Here are some notes on vector and dyadic tensor notation similar to what I will be using in class, with

just a couple of changes in notation. Notes = Dowling

=
A=A
B=B

British notation for Cross-Product vs. American (Dowlings) Notation for Vector vs. Standard (Dowlings). Notation for Dyadic Tensor vs. Standard (Dowlings).

With these notes you should be able to make sense of the expressions in the vector identities pages below that involve the dyadic tensor T. (Notes courtesy of Peter Littlewood, University of Cambridge.) The vector identity pages are from the NRL Plasma Formulary order your very own online or download the entire thing at:

http://wwwppd.nrl.navy.mil/nrlformulary/ --JPD

VECTOR IDENTITIES4 Notation: f, g, are scalars; A, B, etc., are vectors; T is a tensor; I is the unit dyad. (1) A B C = A B C = B C A = B C A = C A B = C A B (2) A (B C) = (C B) A = (A C)B (A B)C (3) A (B C) + B (C A) + C (A B) = 0 (4) (A B) (C D) = (A C)(B D) (A D)(B C) (5) (A B) (C D) = (A B D)C (A B C)D (6) (f g) = (gf ) = f g + gf (7) (f A) = f A + A f (8) (f A) = f A + f A (9) (A B) = B A A B (10) (A B) = A( B) B( A) + (B )A (A )B (11) A ( B) = (B) A (A )B (12) (A B) = A ( B) + B ( A) + (A )B + (B )A (13) 2 f = f (14) 2 A = ( A) A (15) f = 0 (16) A = 0 If e1 , e2 , e3 are orthonormal unit vectors, a second-order tensor T can be written in the dyadic form (17) T =
i,j

Tij ei ej

In cartesian coordinates the divergence of a tensor is a vector with components (18) (T )i =

j

(Tji /xj )

[This denition is required for consistency with Eq. (29)]. In general (19) (AB) = ( A)B + (A )B (20) (f T ) = f T +f T

Let r = ix + jy + kz be the radius vector of magnitude r, from the origin to the point x, y, z. Then (21) r = 3 (22) r = 0 (23) r = r/r (24) (1/r) = r/r 3 (25) (r/r 3 ) = 4(r) (26) r = I If V is a volume enclosed by a surface S and dS = ndS, where n is the unit normal outward from V, (27)
V

dV f =
S

dSf

(28)
V

dV A =
S

dS A

(29)
V

dV T =
S

dS T

(30)
V

dV A =
S

dS A

(31)
V

dV (f g g f ) =
S

dS (f g gf )

(32)
V

dV (A B B A) =
S

dS (B A A B)

If S is an open surface bounded by the contour C, of which the line element is dl, (33)
S

dS f =
C

dlf

(34)
S

dS A =
C

dl A

(35)
S

(dS ) A =
C

dl A

(36)
S

dS (f g) =
C

f dg =
C

gdf

EXAMPLES CLASS IN MATHEMATICAL PHYSICS V. Introduction to Tensors 3.2.99

Commentary: This is the rst of two sheets on tensors the second will come in class

VIII. Tensors have many applications in theoretical physics, not only in polarization problems like the ones described below, but in dynamics, elasticity, uid mechanics, quantum theory, etc.. The mathematical apparatus for dealing with tensor problems may not yet be familiar, so this sheet contains quite a high proportion of formal material. Section A introduces the concept of a tensor in this case, a linear operator that transforms one vector into another in the physical context of studying the polarisation of an aspherical molecule. Section B summarizes various mathematical and notational ideas that are useful in physics these include su x notation, and concepts such as the outer product of two vectors, and projection operators. These are mathematical objects which take the projection or component of a vector along a particular direction. Section C returns to a physical problem also about polarization and leads to a discussion of principal axes, eigenvectors and eigenvalues of tensor quantities. Section D introduces the properties of the antisymmetric third-rank tensor ijk which can be used to derive many results in vector calculus much more rapidly than by other methods. This ground will be covered again in sheet VIII so it doesn't matter if you run out of time.

A. Introduction
We often nd vectors that are linearly related to other vectors, for instance the polarisation P induced in a medium by applying a eld E
P

0 E

1

Here P and E are parallel. Their cartesian components are related to each other by the same constant of proportionality 0 for each component. Here we have denoted vectors by underlinings as one would do if writing this out by hand. Usually books denote vectors by bold type in the rest of this sheet we treat the two notations as completely interchangeable. It is possible to imagine situations where the medium is anisotropic and the response factor 0 in 1 is di erent for components in di erent directions. The two vectors P and E are no longer necessarily parallel and what connects them is called a tensor. We will use simple model of molecular polarisability to show the underlying physics and introduce the ideas of tensors.

A1. An Electrostatics Problem. The diacetylene molecule, H-CC-CC-H is

highly polarisable along its long axis, pk = kEk being the induced dipole for a eld Ek applied along the molecule. The response to perpendicular elds is p? = ?E? where ? k . Let the cylindrical molecule point in the 1 1 0 direction and apply a eld in the x direction: E = Exx ^ i Prove:
px py

=  k + ?Ex=2 = k
pz

2 3 4

? Ex =2

=0 2

Hence one sees that p and E are not parallel and in general we must write
p=

5

where is the polarisability tensor. Tensors are written with a double underline as matricies often are or in books sometimes as doubly bold" bold sans serif typeface characters. In component form 5 is
px = py = pz =
xx

Ex + Ex + Ex +

xy

Ey + Ey + Ey +

xz

Ez

6 7 8

yx

yy

yz

Ez Ez

zx

zy

zz

ii What are the coe cients ij explicitly for the above example? Write as a matrix of its components. Note that, although the tensor is the same physical entity in all coordinate systems it relates p with E in whatever basis these are expressed, its components ij depend on the coordinate system used. Remark: If many molecules are present with the same orientation, P is p where there are molecules per unit volume. A hypothetical diacetylene solid might consist of such rods arranged in an array, all directed along 1 1 0. Then the macroscopic to replace in 1 would neglecting internal eld corrections be .

B. Miscellaneous Ideas and Notations B1. Su x notation: Commonly, su ces such as i and j are dummy symbols and
when repeated in an expression they are to be summed over this is the Einstein Convention. For instance 6 to 8 can be succinctly written as
pi =
ij

Ej

which is Eq.5 rewritten in su x notation. Note the order of the indices on the right. Thus we have written the vector p simply as pi and it will be clear from context that a vector is intended and not simply one of its components. Likewise can be denoted ij . In su x notation the dot product also called scalar product, or inner product of two vectors a b is written as aibi. The operation of a tensor on a vector also involves an inner product sum over repeated indices as described above. The unit tensor ij by de nition transforms any vector into itself: ij vj = vi.

B2. The outer product:

Consider the object Qij de ned as

Qij  ai bj

9

where a and b are vectors. i Show using su x notation that if p is a vector, Q
p is also a vector nd its magnitude and direction. Note that Q
p  Qij pj . We see that Qij is a linear operator that transforms one vector p into another it is therefore a tensor. This de nes the outer product or dyadic product of two vectors. In non-su x notation sometimes called dyadic notation, Eq.9 is written as
Q = ab

10

or Q = a b, where there is no dot between the two vectors. In this notation we have a b
c = ab
c: prove this using su x notation if you did not do so already above. This notation is used in various areas of mathematics and physics, but in general su x notation is more versatile and can always be used instead. ii We can write the tensor in Q. A1 in the following form: =
xx

xx+ ^^

xy

xy + ^^

xz

x z + 6 other terms ^^

11

Check that 11 indeed agrees with 6 to 8 by nding the result of applying a eld in ^ the x-direction, E = Exx:
p=

^
E 
xE = 
x

xx

yx

zx

 Ex :

iii Projection operators: In dyadic notation, the identity tensor ij is often written ^^ as the unit operator" 1. Consider the action on a vector v of the operators uu and ^^ ^ 1 uu, where u is a unit vector. Show that these perform the job of resolving the vector ^ v into vectors vk and v?, respectively parallel and perpendicular to u. Prove that these projection operators" are idempotent. The de nition of an idempotent operator G is that GG = G. Show that the polarizability tensor in problem A1 can be written where u = 1 1 0= 2. ^

^^ ^^ = kuu + ?1 uu

C. Use of Principal Axes.

is in the x direction, it acquires a dipole moment with components 4, 2, and 1  10 12 C m in the x, y, z directions. For the same eld strengths in the y, z directions, the dipole moments are 2 4 1  10 12 and 1 1 4  10 12 C m respectively. i Write down the components of the tensor that describes the polarisability of the object using the x y z coordinate frame. p ii What is the torque T = p ^ E on the object when it is placed in an electric eld of 3 kV m in the 1,1,1 direction? Ans: 1,-1,0 10 9 Nm. ^v ^ iii Suppose there are eld directions u,^ , w for which there is no torque on the object ^ ^ ^ what relation do E and p then have? Show that u, v, and w are the eigenvectors of . ^v ^ iv Show that, if we use as a coordinate system the unit vectors u,^ , w there are no o -diagonal elements of the tensor when it is written as a matrix of components. The three diagonal elements, 1 2 and 3 are called the principal polarisabilities of the object and are the eigenvalues of . For this problem, one eigenvalue is  = 2  10 15: nd the 5

C1. A xed object is placed in a uniform electric eld of 1 kV m. When the eld

^v ^ other two. What are the vectors u,^ , w in terms of x, y, z ? ^ ^ ^ v In this example, is symmetric and hence has real eigenvalues and orthogonal eigenvectors. An energy argument shows this to be true for the polarizability of any object ^v ^ the u,^ , w coordinate system can hence always be found and is called the principal frame - often a very convenient frame to think about the physics in. The same applies to any problem involving a symmetric tensor. ^v vi In a general coordinate system, the decomposition of into principal directions u,^ , ^ w can be accomplished using projection operators: = 1uu + 2vv + 3ww ^ ^ ^^ ^ ^ 12 This is a relation between tensors, so if it holds in one co-ordinate system it also holds in any other. Prove it for a convenient choice of co-ordinates system and hence generally. vii Eq.12 expresses in a very direct way the operation of a symmetric tensor on a vector b. To nd b, the recipe is: 1 resolve b into components along the principal axes 2 multiply each component by the corresponding eigenvalue 3 add to form the resultant. Con rm from Eq.12 that this is precisely what operating with on b does.

C2. Force on a Dipole.

i By using su x notation, and the ordinary chain rule for derivatives, prove the vector relation A =  A + A 
r
r

r

Derive a similar result for A B. It's best to leave the answer in su x notation. ii In a uniform electric eld, E, a dipole p experiences a couple p E but no net force. Show that in a non-uniform eld, a dipole experiences a net force
r


Fi =
i j

@Ei p @xj j

13

and explain why @E is a tensor. This is very general the gradient of a vector is a second@x rank tensor. 6

iii A more general expression for the force on a permanent dipole, derived from the energy, is F =gradp:E, or:

@ Fj = @x piEi : j

Show that this is equivalent to Eq13 only in the absence of a time-varying magnetic eld. iv A speck of matter has no permanent dipole moment, but the eld E induces a moment p in it. Under what conditions can we write a pi = ij Ej b pi = Ei? Write down the force in each case. Under what conditions can this be written F = gradE 2=2 ?

D. The antisymmetric three-tensor

ijk .

A tensor with two indices such as ij is called a tensor of second rank, and its linear operation on a vector gives another vector. A vector is technically a tensor of rank one a scalar of rank zero. Tensors of higher rank can also be de ned. For example a tensor of rank four, Qijkl acts on a rank two tensor to give another rank two tensor, Bij = Qijkl Akl with summation over repeated indices. For tensors higher than rank two, dyadic notation becomes extremely cumbersome and su x notation is essential.

D1. An important and useful tensor of rank three is the fully antisymmetric three
tensor denoted ijk . This operates on either a second rank tensor or two vectors to give a vector. For i 6= j 6= k it is de ned as ijk = 1 if ijk is a cyclic permutation of x y z e.g.,

yzx and = 1 if the order is anticyclic e.g., xzy. If any two of ijk are the same then
in su x notation. Show that A ^ Bi = ijk Aj Bk The following relation
ijk klm = il jm im jl

ijk = 0 e.g., xxy = 0. The tensor ijk is very useful for writing down a vector product

14

15

is well worth remembering you should come across this in maths lectures . It saves a great deal of time when manipulating vector identities such as

A ^ B ^ C  = ijk Aj klm Bl Cm
= Aj Bl Cm  il jm
im jl 

= Bi Aj Cj Ci Aj Bj = A
C B A
BC which is a familiar result normally derived by far more tedious means. The result Eq.15 is especially helpful when dealing with vector identities involving the r operator. Because ijk is a constant tensor, it commutes with r, and expressions can be re-ordered accordingly. For example
r
E ^ H   ri  ijk Ej Hk 

16 17 18 19

= ijk riEj Hk  = ijk Ej riHk + Hk riEj = Ej jik riHk + Hk kij riEj = E
r^H +H
r^E which is a result used in in connection with Poynting's vector in electromagnetism. i Make sure you understand each step of this derivation. ii Show, using similar methods, that
r ^ r ^ A = rr
A r2 A r ^  A =  r ^ A

A ^ r

These relations are useful in electromagnetism and other topics in IB, and in the parts II and III courses.

EXAMPLES CLASS IN MATHEMATICAL PHYSICS VIII. Further Applications of Tensor and Vector Calculus 24.2.99
Commentary: This is the second sheet on tensors. It follows on from Sheet 5. Section D

of that sheet on uses of the antisymmetric 3-tensor, ijk  is reprinted here as an appendix, and you should complete it before starting the main part of this sheet, if you didn't do so last time. As on sheet 5 we use underlining and bold notation interchangeably. Su x notation and the summation convention are also used. Carets ^ denote unit vectors. In Sections A and B tensor ideas are used to work through some results in rigid body dynamics. You should have covered this material in IB dynamics courses, and the formal development given here is good practice and will help deepen your understanding of moments of inertia, etc., as well as of tensors. Section C introduces the concepts of stress and strain tensors in a solid. The linear relation between these is governed by a fourth rank tensor, whose properties are investigated. Section D contains problems on the transformation properties of tensors: in mathematical courses, you may have seen tensors de ned in terms of these transformation properties.

. Rigid Body Rotations

A rigid body rotates with angular velocity ! about an axis through its centre of mass at the origin, 0. The vector ! points along the axis of rotation and determines the velocity of rotation at r according to v = ! ^ r. Make sure you can derive this if you are not sure where it comes from. i Consider the body as a collection of point masses mr with position vectors r relative to the centre of mass 0. The tensor I is called the inertia tensor of the body. It is given by:
I

X
r

r2 1

^^ rr

mr

1

Show, using Eq.1, that the angular momentum L and the kinetic energy T of the body are: L = I
! 2 1 3 T = 2 !
I
!  1 !i Iij !j 2 You will need to expand the vector triple product f ^ g ^ h see Appendix. Thus I speci es the linear dependence of angular momentum Li on the angular velocity !j via Li = Iij !j , Eq.2 and replaces the single number, the moment of inertia, that would be enough for a very symmetrical body, such as a sphere. ii Find the components of Iij in a Cartesian system, that is the usual basis set x, y, ^. ^ ^ z P P Answer: Ixx = r y2 + z2  mr, Ixy = r xy  mr , etc.. iii Iij is a symmetric tensor, that is I:v = v:I for any vector v, which should be clear from the de nition 1. Deduce it also from the matrix of components of Iij found in ii. iv Take the continuum limit in Eq.1 to obtain formally, as an integral, the inertia tensor of a body of variable density r. v Write down the inertia tensor of a body consisting of eight masses M at the corners of 2

a light cubic frame of side . Choose the coordinate system most convenient to you. What is the moment of inertia of this cube? Why can we talk of the moment of inertia when we strictly speaking have a tensor? In fact, even for an asymmetric body one sometimes speaks of the moment of inertia about ^ ^ ^ ^ some speci c axis, n, say. This is written as n I n and gives the ratio of the n component ^ ^ ^ of angular momentum L n to the n component of angular velocity  n. Since in general ^ L has components which are not parallel to n, this does not o er a complete description. vi Angular velocity: A body rotates about an axis through its centre of mass with an angular velocity . The velocity of a point in the body is v = ^ r. Show that one can equally well express it as v =
r where is an antisymmetric tensor with components:
a : : : !: ! ! !

 0

!z

!y

!x

!z

!y

!x

4

vii Show that any vector W, constant with respect to axes xed in the body, changes with time in a space- xed frame, by an amount W in time :
d dt d

W =  ^W
!dt d

and hence that if W is not body- xed but has a rate of change  W in the space- xed frame obeys 
d

W body , the vector

=dt

W space =  W body +
=dt d =dt

^W :

5

B. Principal Axes and Precession

We now use the above results to solve simply a di cult problem, the rotational motion of an asymmetric body. 3

i What is the inertia tensor of four point masses M xed at the corners of a massless square frame of side a? What are the principal axes, and principal moments of inertia? Why are two of the axes indeterminate? This is an example of a nontrivial body unlike the sphere or cube where the principal moments of inertia are not all the same. Now L need not be parallel to ! for a body whose angular momentum is conserved the result is free precession of the angular velocity see iii below. ii It is clear from 1 that in general I for a body is constant in body- xed axes, and so  for an arbitrary motion the inertia tensor Iijsp in space- xed axes is not constant unless, trivially, it is proportional to ij . Show that in general the motion of a nontrivial body whose angular momentum Lsp is conserved in a space- xed frame involves an angular  velocity ! which changes in time. Hint: consider Lsp = Iijsp!j . i iii The problem of nding ! for a body of xed angular momentum not parallel to a principal axis is best solved by adopting a body frame where the inertia tensor is constant. Show from 5 that in the body frame L obeys
dL=dt = ! ^ L

6

iv Deduce that

Iij !j = _
ijk

!j Ikl !l

and show that, by taking as the body- xed frame the principal frame of Iij , this can be simpli ed to I1 !1 = !2 !3 I3 I2 _
I2 !2 = !3 !1 I1 _ I3 !3 = !1 !2 I2 _ I3 I1

where I1, I2, I3 are the principal moments of inertia. v For the inertia tensor of the square frame found in question i, I1 = I2 such a body 4

is known as a symmetric top". Prove for this case that ! precesses in the body frame according to

!3 = const.

!1 = A cos t

!2 = A sin t

where = I3I1I1 !3, and so con rm that ! is not a constant vector unless it happens to point along one of the principal axes.
C. Stress and strain tensors.

Consider a small area element dS embedded at a point r in an isotropic liquid. If the material is subject to pressure P , there is a normal force on each side of the surface element PdS. These point in opposite directions, so the net force on the surface element is zero which is as it must be, since the element has no mass and would otherwise be subject to in nite acceleration.
C 1.

In the case of a solid, there can also be a shear force exerted in equal and opposite directions on the two sides of the element such a force lies in the plane of the element rather than normal to it. In the general case, we can write

dF =

dS

7

where is the stress tensor at the point r. For example the element xz of determines the x-force per unit area on an element of surface with its normal pointing in the zdirection: dFx = xz dSz . For a surface element of general orientation dFx = xx dSx + xy dSy + xz dSz . i Show that a small box of sides dx dy dz experiences a couple  xz zxdx dy dz about the y axis. The corresponding moment of inertia is of order dx2dz2dy. Explain why this means that must be symmetric. Show also that, if r is a function of position, 5

then the net force on a nite piece of material is given by

Fi
j

@ ij dV : @rj

8

@ where in a conventional notation @r  rj . ii Strain: Suppose a solid material is subjected to a small deformation r ! r + ur. So long as the deformation depends continuously on position, we may write

dui =
i

@ui dr : @rj j
j

9

Let us now decompose the tensor Uij  @u into its symmetric and anti-symmetric parts: @r
Uij eij

= eij + Rij

1 = 2 Uij + Uji 1 U U
Rij = 2 ij ji Show that e is symmetric and R antisymmetric. Show also that R corresponds to a pure rotation i.e. without distortion of the bit of matter near r. Hint: compare Eq.4 in section A. What type of deformation does e represent? Why may we assume that the stress tensor depends on the strain tensor e, but has no dependence on R? iii Elasticity: For small deformations, we expect the stress and strain to be linearly related, but since both are described by second-rank tensors, the relation between them generally involves a tensor of the fourth rank:
ij

= Eijkl ekl

10

which is the generalization of Hooke's law to an arbitrary three-dimensional material. Since is symmetric, Eijkl must be symmetric under exchange of i and j various other symmetries can be found from considering the form of the stored elastic energy, but even when these are taken into account, Eijkl has 21 independent components. 6

iv Isotropic elastic solids are much simpler however, and have only two independent constants. These are the Young's modulus Y and Poisson's ratio . The de nition of these is that in the principal axes of ij , the following relation applies
Y exx =
xx

yy

zz

11

with similar relations for eyy ezz all o -diagonal elements of e are zero in this coordinate system. By rearranging Eq.11 obtain the result
Y exx = 1 +

xx

ii

where x indicies are not summed over but ii is summed with similar relations for yy and zz components. Note that ii = Trace  under the summation convention. Show that, by adding Eq.11 to its analogues,
ii ii = 1Y e2

Combine the above two results to give expressions for xx etc in terms of the elements of e, and hence derive the following result in the principal frame:  Y ij = 1 + eij + 1 2 ij Tre : Bear in mind that eij = 0 for i 6= j , in this frame. Hence, derive the general frame independent form for the elasticity tensor in an isotropic solid:     Y ik jl + il jk Eijkl = + 1 2  ij kl 1+ 2 i Apply Eijkl to suitable deformations to recover expressions for the bulk modulus and shear modulus of an isotropic solid in terms of Y and .
C 2.

ii Show that the displacement u inside a homogeneous isotropic solid, subject to external forces only at its surface, obeys grad divu + 1 2 r2u = 0: 7

D. Transformation Laws. D 1. Here we consider transformations of vectors and tensors between two sets of base vectors, each of which is orthonormal. We call our two sets of base vectors e1 e2 e3 and e1 e2 e3, so that we can use su x notation, e.g., the fact that the e basis is orthonormal
0 0 0

can be written

e e =
i
j
0

ij

12

The unit vectors ei are linear combinations of the ei:

e =T e :
0

ij

13

Suppose that x = xiei = xiei is any vector, and y = Ax. Prove that i ei ek = Tik ii The inverse transformation ei = Tik 1ek has Tik 1 = Tki iii xi = Tik xk iv xi = Tkixk v yi = Tij Tlk Ajk xl This means you have found the components of the tensor A in the rotated coordinate system:
0 0 0

A =T T A
0

il

ij

lk

jk

Indeed, this property under orthogonal coordinate transformations T is, mathematically, often taken as the de ning property of a tensor A. For tensors of higher rank than 2, one factor of the transformation matrix T is needed for each index. Transformations with detT  = 1 are usually called proper rotations and those with detT  = 1, improper rotations. Show that these are the only possible values of the determinant for transformations between orthonormal bases as de ned above. 8

Appendix: The antisymmetric three-tensor

Reprise of Sheet V section D.

ijk .

A tensor with two indices such as ij is called a tensor of second rank, and its linear operation on a vector gives another vector. A vector is technically a tensor of rank one a scalar of rank zero. Tensors of higher rank can also be de ned. For example a tensor of rank four, Qijkl acts on a rank two tensor to give another rank two tensor, Bij = Qijkl Akl with summation over repeated indices. For tensors higher than rank two, dyadic notation becomes extremely cumbersome and su x notation is essential.

1. An important and useful tensor of rank three is the fully antisymmetric three tensor
denoted ijk . This operates on either a second rank tensor or two vectors to give a vector. For i 6= j 6= k it is de ned as ijk = 1 if ijk is a cyclic permutation of x y z e.g., yzx and = 1 if the order is anticyclic e.g., xzy. If any two of ijk are the same then ijk = 0 e.g., xxy = 0. The tensor ijk is very useful for writing down a vector product in su x notation. Show that A ^ Bi = ijk Aj Bk The following relation
ijk klm = il jm im jl

14

15

is tedious to prove using components you should come across this in maths lectures but is worth remembering. It saves a great deal of time when manipulating vector identities such as

A ^ B ^ C  = ijk Aj klm Bl Cm
= Aj Bl Cm  il jm
im jl 

= Bi Aj Cj Ci Aj Bj = A
C B A
BC 9

which is a familiar result normally derived by more tedious means. The result Eq.15 is especially helpful when dealing with vector identities involving the operator. Because ijk is a constant tensor, it commutes with , and expressions can be re-ordered accordingly. For example
r r r

E

 ri

 ijk Ej Hk  + Hk
ri Ej

16 17 18 19

ijk ri

Ej Hk  =
Ej

ijk

Ej ri Hk

= =

jik ri Hk

+ Hk +H

kij ri Ej

r^

r^

which is a result used in in connection with Poynting's vector in electromagnetism. i Make sure you understand each step of this derivation. ii Show, using similar methods, that
r^

r^

A =  A 
r r
r^

r^

A = 

A A

^ r

These relations are useful in electromagnetism and other topics in the IB and parts II and III courses.

10