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SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY
AFTER THE CESARO METHOD
SPHERICAL
TRIGONOMETRY
AFTER THE CESARO METHOD
J.
D. H.
DONNAY.
E.M., Ph.D.
1945
INTERSCIENCE PUBLISHERS. INC. - NEW YORK. N. Y.
Copyright, 1945, by
Printed in the United State* of America by the Lancaster Press, Lancaster, Pa.
To THE MEMORY OF
GIUSEPPE CESARO
1849 - 1939
CRT8TALLOGRAPHER AND MINERALOGIST PROFESSOR AT THE UNIVERSITY OF LIEGE
PREFACE
From a practical standpoint spherical trigonometry is useful to engineers and geologists, who have to deal with surveying, geodesy, and astronomy; to physicists, chemists,
mineralogists,
and
metallurgists, in their
common
study of
crystallography; to Navy and Aviation officers, in the solution of navigation problems. For some reason, however, spherical trigonometry is not recognized as a regular subject in many American college curricula. As a consequence, the
teacher of a science for which a working knowledge of spherhe has to impart it to the students himself, or to use ready-made formulae that his listeners have never seen, let alone derived, before.
ical triangles is desirable usually finds
This book has been written in an attempt to meet this It can be covered in about ten to twelve lectures and could well serve as a text in a one-unit course for a quarter or a semester. It aims at giving the strict minimum,
situation.
The straightforward and time-saving Cesaro method seems particularly suitable for this purpose, tying together as it does, from the outset, the concepts of This method has withspherical and plane trigonometry. stood the test of experience. For years Belgian students
as briefly as possible.
have thrived on
it. Personally I have taught it for eight years to crystallography students at the Johns Hopkins University, and for two years to freshmen classes at Laval University, with gratifying results. The order in which the subject matter is arranged may
appear unorthodox. It has proved satisfactory, however, from the teaching point of view. Through the use of the
stereographic projection (Ch. I), the concept of spherical excess somewhat of a stumbling block is mastered from
vii
viii
PREFACE
the start.
A working knowledge of Cesaro's key-triangles is acquired, as soon as they are established (Ch. II), through the derivation of Napier's and Delambre's formulae and several expressions of the spherical excess (Ch. III). This
much
ment
insures the understanding of the method.
of the oblique-angled triangle (Ch. IV)
is
The
treat-
thereby so
simplified that one can dispense with that of the right-angled The latter properly follows as a particular case triangle.
(Ch. V). Examples of computations are given (Ch. VI), both with logarithms and with the calculating machine. They are followed by a selection of problems, completely worked out (Ch. VII), and a number of exercises with answers
Cross-references are made in the theoretical (Ch. VIII). chapters to appropriate applications. Proofs believed to be new are marked by asterisks.
In conclusion
may
was planned jointly by Cesaro and myself, several years ago. He who was to have been the senior author passed away In introducing Cesaro's elegant method shortly afterwards. to the English-speaking public, I would like to think that my writing will reflect his influence and, to some degree at least, his reverence for simplicity and rigor. J. D. H. D.
Hercules Powder Company Experiment Station Wilmington, Delaware April 1945
CONTENTS
PAGE
Dedication
Preface
vn
3
of Spherical
Introduction
1.
Purpose
Trigonometry
2. 3.
The
Spherical Triangle
4
5
4.
I.
5
7
The Stereographic
1.
Projection
Definition
7
7
First Property of the Stereographic Projection. 3. Second Property of the Stereographic Projection.
2.
II.
10
13
Cesaro's Key-Triangles
1.
2. 3. 4.
13
Exercises
III.
How
1.
Work
22
22 22 23 24 25
Napier's Analogies
2.
Delambre's Formulae
Euler's
3.
4.
5.
CONTENTS
PAGE
6.
The
Two
Sides and
Exercises
IV. Relations
26 26
angle
1.
2.
3.
Two
Sides
29 Angles Relation between the Three Angles and One Side 30 5. Expression of the Half-Sides in Terms of the Three Angles 30 6. Relation between Two Sides, their Included Angle, and the Angle Opposite One of them .... 32 34 Exercises
4.
V. Right-Angled Triangles
1.
36
36
The Right-Angled
2.
Two
3.
Two Angles (the product formulae) .... 37 Relations between the Hypotenuse, One Side,
.
4.
and One Angle (the ratios of sines and tangents) 37 Relations between Two Angles and One Side, or between Two Sides and One Angle (the ratios of 38 cosines and cotangents)
Napier's Rule
of Calculations
5.
39
41
41
VI.
Examples
1.
Solution of Triangles
2.
3. 4. 5.
45 48
CONTENTS
zi
PAGE
6.
a, 6,
and
C = 90,
solve
A
.
50
7.
8.
Fourth Example: spherical distance between two 51 points given by their geographical coordinates. 52 Numerical Application
VII.
55
VIII. Exercises
70
74
76
Answers to Exercises
Appendix Appendix
Index
1.
Spherical Areas
2.
Formulae
of
Plane Trigonometry
78
81
SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY
AFTER THE CESARO METHOD
INTRODUCTION
1.
Spherical trigonome-
essentially concerned with the study of angular relationships that exist, in space, between planes and straight lines intersecting in a common point O. bundle of planes
try
intersect one another in a sheaf of straight passed through lines. Two kinds of angles need therefore be considered:
The
more
easily visualized
with an arbitrary radius. Any a line through is a diameter, and any plane through diametral plane, of such a sphere. The former punctures the sphere in two diametrically opposite points, the latter interThe angle between two lines is sects it along a great circle. measured on the sphere by an arc of the great circle whose plane is that of the two given lines. The angle between two planes is represented by the angle between the two great circles along which the given planes intersect the sphere. Indeed, by definition, the angle between the great circles is equal to the angle between the tangents to the circles at their
point of intersection, but these tangents are both perpendicular to the line of intersection of the two given planes, hence the angle between the tangents is the true dihedral
angle.
An open pyramid, that is to say a pyramid without base, whose apex is made the center of a sphere determines a The vertices of the polygon spherical polygon on the sphere. are the points where the edges of the pyramid puncture the
1
From now
line,
on, the word line will be used to designate a straight unless otherwise stated.
INTRODUCTION
sphere; the sides of the polygon are arcs of the great circles along which the faces of the pyramid intersect the sphere. The angles of the polygon are equal to the dihedral angles between adjacent faces of the pyramid. The sides of the polygon are arcs that measure the angles of the faces at the apex of the pyramid, that is to say, angles between adjacent
edges. trihedron
is
faces.
The
three axes of co-ordinates in solid analytical geometry, for instance, are the edges of a trihedron, while the three axial
planes are its faces. Consider a trihedron with its apex at the center of the sphere. It determines a spherical triangle
on the sphere. 2 In the general case of an oblique trihedron, an oblique-angled spherical triangle is obtained, that is to say, one in which neither any angle nor any side is equal to 90. The main object of spherical trigonometry is to investigate the relations between the six parts of the spherical triangle, namely its three sides and its three angles.
2.
The Spherical Triangle. The sides of a spherical triangle are arcs of great circles. They can be expressed in angular units, radians or degrees, since all great circles have the same
As a consequence of the conventional construction by means of which the spherical triangle has been defined (Sn. 1), any side must be smaller than a semi-circle and, likewise, any angle must be less
radius, equal to that of the sphere.
than 180.
By considering the trihedron whose apex is at the center of the sphere, we see that the sum of any two sides of a spherical triangle is greater than the third side, that any side is greater
than the difference between the other two
sides,
sum
the
of all three sides (called the perimeter) Because any angle of a spherical triangle
is less
is less
of all three angles is obviously less than 540. greater than 180, as we shall see later (Ch. II, Sn. 1).
sum
This is the "Eulerian" spherical triangle, the only one to be considered in this book.
Comparison between Plane and Spherical Trigonometry. In plane trigonometry, you draw triangles in a plane. Their
segments of straight lines. one point to another is the straight The distance between two points
sides are
The
is
plane triangle is 180. Through any point in the plane, a straight line can be drawn parallel to a given line in the plane
(Euclidian geometry).
In spherical trigonometry, triangles are drawn on a sphere. Their sides are arcs of great circles. The shortest path (on the sphere) from one point to another is the great circle that connects them. The (spherical, or angular) distance between
two points
angle.
is
circle,
in units of
The sum of the angles of a spherical triangle is greater than 180. Through a point on the sphere, no great circle can be drawn parallel to a given great circle on the sphere
(spherical
geometry
is
non-Euclidian).
Fields of Usefulness of Spherical Trigonometry. Most problems dealing with solid angles can be reduced to questions of spherical trigonometry. Such problems crop up in the Problems of solid analytical of geometrical polyhedra. study in which planes and lines pass through the origin geometry usually have trigonometric solutions. Problems involving spatial directions around one point are encountered in crystallography. Well formed crystals are taken anywhere bounded by plane faces. From a point inside the crystal, drop a perpendicular on each face; this Relationships face normal defines the direction of the face. between the inclinations of the faces relative to one another appear in the network of spherical triangles which the sheaf of face normals determines on a sphere drawn around 0. Surveying is concerned with such small regions of the earth surface that they can be considered plane in a first approximation. Geodesy deals with larger regions, for which the curva4.
INTRODUCTION
must be taken into account.
is
In a second taken as spherical, and the formulae of spherical trigonometry are applicable. (Further refinements introduce corrections for the lack of perfect spheture of the earth
In astronomy the application of spherical trigonometry is The observer occupies a point that is very nearly the center of the celestial sphere around the earth. Each
obvious.
line of sight is
To
the observer
who
is
not aware of, or concerned with, the distances from the earth to the heavenly bodies, the latter appear to move on a sphere. The angle subtended by two stars, as seen by the observer, thus become a side in a spherical triangle. Navigation techniques, either on the high seas or in the air, being based on astronomical observations, likewise depend on the solution
will
of spherical triangles.
CHAPTER
the equator
ern Hemisphere, outside the equatorial circle; any point on is itself its own stereographic projection (Fig. 1). The North Pole is projected in the center of the projection; the South Pole, at infinity.
FIG.
1.
The
stereographic projection.
2. First
Circles
the circle to be
projected passes through S, its projection is a straight line. This is obvious, since the projection of the circle is the inter7
I.
section of
the equator.
of
circle is
a great circle
passing through S (hence, a meridian) its projection is a diameter of the equator. If the circle to be projected does not pass through S, its 1 projection is a circle. The proof of this is based on the following theorem. Consider (Fig. 2) an oblique cone with vertex S and circular base AB. Let the plane of the drawing be a section through S and a diameter AB of the base. The circular base is proA section ab, jected on the drawing as a straight line AB. perpendicular to the plane of the drawing, and such that the angles SAB, S6a are equal, is called sub-contrary (or anti'
circular base,
any
circular.
FIG.
2.
Sub-contrary sections.
Take a
circular.
section cd parallel to the base and, hence, obviously The two sections ab and cd intersect along a com-
mon
chord, projected at a point n, which bisects the chord. Let x be the length of the semi-chord. The triangles can and bdn are similar (angles equal each to each), hence an nd
:
first
reading.
FIRST PROPERTY
= =
cn x2
.
nb, or
an.nb
.
Hence an nb
= cn.nd. = x2 and
,
Because cd
ab
is
is
circular,
cn.nd
also circular. 2
Now consider a section of the sphere of projection cut perpendicular to the intersection of the equatorial plane EE' and the plane of the circle AB to be projected (Fig. 3). The angles SAB, S6a (marked on the drawing) are equal,
since
the measure of
SAB = KSE'
+ BE
and that
of
S6a
= |(SE
BE')
SE = SE' = 90).
The
sections ab
and
sub-contrary.
Since
S
FIG. 3.
Projected
circle,
circle.
Remark. The center of the projected circle is the projection of the vertex of the right cone tangent to the sphere along
the given circle. Let C be the vertex of the right cone tangent Join CS, to the sphere along the given circle AB (Fig. 4).
The intersecting the equator in c and the sphere in D. marked a are equal as having the same measure (one angles
half arc
AD).
0, 7, d.
The
Law
and
sin
Sc6, gives:
ac
Sc
sin
sin 0,
cb
Sc
sin
5.
2 This reasoning rests on the theorem, "If, from any point in the circumference, a perpendicular is dropped on a diameter of a circle, the perpendicular is the mean proportional of the segments determined on the diameter," and its converse.
10
I.
ACD
CA,
sin
ft
= CD
sin 5
= CD
CB.
Since
CA = CB
(tangents
drawn
to the sphere
point), these ratios of sines are equal. c is the center of the projected circle. 3
Whence
FIG.
4.
Center of projected
circle.
Note that if the given circle is a great circle (but not a meridian, nor the equator itself) its projection will be a circle having a radius larger than that of the equator and cutting the equator at the ends of a diameter. A great circle cuts the
equator at the ends of a diameter of the latter; points on the equator are themselves their own stereographic projections.
3.
Second Property of the Stereographic Projection. angle between two circles is projected in true magnitude.*
The
The
8 The proof holds good if the given circle is a great circle; the right cone with circular base becomes a right cylinder with circular base. Make the construction. 4 A more general property of the stereographic projection is that the angle between any two curves on the sphere is projected in true magnitude. The property proved in the text, however, is sufficient This proof can be omitted in a first reading. for our purpose.
SECOND PROPERTY
angle between two circles
11
drawn on a sphere is equal to the We shall prove: (1) that the angle between their tangents. angle between the projected tangents is equal to the angle between the tangents; (2) that the projected tangents are tangent to the projected circles. Thus will be established the property that the angle between the projected circles is
equal to the angle between the
circles.
Fia. 5.
Consider (Fig. 5) the point P in which two given circles Let PT and PT' be the tangents to these circles; cut the plane of the equator in <, t' and the plane tangent they to the sphere at S in T, T'. Join PS, intersecting the plane The pro. of the equator in p the stereographic pole of P. Join ST and ST'. jected tangents are pi, pt
(1)
intersect.
The
triangles
are similar
(TT common;
and TT = T'S, as tangents drawn to the sphere from the same point). Hence, angle TPT' = angle TST'. Again, the triangles tpt' and TST' are similar (all sides parallel each to each; two parallel planes being intersected by any
TP = TS
12
I.
third plane along parallel lines). Hence, angle tpt' = angle TST'. It follows that the angle between the tangents (TPT') and the angle between the projected tangents (tpt') are equal.
FIG. 6.
circle.
*(2)
along the given circle PBC; let We know that the circle PBC
Consider (Fig. 6) a right cone tangent to the sphere A be the vertex of this cone.
is
We have seen that the projection of the vertex A is the center a of the projected circle. A generatrix AP of the right cone
is
circle.
Pt,
the
tangent to the given circle at P, is projected in pt (t in the plane of the equator). But the angle apt, being the angle between the projections of the tangents PA and Pt, is equal
to the angle between the tangents themselves, that 90. Hence, pt is tangent to the projected circle.
* Proofs believed to
is
to say
CHAPTER
II
CESARO'S KEY-TRIANGLES
1.
Consider a spherical
triangle
ABC.
Without
loss of generality,
is
we may suppose
that one of
its vertices
sphere. Project this triangle stereographically. The projected triangle A'B'C' (Fig. 7) will have a vertex A' at the
FIG. 7.
Stereographic projection.
its sides,
third side
angle-true,
C'A'B'
1
Ces&ro, G.
de
la trigonometric sphe*rique. Bull. Acad. roy. de Belgique (Cl. des Sc.), 1905, 434. Les formules de la trigonometric sphe"rique de"duites de la
projection stereographique du triangle. Emploi de cette projection dans les recherches sur la sphere. Bull. Acad. roy. de Belgique (Cl. des Sc.), 1905, 560.
13
14
II.
CESARO'S KEY-TRIANGLES
the external angle between the tangents easy to see that
Designate by meeting in T.
2E
It
is
A+B +C The
angle
180
2E.
2E ABC.
is
It
called the spherical excess of the spherical is equal to the excess over 180 of the sum
We
shall express it
The
and
its
follows, in
angles of the plane triangle A'B'C' are expressed as terms of the angles of the spherical triangle ABC
spherical excess 2E,
A'
A,
B'
= B -
E,
C'
= C -
E.
The
sides of
ical triangle
ABC
A'B'C' are functions of the sides of the spherTaking the radius of the sphere (Fig. 8).
FIG. 8.
we have
tan b'
c'
tan -
"TRIANGLE OF ELEMENTS"
15
Each of the quadrilaterals ABB'A' and ACC'A' has two opposite angles equal to 90 (one at A', by construction; the opposite one, as being inscribed in a semi-circle) and is,
therefore, inscribable in a circle.
Hence
= SA.SA' = SC.SC'
It follows that the angles
also concyclic.
.In
Fio.
9.
marked
/3
triangles
BC =
,
SC'
b sec H
SB,
or
2 sin
jr
2 cos
whence
a=
cos
8
cos
definition.
For those who prefer step-by-step derivations: B'C' a', by BC = 2 sin Ja, for the chord BC subtends an arc a and
the chord is equal to twice the sine of half the angle. SC', in the 1, is the secant of the angle right-angled triangle SC'A', where SA' A ? SC'. Finally, in the triangle SAB, where the angle at B is a right - SA cos ASB - 2 cos Jc. angle, SB
16
II.
CESARO'S KEY-TRIANGLES
The
triangle obtained
sides of
A'B'C' by
cos
cos
is
Cesaro's triangle of elements relative to the angle A (Fig. 9). Other "triangles of elements/* relative to the angles B
cyclic permutations.
lune
is
face
FIG. 10.
and
its
between two meridians, ABS and ACS. are called complementary when the two spherical For intriangles they determine on the sphere form a lune. stance (Fig. 8), the trihedra A'ABC and A'SBC are complethe area
ABSCA
Two trihedra
mentary. They have two edges, A'B and A'C, in common and the third edge, A'S, of one is the prolongation of the third edge, A A', of the other; the vertices A and S lie at the ends of a diameter, and the two spherical triangles ABC and SBC are seen to form a lune.
Designating by O the center of the sphere, consider a trihedron OABC, represented (Fig. 10) by its spherical triangle ABC. Produce the great circles BA and BC till they
meet, in D, thus forming a lune. The spherical triangle represents the complementary trihedron OADC. The parts of
ADC
'DERIVED TRIANGLE*
the triangle the triangle
17
are easily expressed in terms of those of One side, 6, is common; the angle at is equal to B; the other parts are the supplements of corresponding parts of the triangle ABC (Fig. 10). The spherical
ADC
ABC.
excess
is
180
B -
180
E).
cos 2 cos I
FIG. 11.
OADC.
Its six parts are tabulated below, together with those of the triangle of elements, relative to A, of the primitive trihedron
OABC.
OABC
For trihedron
OADC
18
II.
CESARO'S KEY-TRIANGLES
of the third angle
is
The expression
180
2E + E The new
Cesar o's
-C-B+E=A+ 180 =
A
E.
transformed as follows:
-(A + B +
C)
+E =A
The other parts are easily simplified. key-triangle can now be drawn (Fig. 11); it is derived triangle relative to the angle A. The derived
Other "derived triangles/' relative to the angles can be obtained by cyclic permutations.
3.
B and
C,
Polar Triangles. Consider a spherical triangle ABC and the corresponding trihedron OABC. Erect OA*, OB*, OC*, perpendicular to the faces of the trihedron, OBC, OCA, OAB,
respec-
The new
trihedron
OA*B*C*
determines, on the
sphere (Fig. 12), a triangle A*B*C*. The vertices, A*, B*, C*, are called the poles of the planes OBC, OCA, OAB,
respectively.
C*
FIG. 12.
Polar triangles.
A*B*C* is said to be the polar triangle of ABC. from the construction that ABC is the polar triangle of A*B*C*. Likewise, it follows that the angles of one triangle are the supplements of the sides of the other, and that the sides of one are the supplements of the angles of the other.
The
triangle
It follows
POLAR TRIANGLES
19
Hence the perimeter 2p* of A*B*C* is equal to 360 - 2E, and its spherical excess 2E* is equal to 360 2p, where 2E and 2p refer to the triangle ABC. In other words half the
spherical excess of one triangle perimeter of the other.
is
Both the
triangle of elements
and the
polar triangle
A*B*C*
FIG. 13.
FIG. 14.
(relative to a).
and
the triangle
Their sides and angles are functions of the parts of ABC, in particular of its semi-perimeter p. Analogous key-triangles, relative to b and c, can be obtained
14).
by
Remark.
remember how
to transform the
key-triangles of the primitive triangle into those of the polar Instead of a function of a half-side, write the triangle.
20
11.
CESARO'S KEY-TRIANGLES
a thus sin ^ becomes cos Z
,
^
1
jr
becomes cos
^ sin &
-^
etc.
&
Instead of an angle,
and (180
A becomes (180 a), becomes a. Instead of half the spherical exA) cess, E, write the supplement of half the perimeter (180 p). Instead of an angle minus half the spherical excess, write half the perimeter minus the side; thus (A a) E) becomes (p
write the supplement of the side; thus
etc.
since
4.
from
the key-triangles (which have been obtained without any restrictive hypothesis on the spherical triangle, and are therefore perfectly general) by applying to them the known formuEach formula of spherical trigolae of plane trigonometry. nometry can thus be derived independently of the others.
FIG. 15.
A'
2p'
The parts of a plane triangle by primed letters: A', B', C', the
sides f 2p'
be designated
the opposite
angles;
a'
+V+
c',
the perimeter.
The
nated by unprimed
A, B, C, the angles;
a, 6, c,
the
21
FIG. 16.
+B+C a + b + c =
c,
spherical triangle.
180
= 2E
2p
sides;
the
perimeter;
2E = A
+B+C
excess.
EXERCISES
1.
from
that relative to the angle A (Fig. 9) by cyclic permutations. 2. Same question for the triangle of elements relative to C.
Draw the derived triangles relative to the angles B and C. Derive, for the polar triangle, the triangle of elements and the derived triangle: (i) relative to the side b, (ii) relative to the side c.
3.
4. 5.
Show
=*
2Vsin p sin(p
a) sin(p
b) sin(p
c).
(A, called the sine of the trihedral angle, is a useful function of the face angles of the trihedron, which are the sides of the spherical
triangle.)
CHAPTER
III
HOW THE
1.
WORK
tween
1 Napier's analogies are relations beNapier's Analogies. five parts of a spherical triangle.
(1)
(2)
tan
B
.A
sin
^ cos ^
c
,
sin - cos ~
sm
-^
cot
sin
.6 cos
^
-f
sm
b cos ~
sm
c'
The
last
The
(Figs.
1$ and 14)
Delambre's Formulae. 2 Delambre's formulae are tions between all six parts of a spherical triangle.
1
rela-
Analogies
is
an archaic term
for
proportions.
NAPIER'S
23
co8j(B-C) ^ sin JA
cos J (B
sin
sin
j(b+c)
'
sin Ja
(3)
+ C) ^
JA
'
(4)
The Law
sm
sin
.
-
sin
-cos
am
sin
cos
sin (B
E)
(C
'
E)
sm
sin
a
o 2
Sm
+
:r
_ ~
sin(B-E)
a 2
sm
sin(C-E)
sin(B-E) - sin(C-E)
or
sm
2
sm
.b +
sm
2
....
Sm
A .A COS TT
TT
2 COS 77 COS
B-C S
sm
A
"
sm
B - C'
and Delambre's first two formulae follow immediately. The same method, applied to the derived triangle (Fig. yields the last two formulae.
3.
11),
Euler's Formula.
cos
E =
cos c
(5a)
4 cos
b c cos ~ cos ~
3 The value E of one-half the spherical excess is useful in calculating the area of a triangle. It is known from geometry (see Appendix 1) that the area of a spherical triangle is to the area of the sphere as E (expressed in degrees) is to 360.
24
III.
KEY-TRIANGLES PUT TO
is
WORK
This formula
obtained from the derived triangle (Fig. 11), of Cosines of plane trigonometry
/2
+
2
>2
_ ^V c'
cos A'.
We
sm2
.
have
6
sin 2
.
c -
cos 2 ~
d
t
+ cos
,
&
6 c ~ cos 2 ~ &
rt
2 cos
a
&
r.
u
6
c
.
^ = E
.
cos 2 ~
c
,/ + cos ^ cos g + sm - sm 6
.
\/
1
(
cos
cos
- sm b sm c\
. .
2 /
'
&
cos
-n
E =
o 9 a 2 cos 2 A
.o + 2 cos
&
cos &
+C
^ A
,
Formula.
perimeter p).
tan 2
oE = ^ L
(5b)
can be obtained directly from the derived triangle (Fig. 11) by expressing the tangent of half the angle E in terms of the sides. The plane trigonometry formula is
It
p'(p'
a')
We
have
o
f
2p
OL/
26
r
=
=
cos
6
-- cos a
~
t
/u
2p'
cos
-- +
c
,
a
cos
,
25
2p
2p'
2c
=
=
a
cos K cos ^
cos
+
^ ^
C
.
2a'
+
1
cos
Since
cos
cos
P P +
-
cos cos
Q = Q
tan
+ Q tan -* Q -= rr^2 2
,
P
* ,
we
,
are led to
tan2
75-
E =
tan
-- --- -a
b +c
tan
tan
+
a
b 4- c
-r
tan
which
is
Lhuilier's formula, as
2p
+b+
c.
*5. Cagnoli's Formula. Cagnoli's formula gives the half of the spherical excess in terms of the sides (and the semi-
perimeter p).
sin Hi
^ = Vsm
p sm(p
a) sin(p
r
6)
sm(p
c)
2 COS
a
jr
COS
COS
(5c)
The
11)
may
be
T'
or, in
terms of
its sides
and semi-perimeter, 4
=
4
i Vsin p sin(p
5,
a) sin(p
b)
sin(p
c).
Cp. Exercise
4, this
chapter.
26
III.
KEY-TRIANGLES PUT TO
WORK
The
Included Angle.
Spherical Excess in Terms of Two Sides and Their In a plane triangle, as a consequence of the
Law
of Sines,
cot B'
c'
- V
b'
cos A'
sin A'
in
This formula, applied to the derived triangle (Fig. 11), which the angles (180 E) are taken as A), E, (A
yields the desired relation
b c cos x cos
,
JJT
+
,
cot
E
T-,
.
sin
6 - sin
.
c
jr
fL
sin
A A
or
cot - cot ~
cot
E =
+ 4^ sin A
cos
A
(6)
EXERCISES
Express cosp formula to the polar triangle. 2. Derive the expression of cos p in terms of the angles from the derived triangle of the polar triangle (Fig. 14), in the same way as Euler's formula has been derived (Sn. 3). 3. From Napier's second analogy (1), derive a formula to calculate E in terms of two sides (6, c) and their included angle (A) 4. Show that, in a right-angled triangle (C = 90),
1.
.
in
tan
E =
tan - tan ^
Find sin
and cos
E
jr-
in
terms of the
sides.
Apply the
in Sn.
(6).
EXERCISES
6.
27
results obtained in the
(6)
from the
preceding exercise. 7. Derive Cagnoli's formula from Lhuilier's formula. 8. Gua's formula gives cot E in terms of the sides. Find what it is. 9. You now know six formulae by means of which, given the sides, the spherical excess can be calculated. Which one would you prefer
if you had to depend on logarithmic calculations? Which one would be easiest to use if a calculating machine were available? 10. The sides of a spherical triangle are a = 3526', 6 = 4215', c 1822'. Calculate the spherical excess by two different formulae.
CHAPTER
IV
One
Angle.
Ap-
plying the
Law
fc'2
c '2
_ ^V c'
cos A'
we
get
sin2
2 ^ cos ~
c b sin 2 ~ cos 2 ~
sm
cos H sin
b cos ~ cos A.
.
In view of
2 sin2 t
cos x,
2 cos 2 ~ A
cos x\
by
4,
may
be written
(1
(1
+ cos c) + cos b) +
cos a
cos b cos c
(7)
angle
expressed: The cosine of the side opposite the given equal to the product of the cosines of the other two sides, plus the product of the sines of these two sides times the cosine of the given angle.
This
is
is
Used
OBLIQUE-ANGLED TRIANGLES
2.
29
Sides. 2
Expression of the Half-Angles in Terms of the Three The following formulae of plane trigonometry
'
l
V)(p'
c')
A'
COS'
_ p '(p> -
fl ')
6V
p'(p>
6V
a')
We have
n
,
2p'
2a'
= sm
.
c +--h
.
sin
a -
n 2
sm p
.
cos
2p'
sin
sm
.a = ^
a
,
p - a p n 2 sin cos ^
.
etc.
These formulae are easily remembered on account of their similarity with the corresponding formulae of plane trigonometry.
3.
Relation between
Sides and Their Opposite Angles. 3 of Sines of plane trigonometry to the derived
Two
triangle relative to
(Fig. 11).
a
cos
sin
sm
sm
sinE
Used Used
in Ex. 1, 18, 19, 20 (Ch. VIII). in Ex. 18, 21, 25, 27 (Ch. VIII).
30
IV.
sin a sin
2 sin
pr
222
a
b sm .
.
sin
sin
we
get
.
sin 6
sin
__
222
sin
right-hand
which was to be expected from the symmetrical form of the member of the above equations. Hence
sm
sin
__ ~~
sin b
sin
'
(9)
This
is
expressed:
The
Relation between the Three Angles and One Side. 4 The Law of Cosines of plane trigonometry is applied to the triangle The method is of elements of the polar triangle (Fig. 13).
the
same as
cos
formula (Sn.
1).
A =
cos
cos
sin
sin
cos a.
(10)
larity with
This formula is easily remembered on account of its simiformula (7). Note the minus sign in the second member, however.
5.
Angles.
Expression of the Half-Sides in Terms of the Three 6 The method used in Sn. 2 could be applied to the Another triangle of elements of the polar triangle (Fig. 13).
OBLIQUE-ANGLED TRIANGLES
31
method does not require the use of the polar triangle. Draw the two key-triangles relative to B and those relative to C. The Law of Sines of plane trigonometry, applied to the triangle of elements relative to C, gives
sin(A
sin
sm
E)
a
cos
sn
sin sin
E B
Sin
sm
a
2
b~
COS?:
a 2
sin
sin(A
..
E)
sin
sin
(lla)
Likewise, the
Law
elements relative to
B and
between B,
E, and the opposite sides; the other, between and the opposite sides. These two relations, C, E, multiplied by each other, give
cos
sin(B
E) sin(C
E)
(lib)
sin
sin
Finally, the Law of Sines may be applied to both keytriangles relative to B, giving the relations
sin
sm
E)
cos
sm
sin(B
sm(A
a
'
/ A
cos ~
sin(C v
T-\
sin
E) E) 7
~
.
sm H
a c r cos o 2 2 a c
cos H
'
32
IV.
which, multiplied
other, lead to
sin
sin(B
E sin(A E) - E) sin(C -
'
E)
(He)
The
last
ceding two.
The formulae (11) can only be remembered after careful comparison with the formulae (8). Note the deceiving similarity between (8a) and (lib), etc.
6. Relation between Two Sides, their Included Angle, and the Angle Opposite One of them (that is to say, between four consecutive parts). 6 Napier's first two analogies, as read from
b
-
__n
Sin
~2~
2
cot
.0 _,
sin
A+B tan
A
cos-
cos
can be obtained from these two which is easily done as follows. equations by eliminating B,
relation
between
a, 6,
C,
Since
A.
A-B
2
A+B
2
'
we may
write
tan
A -B
.
tan
^
A+B
2
tan
A
1
tan
A -
A+ B tan
_ ~ N D'
Used
OBLIQUE-ANGLED TRIANGLES
where
r
.
33
sin
g-6 _
a
cos
b}
cot
b
-
N =
sm
o 2
cos
sm
a cos
~-
sin(a
+ +
b) sin
_ ^
Q
2 6) sin =-
and
D =
=
-pr
sin(a
2 b) sin -^ 2i
C
sin(a
6)
cos 2
C
7^2t
_
2 6) sin
TT-
sin (a
Substituting for
and
gives
tan
__
A
sin a sin
C
2
sn a cos 6 ( sin2
whence
sin 6 cos a
~ cos2
o")
+sin6cosaf sin
C =
sin a sin
cot A,
or,
on dividing by
a and transposing,
cot a sin b
cos 6 cos
C +
sin
cot A.
(12)
34
IV.
This
is
(Note the
in the sequence of the trigonometric functions: cot-sin-cos It is expressed: The cotangent cos-sin-cot.)
symmetry
is
one of the given angles times the sine of equal to the cosine of the latter times the
cosine of the included angle, plus the sine of the latter times the cotangent of the angle opposite the first side.
Remark.
Formula
(12) is
cos b cos
It is
C =
sin b cot a
sin
cot A.
(12a)
and the angle that are not opposite any given part is equal to the difference of their sines, each multiplied by a cotangent, respectively that of the given side and the given angle that
are opposite each other.
EXERCISES
1. Express cosp in terms of the angles, by using Delambre's formulae and formula (7). Hint:
P
2.
Ja 4- J(&
+ c).
Transform formula (lib) into formula (10). Hint: To elimimultiply both members by 2 and change the product of two sines in the numerator into a difference of two cosines. 3. Derive formula (10) by applying formula (7) to the polar
nate
triangle.
4.
elements of the polar triangle. 5. Derive formula (12) from Napier's last two analogies (2). Then replace 6. Write the formula giving cos c in terms of o, 6, C. cose in tne formula (7) by the value just found and, using the
proportionality of the sines of sides and opposite angles, derive formula (12). 7. Let 2S designate the sum of the angles of a spherical triangle.
What form
EXERCISES
8. From formulae (8a) and Show that it is equivalent to
35
(8b), find
an expression of
sin A.
sin
1
:
sin 6 sin c
Vl
cos 2 a
cos 2 6
cos2 c
c.
*9. expression of sin A, in terms of the sides, found from formulae (8a) and (8b) can also be obtained directly from the triangle
The
by applying
to
it
CHAPTER
RIGHT-ANGLED TRIANGLES
1. The Right-Angled Triangle, a Special Case of the ObliqueAngled Triangle. The formulae established in the preceding chapter give relations between four parts of a triangle. Of these parts, at least one is necessarily an angle. By letting an angle equal 90, a formula derived for the general case of an oblique-angled triangle is transformed into a relation between three parts (other than the right angle) of a right-angled
triangle.
angled at C.
convention l the triangle ABC is made rightIt may be necessary to rearrange the general formulae by permutation of letters, so that the angle which is to become the right angle be labeled C. The side opposite
By
will therefore
be the hypotenuse
c.
There are
six different
ways
from
the five parts (other than the right angle) of a right-angled The hypotenuse may be taken, either with the triangle.
other two sides, or with the two angles other than the right In the latter case, the angle, or with one side and one angle. angle may be opposite the chosen side or adjacent to it. If
the hypotenuse
is
not chosen, there are only two possibilities necessarily opposite one of the angles;
:
angle,
necessarily
opposite one of
Right-angled triangles are always with us. The six relations about to be derived have therefore proved to be very You will find it advantageous to commit useful in practice.
them
1
to
memory, preferably
in the
than equations.
This convention
is
not universal.
36
37
Two
Two
Sides or
Formula
may
be written
cos a cos 6 -f sin a sin b cos C.
cos c
It
8 becomes, for
C = 90,
cos c
cos a cos
b.
(13)
Formula
(10)
may
be written
cos
cos
It
C =
cos
sin
A sin B
cos
c.
becomes
cos c
cot
cot B.
(14)
This is expressed: The cosine of the hypotenuse is equal to the product of the cosines of the two sides, or the product of the cotangents of the two angles.
3.
Angle.
Relations between the Hypotenuse, One Side, and The Ratios of Sines and Tangents.
(9)
One
Formula
may
be written
sin c sin
sin a sin
"
It
5 becomes, for
C = 90,
sin
sin c sin
J The terms sides and angles, when applied to a right-angled triangle, are construed to mean sides other than the hypotenuse and angles other than the right angle. Formula (13) is used in Ex. 3, 7, 15, 17, 29 (Ch. VIII). * Formula (14) is used in Ex. 9, 12, 26 (Ch. VIII). 5 Formula (15) is used in Ex. 4, 14, 23, 24, 29 (Ch. VIII).
38
V.
RIGHT-ANGLED TRIANGLES
or
(15)
Formula
(12)
may
be written
cot c sin a
It
=
cos
cos a cos
sin
cot C.
becomes
B =
cot c tan a
or
(16)
With respect
whereas
is
The
In each case
consider the side and the hypotenuse; the ratio of their sines is equal to the sine of the opposite angle, the ratio of their
tangents
is
Remark.
equal to the cosine of the adjacent angle. Compare the definitions of sine and cosine in a
cos B'
a'/c'.
4. Relations between Two Angles and One Side, or between Two Sides and One Angle. The Ratios of Cosines and Cotangents. Formula (10),
cos
A =
cos
cos
C +
sin
sin
cos a,
7 becomes, on letting
cos a
or
(17)
Formula Formula
(16) is (17) is
NAPIER'S RULE
Formula
(12),
cot a sin b
8 becomes, for
cos b cos
sin
cot A,
C = 90,
cot a sin b
cot
A
(18)
or
The
relations are
remembered
as follows.
In each case
consider an angle and its opposite side; the ratio of their cosines is equal to the sine of the other angle, the ratio of their cotangents is equal to the sine of the other side.
Remark.
Notice that
all
Napier's Rule. Although some people prefer to memorize the preceding formulae as such, Napier's rule, which includes all the possible relations between any three parts of a right-
angled triangle,
may
FIG. 17.
Napier's rule.
In the triangle ABC, right-angled at C, ignore the right angle; then, the hypotenuse, the other two angles, and the
8
Formula
(18)
is
used in Ex.
7, 15,
17 (Ch. VIII).
40
V.
RIGHT-ANGLED TRIANGLES
The
any
rule
is
expressed as follows.
The cosine
of
product
of the sines of the opposite parts or the product of the cotangents of the adjacent parts.
cos a cos b
sin
cot
cot B,
b,
cos
A =
cos a
cot c tan
A tan a.
It is a theorem,
This amazing rule is more than just a mnemonic trick. which was given with a separate proof 9 check that the ten relations yielded by the some duplication, to the formulae (13)
by Napier.
It is easy to
Napier's proof
is
CHAPTER
VI
EXAMPLES OF CALCULATIONS
1.
Solution of Triangles. 1
(i)
Oblique-angled triangles.
Three parts being given, any fourth part may be calculated by one of the formulae (7) to (12). To find an angle in terms of the three sides, use one of the formulae (8), giving the halfangle. Likewise, to find a side in terms of the three angles, use one of the formulae (11), giving the half-side. In all other cases, use one of the fundamental formulae (7), (9),
(10), (12).
(ii)
Right-angled triangles.
being given, besides the right angle, any third calculated by one of the formulae (13) to (18). Find the appropriate formula or use Napier's rule.
isosceles triangle is divided into
by an
arc
two right-angled tridrawn from the vertex at right angles to the Isosbisects the base and the opposite angle.
be solved like oblique-angled triangles fundamental formulae; formulae (8) and (11) should be avoided, as they would complicate the calculations.
may also
by means
of the
(iii)
polar triangle of a right-sided triangle is right-angled; Napier's rule may be used to solve the polar triangle, from
The
then computed.
(Introduction, Sn. 2) that any angle or any side of is less than 180. It follows that a case of ambiguity will present itself whenever a part is to be calculated by a formula that gives its sine (two supplementary angles having
We have seen
a spherical triangle
equal sines).
41
42
VI.
EXAMPLES OF CALCULATIONS
by the funda-
90.
to Logarithmic
(i)
Computation.
sin b sin c cos A.
c),
cos b cos c
either a, b (or
6:
or A.
If
the un-
sum
of
two
angles.
Let
cot
=
.
tan b cos A,
c
then
cos a
or
cos a
cos b
, (sm u cos
sm
u) -
cos u)
cos 6 sin(c
sm u
r-^
+
!
If
the
unknown
is c,
sin(c -f w)
cos a sin
cos b
(8),
which are
FORMULA: cot a
sin 6
cos b cos
-f-
sin
cot A.
If
the
unknown
cot a
A
is a,
we
r
write
cot 61 cos \
.
j.
sin
cot
r
A\
)
.
cos 6
Let
cot v
cot
cos 6
LOGARITHMIC COMPUTATION
then
cot a
43
cot b
.
t;
sin
(sin v cos
or
.
cot a
-cot 6 sin(C
sin v
C +
sin
cos
v)
~ +
t;)
If
the
unknown
is
If
the
unknown
A
is 6,
we
write
cot al sin o \
cos b
,cosC\ = 1
sin
cot a /
cot A.
Let
tan
w =
cos
7
C
,
cot a
then
COt d cos
or
.
(sin o cos
sin
cos 6)
f \
SI = sm G
cot
,,
sm(6
If
w)
is
sin
cot
T
cos
w
.
cot a
the
unknown
cot
A =
.
w) -
(iii)
FORMULA: cos
is
A =
cos
cos
first
cot x
If
tan
cos a.
the
unknown
is
A,
cos
A =
.
cos
sin(C r-^ sm x
x)
.
44
VI.
EXAMPLES OF CALCULATIONS
is
If
the
unknown
C,
,~
x
sm(C
x)
cos
sin x
cos
5 B
(11),
which are
Numerical Calculations.
either
by means
of logarithms
or with a calculating machine (in which case tables of natural values of the trigonometric functions are necessary). In either case, a neat calculation form is essential.
(i)
By
logarithms.
Then
sheet.
it
by their actual values). write the given parts near the left margin of the Avoid writing the word log as much as possible, use
only in front of those logarithms which may be needed again in the course of the calculations. Write the minus 2 sign over a negative characteristic, so as to avoid the cum1
2)3.34
2__
2)3.34
_
13 12
13 12
14 14
14 14
left,
you say: 2
etc.
in 3 goes 1,
1X2
2,
In the division on the = 1, 3 1 = 1, bring down 3, right, you say: 2 in 3 goes 2, 2 in 13 The only difference is that, in the second case, you etc. take the first partial quotient by excess in order to get a positive remainder.
3,
2 in 13
2X2
FIRST EXAMPLE
45
bersome addition and subtraction of 10. In most cases there is no advantage in adding the cologarithm rather than subtracting the logarithm itself; in a simple division, especially, this amounts to making a subtraction and an addition instead
of
one subtraction only. Write the result near the left margin of the page. A second formula may be used as a check. This can be done in two ways: either the solution is carried out in duplicate, by means of two formulae; or a relation between the given parts and the result is verified afterwards. In the course of long calculations (involving a whole chain of triangles, for instance) it is well to check the results from time
to time, before proceeding.
(ii)
With
the calculating
machine.
Write the formula across the page. Copy only those may be used again in the course of the calculations. Write the data and the result near the left
natural values that
margin
4. First
of the page.
Example.
of a triangle, solve for one angle.
2.216 2315
The
example on the
46
VI.
EXAMPLES OF CALCULATIONS
(A)
Sin 2
.
SOLUTION BY LOGARITHMS
:
A
-pr
sin (p
6) sin (p :
c)
COS 3
A
7j-
==
sin
p sin(p
-.
a)
.
sin o sin c
sin o
sm
a
b
c
(6315'10") (5048'20")
2p
p
a
//
(3137'35") (8225'55")
8449 -T.840 1567 A T.875 6882 = 1.937 8441 log cos 2 8462
21 12
<-
8 9
2955'41.7"
p~c
- 3137'35" - 1910'45"
T.719 6446 T.516 5358 303 T.236 2107 -T.840 1567 <T.396 0540 A ~ = 1.698 0270 log sin 2 0204 66 36 6 29 4
.. ..
- 2955'41.8"
The answer
to the closest second
is
A -
5951'23.6"
5951 24 //
/
To find the supplement of an angle, write down Suggestion the figures from left to right as you mentally increase the
FIRST EXAMPLE
47
given angle to 17959'(50/10)". Example: given 14822'25". Write 31 while saying 179, 37' while saying 59, 3 while
saying 50,
(B)
10.
A =
.
cos a
cos 6 cos c
:
sin o sin c
cos
cos
sin
a=
b
c
0.6319542 ..........
0.450 0551 .......... 0.893 0008 0.631 9542 .......... 0.775 0058
A =
5951'23.6".
formula: Check e
i
23 3
i
2 tan *
A = ^
2
sin(p
sin
6) sin(p 1
r
(
~;
a)
c)
.
psm(p
2p = 29644'50" p = 14822'25" (3137'35") .................... 0.524 3575 // 206 p - a = 9734' 5" (8225 55 ) ... 0.991 2859,
/
.
. .
_
_
tan 8
tan
32 0.991 2891
0.524 3781
p p
b
c
= 3137'35"
0.331 4101
=
2
=
L
29 55'41.8"
51 4
A -
5951'23.6
/;
.
48
5.
VI.
EXAMPLES OF CALCULATIONS
Second Example.
Given the three angles
of
sides.
(A)
Sin 2
.
SOLUTION BY LOGARITHMS
~ E)
a
p:
sin
E sin(A :
B sm sm ^5-^ C
Sin 2 .
. b Sin 2 .
sin
sm C
E sin(B - E) ^ sin A
:
--
'-
= sinEsin(C ^5 E) T sin A sm B
: :
--
A = B = C =
6647' 0" 4230'40" T 829 7752 9720'30". .T.996 4249 20638'10" T.826 2001
.
. .
...
T.963 3253
... T. ...
.
... T.
_
963 3253
T 829 7752
T.793 1005
2E - 2638'10"
E =
A -E = B -E C -E =
T.362 4003 445 5327'55"..1.904 9760 78 2911'35" .............. T.688 1819 188 84 1'25" .......... ____ .......... T.267 3841 T.050 6010 -1.826 2001 -1.959 7502
1.362 4003
,.1.441 1840
log sin.
h T.090 8508
316 280 35 5
T.997 6331 T.360 0334 -T.793 1005 ,1.566 9329 T.783 4664 2 4575 89 82 8 5
. .
62
= 3142'12.5"
c 2p a
b
6324'25.0 /;
41 6'31.2" 74 48 6.4" 179 19' 2.6"
;
Check formula
tan 2 -^
i
= tan ^ tan
&
tan
& &
tan
^r &
SECOND EXAMPLE
p
49
- 8939'31 3"
.
ip
- 4449'45
- 2615'
6.3"
J(p
a)
13
7'33.1"
p-c=
- 4833
0.1" 1451'24.9"
i(p
6)
- 2416'30.0"
725'42.4"
|(p-c)
3 6 5
F = ~
E = 1319'
(fi)
639'32.4"
4.8"
COS a
SOLUTION BY NATURAL VALUES AND CALCULATING MACHINE cos cos cos = cos B + -^T-- C 1cos A = cos A + ^ B7= C COS sin C sm A sin B sin C cos C -f cos A cos B COS C = 1 B sm A sin r;
,
: :
>
cos
sin
A B = C =
a
20638
10
//
= 6324'25.0"
41
6'31.3"
7448' 6.5"
0.262 1589
1892 303 280 8 22 2
50
VI.
EXAMPLES OF CALCULATIONS
Check formula:
E
0.850 7602
177 8 12 7
Ja
as
* -f
cos a
A
-f-
cos 5 4- cos c
b
c
3142'12.5"
i&
2033'15.6"
Jc
3724' 3.2"
0.794 4052
58 56
E = 1319
2E
6.
5.2"
2638
10.4".
Third Example.
In a triangle known: a =
are
ABC, right-angled at C, the following parts 5936 30 b = 6422'. Find the angle A.
/
//
(A)
SOLUTION BY LOGARITHMS
sin b
cot
A tan a,
tana
sin 6
hence
tan
o
6
- 5936 30"
/
;
0.231 7312
6422
-T.955 0047
log tan
A -
0.276 7265
167
A -
98
62
7'52".
GEOGRAPHICAL PROBLEM
(B)
51
tan
A
=
.891 1522
QM
1COO
~428
A
7.
62
Fourth Example.
Given the geographical coordinates of two points A and B on a sphere, find the spherical distance between these two
points.
Let
L and M,
L' and M' be the longitudes and latitudes of and B, respectively (Fig. 18). Let x be the
FIG. 18.
Geographical problem.
The formula
(7),
NAB,
immediately
cos x
If
sin
L').
the calculation
cos x
to be
made by
logarithms, write
L')].
sin
M'[sin
Let
cot
M'
tan
52
VI.
EXAMPLES OF CALCULATIONS
We have
then
cos x
= _
sin
M'
cos
sin
(sin
M cos w + cos M sm w)
_
..
,
.,,.
M' sin(M
cos
w)
8.
Numerical Application.
lat.
York, 3748'N., Assume the earth to be spherical and take long. 12224'W. its radius to be 3960 miles. What is the spherical distance (in degrees and minutes) between New York and San Francisco? What is the actual
Take the
New
4043'N., long.
lat.
The coordinates being accurate to half distance (in miles)? a minute, with what precision can you give the distance?
(A)
SOLUTION BY LOGARITHMS
Let L, L' be the longitudes of San Francisco and Let M, M' be their latitudes.
tan
New York.
-f-
w =
cot
j.** f
M'
/T
cos(L v
f\
), '
cos x
sin
M'sin(M
cos
w)
.
M' L
L'
L -
0.065 1775
M M+w
3738'35.5" 3748'
7526 35.5
//
log cos
w =
NUMERICAL APPLICATION
M'
53
M+
ti;
log
coax =
814 4600 T.985 8270 27 5 2 8 T.800 2900 1.898 6316 T.901 6584 6649 65
T.
37
7'14.1"
636
1
The answer
Length
is
37
7'.
on the earth (R
2
TT
2wR =
Length
24,881. 42 miles
of
1,
1',
1"
_
4.395 8751
_
4.395 8751
__
27rR
4.395 8751
360
21,600' 1,296,000"
0.0614213
0.8450981
37
1.568 2017
V
3.407 7743 7647
96
14.1"
0.906 5194 82
12
37
7
14. 1"
2,557 25
.
The
is
error
on
8 0634 0.2707
.
J' is
more than
i mile.
The answer
2,565.58
2565* miles.
54
VI.
EXAMPLES OF CALCULATIONS
SOLUTION BY NATURAL VALUES AND CALCULATING MACHINE = sin M sin M' + cos M cos M' cos(L L')cos x L = 12224'30" M 3748'.. 0.6129071 0.7901550 M' 4043' L' = 74 0' 0" X 0.652 3189 X 0.757 9446 X 0.663 8174 L - I/ = 4824'30"
(B)
. .
cosx
3-37
7'14.2"
58
1.
J'
....
0.6478807
x
J'
X =
3960 2565.6
is
The answer
2565 i miles.
CHAPTER
VII
PROBLEMS
1. Let ABC be a tri-rectangular triangle (all angles and sides equal to 90) ; let p, q, r be the spherical distances from any point P inside the triangle to the vertices A, B, C, respectively
(Fig. 19).
Prove that
cos 2 p
cos 2 q
cos 2
1.
90,
FIG. 19. Distances from a point inside a tri-rectangular triangle to the vertices.
In the triangle
CAP, by formula
cos p
(7),
sin r cos x.
BCP,
sin r sin x.
x,
we
get
cos2 q
sin2 r
cos2
r,
relation. 55
56
VII.
PROBLEMS
ABC.
Prove
2.
point
P is located
be
its
Let
that
x, y, z
sin 2 x
sin 2 y
sin 2 2
1.
90
FIG. 20.
PC and
y, z
let
these arcs be p,
q, r.
BC, CA,
and
AB
in
D,
u,
CE =
AF =
w.
The two
relations:
right-angled triangles
BDP
GDP
yield the
cos q
cos x cos u
cos r
cos x sin u.
On
we
get
2
= = =
cos q cos 2 r
cos2
2
r.
Likewise,
cos 2 y cos 2 z
cos 2 p
+ cos + cos
p,
2
q.
2 addition, and in view of the fact that cos p = 1, these three equations give cos r
On
2
cos 2 q
(sin
sin 2 y
sin 2 z)
2,
relation.
PROBLEMS
3.
57
q, r and />', q' r' be angles which two straight lines and OP' make with Cartesian coordinate axes (Fig. 21). Prove that the angle x between these two directions is given by
Let p,
OP
cos x
cos q cos
q'
cos
cos
r'.
FIG. 21.
as center. Let Consider a sphere drawn with the origin the radius of that sphere be taken as the unit of length. Produce the arcs ZP and ZP' to their intersections, Q and Q',
XQ' =
y'.
cos r cos
r'
sin r sin
r'
cos (y
y),
cos x
cos r cos
r'
sin r sin
r'
+
In the triangle
sin r sin
r'
sin
?/'
sin y.
XPQ:
cos p
sin r cos y.
58
VII.
PROBLEMS
In the triangle
XFQ':
cos p
f
sin
r'
cos y
f
.
YPQ
and YP'Q':
q'
sin r sin y,
cos
sin
r'
sin y'.
Hence
cos x
4.
cos r cos
r'
cos q cos
#'.
ABC
BD =
p and
AD
(Fig. 22), an arc x, drawn through one determines on the opposite side c the arcs = q. Prove that x is given by
sin c cos x
sin
p cos 6
c
sin q cos a.
FIG. 22.
CDB.
We
p
<?
have
= =
cos
sin
sin
Multiply the first equation by sin q, the second by sin and add the two together, so as to eliminate y. We get
sin q cos a
sin
p cos
sin (p
q) cos x,
which
is
may
also be written
PROBLEMS
in the
59
form
cos x
sin
p cos
r^
sin q cos a -
sine
Applications.
(i)
median in terms of
q
,
the sides.
In this case, p
.
^c.
The
,
c
jr
<u
sin
(cos a
+
.
cos 6)
a
cos
+
^ L
a
cos
c
b ~
COS X
=
sm
c
cos
-=
(ii)
ACD =
angle
,
BCD =
sin q
sin
^C.
We
'
have
__
sin a sin y
sin sin
sin b
sin
i/
whence
p
<?
sin a
'
sin 6
Now,
since
c,
sin(c
q) ~~ sin
a
'
sin q
sin 6
which leads to
,
cot q
sin a
Hence
1
vsin
b sin c
sin q
Vl
cot 2 q
Vsin 2 a
sin 2 6
Vsin a
sin 2 6 -f 2 sin
a sin 6 cos
60
VII.
PROBLEMS
becomes
On
cos x
Vsin 2 a
(iii)
sin (a
sin 2 6
An
In this case, y = 180 - y = 90. The general formula, thanks to the formulae of right-angled triangles cos a = cos x cos p and cos b = cos x cos q, can be simplified as follows
cos x
cos a cos p
cos b
.
cos q
From
the relation
cos
cos a
cos b
'
cos q
by transformations
,
(ii),
we deduce
tan q
cos a
cos b cos c
j
-7
cos 6 sin c
whence
1
__
^
/.
J.
, |
VlAlli
Vcos2 a
cos 2 6
_
cos q
cos o sin c
It follows that
cos x
= -1
sin c
Vcos2 a
cos 2 6
c.
5. A point P is located (Fig. 23) between two great circles AC and BC. The distances from P to these great circles are p and g, respectively. The angle ACB between the great circles is C. What is the distance x from P to the intersec-
Let
ACP =
sin
y,
whence
BCP = C sin q
y.
The two
right-
sin
x sin
y,
sin x sin
(C
y).
PROBLEMS
Eliminate
y.
61
The
first
equation gives
cos y
sin y
sm = -T p
whence
=
get
cos
"""
sn
we
p
sin
C Vsin 2 x
c
sin 2
sin p.
FIG. 23.
sin'
sm* p
(sin q
^^
2
cos
sin
2 t>)
,
whence
sin2 x
sin 2
sin 2
+ sin
+ cos C sin
2
sin 2
and, finally,
Sm
~
si n
Vsin 2 p
sin 2 5
in the
Numerical Application. What is the latitude of a point Northern hemisphere, knowing its distances from the zero meridian (45) and from the 90-meridian (30)?
62
VII.
PROBLEMS
The above formula becomes
Let
L be
the latitude.
cos
L =
T
Vsin 2 45
^ cos L = -whence
Remark.
is
sin 2
30,
L = 30.
Note
that, in this particular example, the point
sin 2
30
sin 2
L =
1.
6.
connects the middle points of two sides is proportional to the cosine of half the third side ; the factor of proportionality is the cosine of one half of the spherical excess.
Required
to prove:
cos x
cos
cos -
*)'
cos y
cos
=
.
cos
E cos ^
h
>
cos z
cos -
FIG. 24.
Proof.
In the triangle
cos x
AEF,
c
cos ~ cos 5
+ sin ^ sm ^ cos A.
,
PROBLEMS
In the triangle
cos a
63
ABC,
cos b cos c
Taking cos
values,
we
get
b
c
COS X
.
COS 2
.
COS
c
jr
cos a
.
cos b cos
.
b sm -
sm x
c'
Hence
cos a
cosx
=
A 4 COS
C
jr
COS
jr
cos a
2 cos 2 o
X 4 COS
2 cos2
pr
2i
COS ^
tli
-CQS a
(1
cos 6)
(1
cos
c)
5 c 4 cos - cos ^ z ^
^
1 -f
cos a
.
c 6 4 cos ~ cos ^
+ Tcos 6 +
cos c
-=
is
equal to cos
(Euler's
Hence
cos x
cos
cos ~
64
VII.
PROBLEMS
*Second Proof.
In a plane triangle
c'
a'
cos B'
b'
cos A'.
This formula, applied to the derived triangle (Fig. 11), where A' = 180 - A, B' = E, C' = A - E, gives
cos
or
55
2t
be =
cos K &
a
cos ~ cos Z
b
^ E
c
sm ^ sm
~ cos
&
A
.
cos
^ E
a
cos n A
cos o cos 5 A
+
,
b c sm - sm ^ cos
. .
A,
(Fig. 24).
in the triangle
AEF
cos
cos ~ &
o
FIG. 25.
Geometrical construction
(perspective drawing).
Construction.
center
Join (Fig. 25) the vertices A, B, of the sphere of unit radius (OA =
PROBLEMS
Join
to the middle points
65
of the sides b
E and F
and
c.
Draw
of
the chords
intersection of
AB, BC, and CA. Join H, the point of OE and CA, to K, the point of intersection
OF
and AB.
The formula giving a relation between the three Proof. sides and one of the angles of a plane triangle is applied to
the triangle OHK. Since the angle COA
6,
we have,
cos ~
.
in the plane
OCA,
OH =
Likewise
OK =
Since
COS
j:
is
the middle point of the arc CA, is the middle is the middle point of CA. Likewise,
AB.
K ABC, HK =
C*H\
~ ^ = sin & A
n.
,
for
is
CB =
2 sin
Now
the angle
EOF is
in the triangle
EF = x. OHK,
#,
cos2 ~ U
cos2 ~
Li
whence
cos x
2 cos2 ~ z
2 cos2 |
b
A 4 cos
cos
&
^ A
cos
cos x
= =
-^
(1
+
E
cos 6) (1 ^-i-^
.
+ L
4 COS
COS X
COS
COS x
.
a
<r
T b
^
c)
(1
cos a)
a
cos x
a
COS
' ,
COS
COS
66
VII.
PROBLEMS
7. The area of an equilateral triangle is S/n, where S designates the area of the sphere. Find the side x of the triangle. Let A be the angle of the triangle. By Girard's theorem
(Appendix
I),
whence
A =
.
+
n
no 60
formula (10)
A =
cos 2
A+
sin 2
A cos x,
cos x
1
A
A
cos
.
cos
2 sm*
A A
COS X
Numerical Application.
cos
(
Take n =
4.
Show
that x *arc
-J).
cos 120
-\
180
y,
where
log
cos y
J.
cosy
= 7031'43.6"
109 28'16.4".
PROBLEMS
67
8. Given the dihedral angle (or edge angle) a between two slant faces of a regular n-sided pyramid, calculate the face angle x between two adjacent slant edges (Fig. 26).
Fio. 26.
regular pyramid.
The base
of the
pyramid
is
equal to
^-? 180.
n
sphere, so as to replace Decomposing this
triangles,
two right-angled
we
get im-
mediately
ot y sm ^ = sm ^
.
.
x cos ~
>
whence
x
COS^r 2
sin
.
Q()0
sm-
68
VII.
PROBLEMS
is
Discussion.
The problem
X
possible only
if
<
x
cos ~
4U
<
1-
It is
cannot be negative, as
first
must be
The
sin
condition
demands
90
>
0, '
3.
Note that
sin
-= is
always positive,
The second
conditions requires
sin
75
>
sin
n
is
90,
that
is
to say
>
180, which
let
Numerical Application. In a regular hexagonal pyramid, a = 170. The general formula becomes
x
COS
sin 60
1
sin 85
log cos
=
I
1.939 1864
1953 89 84
5
x
9.
I
5914'14.8".
= 2937'7.4"
Volume of a parallelepiped. Let OA = a, OB = 6, OC = c, be three edges making with one another (Fig. 27) the angles BOG = a, COA = ft AOB = 7. Through C pass a plane normal to OA and con-
taining
CD,
AOB.
The
angle
PROBLEMS
69
CED = A
is
Draw
the
FIG. 27.
Volume
of a parallelepiped.
V =
But
ab sin y
CD =
A
ab sin
CE sin A =
abc sin
sin
/3
sin A.
sin
A =
=
2 sin
cos
A
a) sin (p
sin
/3
2 Vsin p sin (p
ff)
sin (p
7)
'
sin
7
(8).
in
which 2p
= a +
7,
It follows that
V =
a) sin (p
0) sin (p
7).
a,
/?
= 7 =
.
a)
V =
TT-
2a 3
sin 3
a
-=
Volume
of a right-angled parallelepiped (a
= 7 = 90)
V =
Volume
of a
a6c.
cube
(6
a,
a =
a3
.
j3
= 7 = 90)
V =
CHAPTER
VIII
1
EXERCISES
.
1. The face angles of a trihedron measure 50. the dihedral angles (edge angles)
Calculate one of
2. 3.
In a triangle
ABC,
Two
triangles
= 45, c = 60, A = 30. Find B. and BCD, both right-angled at C, have a angle in common, BC = 5936'30". The other
given b
ABC
is
known
in each case:
CA =
6422',
CD
4.
52
5'.
AB
and BD.
Given, in a right-angled triangle (C = 90), cose = 1/V3 and Calculate the other two angles, each from the data only, and express the area of the triangle as a fraction of the area S of the
b
45.
(B
E)
4,
then
if
E)
sin %(b
+ c)/sin \a.
+
the angles of a plane triangle A'B'C' are 2 3 4, then 2 cos JA' = (a' c')/b'.] 6. An equilateral triangle ABC, with a = b = c = 30, is drawn on a sphere of radius R. Find the area of the triangle expressed in
:
known that
B'
:
C'
dm2 if R =
7.
O" be the
intersecting in the
8.
same vertex C.
middle points of the three edges of a cube Calculate the elements of the
B = 78.
Find
the side a. 9. In a regular tetragonal pyramid, the altitude is equal to one half the diagonal of the base. Calculate the dihedral angle between
faces.
(a 4- b) /sin c in
Express sin
oblique-angled triangle.
1 Most of these exercises are questions that were asked at the entrance examination of the University of Lie"ge.
by Cesaro
70
EXERCISES
11.
71
The
6,
given by 2 sin \x
tan Ja.
(Compare
Problem
Chapter VII.)
12. In a regular tetragonal pyramid, the angle of a face at the apex measures 60. Calculate the dihedral angle between two ad-
The
altitude
CH
of a triangle
ABC,
AB
at
H;
arc
AH =
_ ~
1
.
BH
Prove that
*t "'
sin 2
15.
sin 2 b'
I
sin 2 6
n T
OQ =
16.
Given a tri-rectangular trihedron O,XYZ. Plot OP = 2, = 4, on the edges OX, OY, OZ, respectively. Calcu3, OR
OQR.
(or colatitude)
Let
ipi>
PI
of a point PI; <?A, PA, those of a point A. brings PI in P2. What are the longitude
P2 of
17.
A
<pt
180-rotation about
P2?
Let
AB -
p,
AC =
.
angled parallelepiped
edges are
r
AD
Numerical application: p
3,
4,
5.
In a quadrantal triangle (c = 90), given C and 2p. Find a sin 6; (2) sin A sin B. 19. In a right-angled triangle (C = 90), given the hypotenuse c and the spherical excess 2E. Find: (1) sin a sin 6; (2) sin A sin B.
18.
(1) sin
20. Given an equilateral triangle whose side is equal to 60. Find the side of the triangle formed by erecting, at each vertex, a perpendicular to the corresponding bisector.
21. Solve a quadrantal triangle (a
90), given:
(a
(1) c,
C;
:
(2)
A, b
c.
22.
= 90)
p p tan p
cos
sin
SB
cos
sin
= =
72
VIII.
EXERCISES
23. Consider a regular pentagonal prism with altitude h and the side of the base equal to a. Join 0, one of the base vertices, to P and Q, the top vertices opposite the two adjacent vertical faces.
POQ.
Same
h - 5. 25. Join a point P, inside an oblique-angled triangle ABC, to the vertices and produce the arcs AP, BP, CP to their intersections, D, E, F, with the sides of ABC. Prove that a
5,
sinCE
sin
sin
EA
sin
AF FB
sin
sin
BD DC
and C'
26. In a tri-rectangular triangle ABC, join the middle points B' of the sides and by the arc B'C'. Find the ratio of
AB
AC
the areas of the triangles AB'C' and ABC. 27. In a triangle ABC, let a, 0, 7 be the lengths of the bisectors. Prove:
(1)
cot a cos
JA
-f cot
/3
cos
JB
-f-
cot 7 cos
JC
cot a
-f-
=
cot a
(2)
cot b
-f-
cot
c;
cot
j8
cos JA(cos
H- cos
C)
cos JB(cos
-f-
cos A) cot
7
-f cos
'
cos iC(cos
B)
a)
c
Vsin 2 6
28. In a triangle
+ sin
-f-
2 sin 6 sin
cos a
ABC,
given a
90 and
60.
Join any
z.
point
Find
C by
arcs x, y,
and
= 90, a, ABCD, given :B C = Calculate the diagonal AC. 30. Show that the radii c R, Ra of the circumscribing, inscribed, and escribed circles of a spherical triangle are given respectively by:
29. In a quadrilateral
BD =
AB
b.
P tan 2 KC
where
C;
cosS
2S
= A
+B
-f
EXERCISES
tan 2
73
sm(p
%
a) sin(p sin
6)
sin(p
c)
where 2p
a 4- b
c;
tan2
R =
sin
p sin(p
6)
sin(p
a)
c)
'
sin(p
where
is
circle
which touches
a.
ANSWERS TO EXERCISES
Numerical applications have been calculated with five-place tables. is followed, between parentheses, by the number of the formula to be applied.
The answer
6658'
1.
(8).
2.
3.
4.
B = 496'24" (12). AB = 7721'28", BD = 7153'14" (13). A = 60, B = 45, T = S/48 (15 and 16, no tables of logarithms
The desired
relation
is
needed).
5. 6.
read
off
T = 439.8 dm2 (5a and Appendix 1). 7. COO' = COO" = 45, O'OO" = 60, edge angle OC = edge angle OO' = edge angle OO" = 5444' (13 and 18). 8. a = 1448'17" (16).
E =
3.5,
9.
90,
10928'
(14).
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
- arctan (3/2) = 5618'35", edge angle PR = PQ = 6724 41", RPQ - 7538'11". Apply
/
cos C). Apply (3) (4). Apply (5a). 10928' (14). 11346' (17). 2 z Apply (15) twice. Use sin z + cos a; = 1. PO = 90, OPR = arctan 2 = 6326' 5", OPQ Edge angle
(cos
-f cos B)/(l
and
(18),
the
latter twice.
16. cos p2
sin
2pA
.
^0,
^0/sin p 2 Apply Problem 4, Ch. VII and (7). (This question is encountered in crystallography.) Its parts 17. The spherical triangle ABC is right-angled at A. // / // B = 5715 15", b = 3839 36", c = 3057'50 are: a = 4757 51 C 4350'17 /; Apply (13) and (18). First, determine 6 and c by
sin
(<f>2
<PA)
sin 2p/(l
(8b),
+
74
cos C),
sin
A
(9).
sin
B =
sin
2p
cos C).
Apply
ANSWERS TO EXERCISES
19. sin
75
a sin b
(11)
sin2E(l
(8),
cose).
Apply
20. 90
21.
sin
and
in preceding exercise.
Given
B =
then 16; no tables of logarithms needed). C. Write sin & = cosc/cosC, sin A = sinC/sinc, cot c/cot C. Apply (7) (9) (12).
(8a,
c,
c.
-f c)
and JA by means
c) is
JA by means
of
and
c.
22. Express the corresponding relations in the (right-angled) polar Apply the Law of Sines to Fig. 11.
c,
with tan
2(a/h) cos
4".
36.
Ap-
ply (15).
24.
For a
(7)
(9).
4 and h
25.
Apply Apply
or (15).
Note three
is
vertex P.
27.
(This question
28.
and Girard's Theorem, Appendix 1). (2) Apply (10) (9). (3) Apply (12) twice. (1) Apply (12). and 4 (cos 2 x -f cos2 y cos x cos y) = 3 sin 2 z. Apply (7)
sin 2 a -f cos 2 a
29.
1.
Let x = AC. It is given by the biquadratic equation cos 4 x cos 2 a cos 2 b sin 2 6 = 0. Apply (13) three cos 2 a cos 2 b cos 2 x times and (15) twice. It is tangent 30. Consider a circle inscribed in a spherical triangle. to the sides, The spherical distances from a vertex to the nearest
APPENDIX
SPHERICAL AREAS
The area S of a sphere is equal to four times that of a 1. Sphere. = 4irR2 if designates the radius. great circle, that is to say S The area of a lune of angle is to the area of the sphere 2. Lune.
,
as
is
to 360.
Consider a number of meridians; they intersect in the North and South Poles. Any two meridians bound a lune (for example, the and 80W). The angle of the lune is the angle meridians between the two meridians (in this case, 5); it is measured by the arc they intercept on the equator. Obviously lunes of equal angles have equal areas (for they can be made to coincide). The areas of
75W
lunes are proportional to their angles (this is proved in the same manner as the proportionality of angles at the center of a circle to the arcs they subtend), whence the desired proposition.
ical triangle is to
Spherical Triangle. GIRARD'S THEOREM: The area of a spherthe area of the sphere as half the spherical excess (expressed in degrees) is to 360.
3.
FIG. 28.
Consider a triangle ABC. Join its vertices A, B, C to the center of the sphere (Fig. 28) and produce to the antipodes A', B' C'. Complete the great circles that form the sides of the triangle ABC.
f
76
SPHERICAL AREAS
The hemisphere
Ti
in front of the great circle
77
BCB'C'
is
thus divided
ABC,
AB'C',
it
T,
- AB'C,
T =
4
ABC'.
equal to the area
From
the construction
A'BC
is
Ti
-f
T =
2
lune A.
Moreover
Ti
+ T, =
lune
and
Ti
+T =
4
lune C.
lune
C -
(Ti
+T
" ^
-f
-f
4 ),
2Ti
8
and,
finally,
A+B+C 360
180
2JS 360
II S
JL
360*
APPENDIX
= = hav x =
1
1
cos x,
sin x,
exsec x
sec x
coexsecx
i(l
J vers x
=
,
cos x)
sin
= =
cscx
sin 2 Jx.
1,
sin
30
i,
sin 45
^
/L
60
= ^?
i
sin
90
1.
x),
have complementary
trigonometric functions, with the same sign: sin x = cos (90 - x), tan x = cot (90 - x), sec x
esc (90
x).
Supplementary angles, x and (180 x), have the same trigonometric functions, with opposite signs except sine and cosecant. Antisupplementary angles, x and (180 -f x), have the same trigonometric functions, with opposite signs except tangent and cotangent. Equal angles of opposite signs, x and x, have the same trigonometric functions, with opposite signs except cosine and secant.
cosx
=
y)
cot x
'
Vl
sin (x
cot 2 x
cos (x db y)
,
= =
sin
x cos y
db sin
y cos
x,
tan x
tan y
sin
2x
cos 2x
,
2 sin2 Jx = 1 2 cos 2 Jx =
x
i tan 2 \x 3 o
cos x,
1
tan 2x
2 tan x - r rx tan 2
' ,
1
^
;
1 4-
cos
+ cos x,
cos x
.
a?
78
79
x
1 1
-f-
IT
tan x tan a;
cot
as -t-
cot x
cot v (43
//4
x). '
= =
= = = =
sin (x
-f-
y)
y)
-f-f-
sin (x
y), y},
cos (x cos (x
-f- ?/)
cos (x cos (x
2/)
2 2 2 2
.
sin
J(P -f- Q) cos i(P cos ^(P Q) sin J(P cos i(P -f Q) cos J(P
sin
$(P
.
cos
cos
Q -
tan i(P
/T^
+
,
Q) tan i(Q
,^.1.
/rA
-TJV
P)
'
SOLUTION OF TRIANGLES
LAW
OF SINES:
a
sin
A
c
sin
B
6 cos
sin
"
Corollary: cot
V = =
A
26c cos A.
LAW
T LAW
_,
OP COSINES: o2
tan tan >(B
b2
+c
OP TANGENTS:
cos 2
-=
2
TT
A = (p-6)(p -c)
2
--be
r
,
p(p
""
a)
p(p
a)
Area o/^e
triangle:
T =
Vp(p
a)(p
6)(p
c).
INDEX
Cube
Altitude
60
41
Cyclic parts
69 40
Ambiguity
Analogies
22 57
5,
Angular distance
Antiparallel
51
22
16
8
.
58
Escribed
circle
78 72
tri-
"Eulerian"
angle
spherical
Euler's formula
Examples
of calculations
23 45 78
B
Bisector
Exsecant
59
F
Fundamental formulae.
...
41
25
41,
44
70
13
Gauss
22
5
51
Cesaro
Cesaro's key-triangles
Geodesy
Geographical problem
Checking calculations
Circumscribing Coexsecant
circle
45 72
78
"Geoid"
6
5
66, 76
Complementary
Concyclic points
angles. ... 78 15
32 34
78 74, 75
81
H
Half-angles Half-sides
29 30 78
Haversine
82
INDEX
Point between two
circles
36 Hypotenuse Hypotenuse and two sides or two angles 37 Hypotenuse, one side, and 37 one angle
great
61
18
18
Polygon
Precision
Inscribed circle
72
Pyramid
3 52 55 37 67
79
79
Quadrantal triangles
41
79 24
Ratios of cosines and co-
M
Median
59 Mid-points of two sides ... 62
N
Napier's analogies
22
21
41
Napier's rule
39
6
76
5,
51
44
14, 23,
O
Spherical polygon
24, 25,
26
3 21
Oblique-angled
triangles
spherical
28, 41
Spherical triangle
4,
.
Stereographic projection
Sub-contrary
Parallelepiped
68 4 20
78
7 8 78
5
Three angles and one side Three sides and one angle
30 28
INDEX
"Triangle of elements".
...
.
83
13
Two
sides
and
their
opposite
Trihedra, complementary
16
angles
29
included
Trihedron
Tri -rectangular triangle.
.
4
55,
Two
sides,
angle,
56,
62
posite one of
them
32
or
sides
right-angled
Versine
78
angle)
38