ratio ( ) Circular polarisation ratio ( ) Relative phase ( ) Derivation m=sqrt(S2^2+S3^2+S4^2)/S1 =(S1-S2)/(S1+S2) =(S1-S4)/(S1+S4) = arctan(S1/S2) Significance Indicator of polarized and diffused scattering; related to entropy Indicator of volume v/s sub surface scattering Indicator of scattering lunar ice deposits Indicator of double bounce scattering
Chapter 9 Applications
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The Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) Mini-RF technology is the product of over a decade of development. Its objectives are: (1) Flight verification of an advanced lightweight RF technology for future NASA and DoD communications applications; (2) Demonstration of a hybrid-polarity Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) architecture; (3) Obtaining measurements of the lunar surface as a function of radar band (S and X) and resolution (150 m, 30 m) which could identify water ice deposits in the permanently shadowed polar regions; (4) Production of topographic data using interferometry (S-band) and SAR stereo techniques; and (5) Mapping of areas of interest identified by the Chandrayaan-1 Forerunner Mini-SAR experiment and other lunar instruments. Because Mini-RF provides its own illumination and can penetrate the near subsurface at meter scales, it will acquire data not obtained by any other LRO payload. Over the previous decade, the Department of Defense (DoD) and commercial industry made significant strides in developing advanced lightweight RF technology for wireless communication, Unmanned Airborne Vehicles (UAVs), and tactical missiles. The first, Forerunner Miniature SAR (Mini-SAR), was developed and integrated into the Indian Space Research Organization which is Chandrayaan. The ForerunnerMini-SAR had to operate in the lunar thermal and radiation environment, yet was simpler in design and operation, providing significant experience and reduction of risk for the more advanced LRO Mini-RF system. The LRO Mini-RF affords NASA and the DoD an opportunity to flight-qualify lightweight technology for a range of applications, including deep space communications. The flexibility, reconfigurability, and capability of Mini-RF will be demonstrated by a communications and radar mode utilizing the same hardware. The constraints of a lunar mission (range, limited duty cycle over the poles) and the low mass of advanced lightweight RF technology allows a technology demonstration which met the payload constraints of both the Chandrayaan and LRO spacecraft, and provided an opportunity to collect unique and valuable lunar science data.
Chapter 10
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Conclusion
The mini-RF radars on the LRO have proven to be very successful, meeting or exceeding their design requirements and expectations. Their hybrid polarity architecture is the first demonstration of this design paradigm from orbit. They afford the first polarimetric radar observations of the entire Moon, including especially the lunar poles and far side. The results are providing new information and opening new insights into the lunar surface. From a technical point of view, the mini-RF radars have pioneered several innovations. They have been exercised in unique calibration modes that do not depend on the usual in situ references of an extended distributed backscattering feature (such as the Amazon rain forest) or a Calibrated point reference (such as a corner reflector or active radar calibrator). For lunar or planetary polarimetric radars, calibration methodologies are required that do not require known references in the scene. By taking advantage of the polarization basis independence of the Stokes parameters of the received data, the mini-RF systems are more capable instruments than all previous radars that have ventured outside Earth orbit, yet their implementation is relatively simple, an attribute that is especially appealing for planetary deployments. Although for both radars the observed transmitted field is elliptically polarized rather than purely circular, simple polarimetric analysis such as estimation of CPR seems relatively robust to this imperfection. Other Stokes-based measurements may be more sensitive to imperfect circularity of the illuminating field.
Chapter 11
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References
1. www.spudislunarresources.com 2. www. lunar.gsfc.nasa.gov 3. www. ieeexplore.ieee.org 4. Ritchriya 5. NASA Fact
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Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Miniature RF Technology Demonstration

Mini-RF calibration strategy

Radar System Comparisons with Mini RF Technology 4

Communications System Comparison with Mini RF Technology 4 18

Significant and Derivative of stock parameters

Why we require Mini RF technology

Figure .1 Dual scattering caused by ice or roughness

What is Mini RF Technology

Comparison of Mini RF Technology with other Radar Systems

Table 2. Communications System Comparison with Mini RF Technology

Mini-RF Instrument Description

Figure.2 The LRO Mini-RF system functional block diagram

Figure.4 Mini-RF antenna design

Figure.5 Mini-RF transmitter block diagram

5.4 Interconnect Module

5.6 Control Processor

Data analysis and Interpretation

m=sqrt(S2^2+S3^2+S4^2)/S1; is circular polarization ratio =(S1-S2)/(S1+S2); = (S1-S4)/(S1+S4); is linear polarisation ratio

Figure 7 Mini-RF calibration strategies

Chapter 8 Stokes Parameters as clear evidence of lunar ice

1. www.spudislunarresources.com 2. www. lunar.gsfc.nasa.gov 3. www. ieeexplore.ieee.org 4. Ritchriya 5. NASA Fact

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