An approach for precision farming under pivot irrigation system using remote sensing and GIS techniques

A.H. El Nahry
a a, ,

, R.R. Ali and A.A. El Baroudy

National Authority for remote Sensing and Space Science, 23 Joseph Tito Street, El-Nozha El-Gedida, Cairo, Egypt
b c

Soils and Water use Department, National Research Centre, Cairo, Egypt Soil and Water Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Tanta University, Tanta, Egypt

Received 25 April 2010; accepted 19 September 2010. Available online 11 November 2010.

Abstract
The current work is aimed to realizing land and water use efficiency and determining the profitability of precision farming economically and environmentally. The studied area is represented by an experimental pivot irrigation field cultivated with maize in Ismailia province, Egypt. Two field practices were carried out during the successive summer growing seasons (2008 and 2009) to study the response of maize plants single hybrid 10 (S.H.10) to traditional and precision farming practices. Traditional farming (TF) as handled by the farm workers were observed and noted carefully. On the other hand precision farming (PF) practices included field scouting, grid soil sampling, variable rate technology and its applications. After applying PF a dramatic change in management zones was noticed and three management zones (of total four) were merged to be more homogenous representing 84.3% of the pivot irrigation field. Under PF Remote Sensing and Geographic Information System techniques have played a vital role in the variable rate applications that were defined due to management zones requirements. Fertilizers were added in variable rates, so that rationalization of fertilizers saved 23.566 tonnes/experimental pivot area. Natural drainage system was improved by designing vertical holes to break down massive soil layers and to leach excessive salts. Crop water requirements were determined in variable rate according to the actual plant requirements using SEBAL model with the aid of FAO Cropwat model. Irrigation schedule of maize was adopted considering soil water retention, depletion, 3 gross and net irrigation saving an amount of water equal to 93,718 m in the pivot irrigation field (153.79 acre). However costs of applying PF were much higher than TF, the economic profitability (returns-costs) achieved remarkable increase of 29.89% as a result of crop yield increment by 1000, 2100, 800 and 200 kg/acre in the management zones 1, 2, 3 and 4, respectively. Finally applying adequate amounts of fertilizers beside water control the environmental hazards was reduced to the acceptable limits. Keywords: Precision farming; SEBAL; Cropwat ; Management zone; Remote sensing and GIS

Article Outline
1. Introduction 2. Materials and methods 2.1. Study area 2.2. Remote sensing works 2.3. Field practices 2.3.1. Crop scouting 2.3.2. Grid soil sampling 2.3.3. Global positioning system (GPS) 2.4. Laboratory work 2.5. Spatial variability of soil characteristics

2.6. Variable rate technology and variable rate application 2.6.1. VRA of fertilizers 2.6.2. VRA of compacted saline field spots 2.6.3. VRA of water consumption use 2.6.3.1. SEBAL model (based on satellite imagery) 2.6.3.1.1. Retrieving land surface temperature (LST) 2.6.3.1.2. SEBAL and evapotranspiration 2.6.3.2. Cropwat model (based on FAO PenmanMonteith approach) 2.6.3.3. Climatic, crop and soil data for cropwat 2.7. Yield mapping 2.8. Fertilizers application recommendation 3. Results and discussions 3.1. First season practices of TF (2008) 3.1.1. Management zones 3.1.2. Analyzing the traditional/common practices 3.1.3. Soil characteristics 3.2. Second season practices of PF (2009) 3.2.1. PF field scouting 3.2.2. Grid soil sampling 3.2.3. Soil mapping based on VRT 3.2.4. Variable rate technology/application (VRT/VRA) 3.2.4.1. VRA of fertilizers 3.2.4.2. VRA of compacted saline field spots 3.2.4.3. VRA of water consumption use 3.2.4.3.1. SEBAL model (based on satellite images) 3.2.4.3.2. Cropwat model (based on FAO PenmanMonteith approach) 3.2.4.3.3. Crop water requirement (CWR) 3.2.4.3.4. Irrigation schedule of maize 3.2.4.3.5. Soil water retention 3.2.5. Correlation analysis of NDVI vs. maize yield 3.2.6. Change detection of management zones and yield 3.3. Precision farming profitability 3.3.1. Economic profitability 3.3.2. Environmental profitability 4. Conclusions Recommendations References

1. Introduction
Agricultural production has experienced dramatic changes during the past few decades. Traditionally, farming practices have assumed that fields are homogeneous in nature, and management practices seek to determine input application rates based on what is best for the field as a whole (Isik and Khanna, 2003). Under traditional farming (TF), the physical and chemical properties of the soil determined from manual soil sampling are often used as a base to recommend fertilizer for crops. Normally a large number of samples, and hence large

expense in cost and time, is needed to achieve statistical significance among samples in determining management zones (Franzen et al., 2002). Till now only a small percentage of farmers actively seek out new technologies and apply them. These technologies presented what is called Precision Farming (PF). It is a management strategy that uses information technologies to derive data from multiple sources to bear on decisions associated with crop production (National Research Council, 1997). It involves studying and managing variations within fields that can affect crop yield. It also involves the sampling, mapping, analysis, and management of specific areas within fields in recognition of spatial and temporal variability with respect to soil fertility, pest population, and crop characteristics ([Weiss, 1996] and [Nemenyi et al., 2003]). PF is concerned with the ability to vary rates of application and precisely apply inputs based on actual crop needs (Zhang et al., 2010). Developing a management zone map under PF is essential for effective variable rate applications. To develop a zone map, normally three factors should be considered i.e. information to be used as a basis for creating zones, procedure to be used to process the information, and the optimal number of zones that a field should be divided into (Fridgen et al., 2004). Efficient and easy-to-use tools that address all these factors are required to provide a technology delivery mechanism (Zhang et al., 2002). Fleming et al. (2000) evaluated farmer-developed management zone maps and concluded that soil color from aerial photographs, topography, as well as the farmer's past management experience are effective in developing variable rate application maps. Remote sensing is very important in PF where its usage is based on the relationships of surface spectral reflectance with various soil properties and crop characteristics (Moran et al., 1997). Multi-temporal images within a growing season of some field crops have also been used to study within-field variability ( gu et 8). Spectral reflectance of the soil or crops that were measured in the laboratory (Daniel et al., 2004), from field spectrometer (Read et al., 2002), from air and space born imagery ([Fleming et al., 2000], [Seelan et al., 2003] and [Sullivan et al., 2005]) have been widely used in developing variable rate application maps. Spatial imagery in agriculture has been used for crop management since 1929 when aerial photography was used to map soil resources (Seelan et al., 2003). Despite these theoretical advances and successful applications, access to and use of remote sensing data by end users require considerable technical knowledge about computing and remote sensing is still a challenge (Moreenthaler et al., 2003). An unsupervised classification algorithm has been shown to be effective in delineating a field into management zones for a variety of applications (Lark and Stafford, 1997). Determining the most appropriate number of zones is difficult in the interpretation of unsupervised classification, so normalized differences vegetation index (NDVI) was used in the current work. Spatial variability in yields has been considered as another useful indicator in determining variable rate nutrient management (Johnson et al., 2003). The yield variation not only reflects variation of potential soil productivity but also provides an indication of the nutrient level for the following season if crop residues are left to decay (Brock et al., 2005). Finally it is worthy to say PF could be considered as an integrated crop management system that attempts to match the kind and amount of inputs with the actual crop needs for small areas within a farm field. It provides tools for tailoring production inputs to specific zones within a field, thus to achieve PF, constraints that preclude its application should be identified and adequate management practices on the management zone level should be adopted. The current work aimed to realize land and water use efficiency and to determine the profitability of precision farming economically and environmentally.

2. Materials and methods

2.1. Study area

The studied area was represented by an experimental pivot irrigation field at the Sixth of October Company for agricultural projects, El-Salhia area, which is located to the south west of Ismaili governor te Egypt It is bounded by 3 4 nd 3 3 16 315736 nd 3 3 6 ongitudes s shown in Fig. 1. titudes nd

Full-size image (66K)

Fig. 1. Location of the study area.

2.2. Remote sensing works

A total of seven cloud free landsat enhanced thematic mapper (ETM+) satellite images were used, one used at the high peak of growing season (July 2008) to identify the management zones through deriving NDVI and six others acquired on May 28, June 13, June 29, July 15, July 31 and August 16, 2009 were used to generate ETc maps for summer maize single hybrid 10 (S.H.10) in the 2009 growing season. Digital image processing for Landsat ETM+ satellite images with spatial resolutions of 28.50 m acquired years 2008 and 2009 was executed using ENVI 4.7 software (ITT, 2009). Digital image processing included gap-filling of ETM+ SLC-off images in which all missing image pixels in the original SLC-off image have been replaced with estimated values based on histogram-matched scenes. Data were calibrated to radiance using the inputs of image type, acquisition date and time. Images were stretched using linear 2%, smoothly filtered, and their histograms were matched according to Lillesand and Kiefer (2007). Images were atmospherically corrected using FLAASH module (ITT, 2009). Satellite images were rectified (radiometrically and geometrically). Reflectance bands (red and near infrared) and radiance ones (thermal infrared) of ETM+ images were used to derive different surface parameters such as NDVI, surface albedo, surface emissivity and surface temperature. The bands and sensor characteristics of Landsat 7 ETM+ are presented in Table 1. Table 1. Characteristics of visible and infrared bands of Landsat 7 ETM+.

Ban Sensor type d No. Landsat 7 3

Spectral resolution

Spatial resoluti on

Tempora ry resolutio n 16 days

Radiometr ic resolution 8 bit

R (0.6300.690) 28.5

Ban Sensor type d No. ETM+ 4 6.1

Spectral resolution

Spatial resoluti on

Tempora ry resolutio n

Radiometr ic resolution

NIR(0.7500.900) 28.5 TIR(10.400 57 12.50)

16 days 16 days

8 bit

2.3. Field practices

Two field practices were carried out at the experimental pivot irrigation field during successive summer growing seasons (2008 and 2009) to study the response of maize plants single hybrid 10 (S.H.10) to TF (year 2008) and PF (year 2009). TF practices that were applied by the farm producers (year 2008) consisted of the following: In summer 2008, soil of the investigated area was ploughed after wheat. Nitrogen was added at 160 kg N/acre as urea, phosphorous was added at 60 kg P2O5/acre as single super phosphate, and potassium was added at 60 kg K2O/acre as potassium sulphate. Fertilizers were applied under pivot irrigation system at the same quantity across the field, before sowing. Row spacing was 0.50 m. Maize was sown on 15 May. Plants were harvested on 16 August. During this period, the plant growth and field conditions were observed accurately day by day for recognizing the effect of traditional farming on maize growth and yield. PF practices were applied during 2009 under full control of the investigators is as follows. 2.3.1. Crop scouting Crop scouting encompassed periodic ground-level inspection of the crop development. Basic field scouting equipment included: a clipboard with field scouting forms, field maps, a shovel, a pocket knife, plastic and paper bags for collecting samples, a 10 hand lens and a sampling frame, satellite images, a high resolution camera, labels for identification, HCl and a GPS hand held unit to mark the locations. 2.3.2. Grid soil sampling A detailed survey was conducted to establish the field condition. Samples were collected using a soil auger and spade with properly labeled bags. Collection of soil samples was carried out based on a systematic grid layout across a farmed field. The field was sampled on a 2 2 second grid (30.5 m 30.5 m) with a total of 68 sampling location points. Sampling depth was 00.30 m. A sampling grid was obtained from an ARC map module (ESRI, 2008). Four to 18 sub samples were taken from the top 0.30 m of soil to create a composite sample. 2.3.3. Global positioning system (GPS) A GPS hand held unit for field scouting was used to determine precise location (latitude and longitude in UTM units) based on radio signals from 4 or more of the 24 satellites in the GPS system.

2.4. Laboratory work

Soil samples obtained from the field were used for the determination of electric conductivity (EC dS/m), soil pH (1:2.5 abstract), organic matter %, CaCO3%, and macro and micro nutrients (mg/kg) according to Bandyopadhyay (2007).

2.5. Spatial variability of soil characteristics

An interpolation method was used to visually identify the spatial variability and mapping soil characteristics. Interpolation between sampling locations was made as ordinary kriging interpolation method performed using the geostatistical analyst extension available in ESRI ArcM p v9 3 (ESRI, 2008).

2.6. Variable rate technology and variable rate application

Variable rate technology (VRT) and variable rate application (VRA) that were considered as the backbone of PF were applied, so that the practice of whole-field application of chemicals has been replaced by site-specific treatments, sprayers that were capable of variable rate applications were essential. These machines were programmed to deliver precisely the right amount of fertilizers to the pivot irrigated field. Variable rate technology was essentially used to allow variable rates of fertilizer application, irrigation scheduling and tillage throughout the pivot irrigation field. The rate was changed due to a preset map or through information gathered by satellite sensors. VRT was used in conjunction with mapping information (map based VRT) such as yield maps and soil characteristics maps. Components of variable rate technology that were used in the studied pivot irrigation field were: 1, computer and controller (integrated into one product); 2, DGPS (Differential GPS); 3, hydraulic valve and motor and 4, metering device. All these components were attached to the tractor and combine harvester. 2.6.1. VRA of fertilizers The fertilizers information was interpreted by computer. A controller was used to increase or decrease the amount of input due to the application maps. The obtained information was combined with regular field survey, accurate identification, diagnosis of problems and a record of those observations for a successful crop management program. The information obtained from field scouting was used to determine if any immediate actions should be taken as well as future reference to avoid problems in subsequent years. Every location in the field was evaluated to its specific characteristics and assigned an optimal input application rate unique to that location. 2.6.2. VRA of compacted saline field spots Affected spots that were identified by field scouting; remote sensing and GPS were treated as follows: Subsurface ploughing was executed to break the subsurface shale hard pans (40 cm depth) as well as the massive layers of shale. After breaking the patches of hard pans, vertical drainage holes were excavated with diameter of 1.0 m and 2.4 m depth to encourage natural drainage by gravity. The distance between the adjacent drainage holes was 15 m. These vertical drainage holes were subdivided into 4 layers (a, b, c and d) and managed from bottom to top as follows: Hole bed was filled with stones (diameters 0.08 m) to a height of 0.60 m, the middle layer was filled with gravel (diameters 0.05 m) to a height of 0.60 m, the subsurface layer was filled with finer gravels (diameter 0.03 m) to a height of 0.60 m and

finally the surface layer was covered by the original soils. All layers were separated from each other by straw layers with height of 0.2 m to keep porosity and acting as filters. 2.6.3. VRA of water consumption use 2.6.3.1. SEBAL model (based on satellite imagery) The surface energy balance algorithm for land (SEBAL) model with the aid of Penman Monteith model and remote sensing was used for estimating crop evapotranspiration (ETc) on the experimental pivot irrigation field scale under local climatic conditions of Ismailia governorate. All processes have been executed through raster band math module, ENVI 4.7, ITT (2009) as follows. 2.6.3.1.1. Retrieving land surface temperature (LST) Six enhanced landsat thematic mapper (ETM+) were used (thermal band 6.1) for retrieving land surface temperature (LST). Sensors acquired temperature data and stored this information as a digital number (DN) with a range between 0 and 255. DNs were converted to degrees Celsius using two steps. 2 - The first step was to convert the DNs to radiance values in mW/(m .sr.0.01 m) using the bias and gain values obtained from image header file.
(1)

CVR=G(CVDN)+Bwhere CVR is the cell value as radiance, CVDN is the cell value digital number, G is the gain and B is the bias (or offset), ( NASA, 2002 ). - The second step was to convert the radiance data to degrees in Kelvin as follows:

(2)

where T is degrees Kelvin, CVR is the cell value as radiance, K1 is 666.09 and K2 is 1282.71 ( NASA, 2002 ). 2.6.3.1.2. SEBAL and evapotranspiration The pre-processing parameters required for surface energy balance algorithm for land (SEBAL) that were derived from digital image processing included the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), emissivity, broadband surface albedo, and surface temperature. The NDVI was calculated from bands 3 and 4 of ETM+ image, and the broadband albedo was calculated using weighing factors of all visible, near infrared and short wave infrared bands (Liang et al., 1999). Surface emissivity of the sensor was calculated from the derived NDVI. Surface temperature was calculated from thermal band 6.1. Calculation of the net incoming radiation and the soil heat flux were done after Bastiaanssen (1995), while the later development of Tasumi et al. (2000) were incorporated to determine the sensible heat flux. Temper ture difference between ir nd soi for the hot pixe (i e where the tent he t f ux is assumed null) was calculated. Air density was obtained by generalizing meteorological data of relative humidity and maximum air temperature from Ismailia meteorological station at the time of satellite overpass. The ET was calculated in SEBAL (Hafeez, 2003) from the instantaneous evaporative fraction () and the daily averaged net radiation (Rn24).
(3)

ET24=[Rn24(( 5 1
1

361LST)1 6)] mmd y where ET24 = daily ET actual

2

(mm day ); Rn24 = average daily net radiation (W/m ); and LST = land surface temperature

(C). The instantaneous evaporative fraction expresses the ratio of the actual to the crop evaporative demand when the atmospheric moisture conditions are in equilibrium with the soil moisture conditions. The evaporative fraction tends to be constant during daytime hours. is computed from the instantaneous surface energy balance at the moment of satellite overpass for each pixel.

(4)

where E = latent heat flux (the energy allocated for

water evaporation; it describes the amount of energy consumed to maintain a certain crop evaporation rate). can be interpreted in irrigated areas as the ratio of actual evaporation to crop potential evaporation. It depends upon the atmospheric and soil moisture conditions equilibrium. Rn = net radiation absorbed or emitted from the earth's surface (radiative heat in W/m ); G0 = soil heat flux (conduction in W/m ) and H0 = sensible heat flux (convection in W/m ). The evaporative fraction tends to be constant during daytime hours; the H0 and E fluxes, on the contrary, vary considerably. The difference between the at the moment of satellite overpass and the derived from the 24-h integrated energy balance is marginal, and may be neglected ([Brutsaert and Sugita, 1992], [Crago, 1996] and [Farah, 2001]). For time scales of 1 day or longer, G0 can be ignored and net available energy (Rn G0) reduces to net radiation (Rn). By solving the abovementioned equations integrated with some weather conditions and water availability in the field, ET24 could be obtained. The ET24 calculation through remote sensing on specific dates displayed reasonable results of its spatial distribution in the pivot irrigation system. However, this information could not be used directly, as ET24 mainly depends upon weather conditions and water availability in the field, which varies by the hour. It was therefore necessary to simulate daily values to get an accurate estimation of seasonal ET. A larger sample of timely ET observations is necessary to obtain an accurate result and to adjust the daily fluctuation of ET24 for integration of seasonal ET24. As proposed by Tasumi et al. (2000). Evapotranspiration of maize crop could be calculated as follows:
2 2 2

(5)

where Kc = the single crop coefficient; ETc = actual crop evapotranspiration;

ETo = the reference evapotranspiration, (Bastiaanssen et al., 2000)

(6)

ETc=KcET24 (mmday )where ETc = crop evapotranspiration (mm day ), Kc = crop

1

coefficient (dimensionless) and ETo = reference crop evapotranspiration (mm day ). 2.6.3.2. Cropwat model (based on FAO PenmanMonteith approach) CROPWAT 8.0 for Windows is a computer program designed to calculate crop water requirements and irrigation scheme based on soil, climate and crop data (Smith, 1992). CROPWAT for Windows uses theFAO (1992) PenmanMonteith method for calculations. The FAO PenmanMonteith method through Cropwat model was used to estimate ETo and ETc through the following equations:

(7)

(8)

ETc=EToKcwhere ETo reference evapotranspiration [mm day ], Rn net radiation at the 1 1 crop surface [MJ m day ], Gsoil heat flux density [MJ m day ], T mean daily air

temperature at 2 m height [C], U2 wind speed at 2 m height [m s ], es saturation vapor pressure [kPa], ea actual vapor pressure [kPa], es ea saturation vapour pressure deficit 1 1 [kPa], slope vapor pressure curve [kPa C ], psychrometric constant [kPa C ],ETccrop evapotranspiration [mm day ] and Kc crop coefficient. 2.6.3.3. Climatic, crop and soil data for cropwat The daily climatic data of the year 2009 were obtained from Ismailia meteorological station longitude 32.25 latitude 30.60 and altitude 13.0, including maximum and minimum air temperature, relative humidity, wind speed, sunshine duration and rainfall. The Crop data input included the following compulsory parameters: Planting date, Crop coefficient (Kc), stages, rooting depth, critical depletion fraction (p) and yield response factor (Ky).Soil data included total available water (TAW), maximum infiltration rate, maximum rooting depth and initial soil moisture depletion.
1

2.7. Yield mapping

Yield mapping system was used to measure and record the amount of grain being harvested at any point in the field with the position of the combine harvester. To produce such yield map, the harvester was equipped with a GPS receiver. Yield data were sent to the onboard computer where measured yield was matched with its appropriate field position and NDVI obtained from satellite images.

2.8. Fertilizers application recommendation

Fertilizers recommendations were calculated by using the soil test fertilizer recommendation program developed by Mc Vay (2005).

3. Results and discussions

Two field trials were carried out in two successive seasons, (20082009) as follows:

3.1. First season practices of TF (2008)

3.1.1. Management zones Regions of similarity or management zones were defined with the aid of NDVI derived from satellite image. Four management zones (1, 2, 3 and 4) were identified with areas of 3.87, 82.78, 62.31 and 5.83 acre respectively. Fig. 2 shows these management zones.

Full-size image (65K)

Fig. 2.

Pivot management zones.

3.1.2. Analyzing the traditional/common practices The survey began year 2008 with the recording of vital field information on soil fertility and crop inputs. As mentioned before, the pivot irrigation field was divided into four zones depending upon NDVI that is highly correlated with plant growth/health, biomass and yield as well. Field survey showed the best crop growth at zone 1. This area represented the relatively low leveled soils, where enough water and excessive fertilizers were accumulated. The relatively elevated soils (zone 2) had fairly healthy vegetation. The high elevated soils (zone 3) where topsoil was depleted by wind erosion, showing moisture and nutrients stress. This stress was reflected negatively on vegetation health and yield accordingly. The plant growth in zone 4, which was affected by moisture shortage and nutrients depletion, was severely damaged. Those plants were located on the pivot perimeter, or on soils that were suffering from subsurface hardpan (shale). Yield was estimated roughly by 2.2, 1.9, 1.6 and 0.8 tonnes/acre for zones 1, 2, 3 and 4 respectively. Observing this magnitude of variation prompted to ask how the problem could be solved, so using new attitudes was urgent. 3.1.3. Soil characteristics Soils of the study area were mostly sandy with some gravel on the surface, having a minimal content of clay and a low nutrient retention capacity. The surface was almost flat to undulating. There were some patches of shale in the subsurface layer (0.30 m depth) consisting of very fine clay cemented by gypsum, CaCO3 and iron oxide. Soil structure was single grains. Stratified layers (Aeolian deposits) were noticed when inspecting and describing soil profiles reflecting the action of the winds as an important soil formation agent. Characteristic of the investigated soils in 2008 are illustrated in Table 2. It is noticed that, soil characteristics were correlated with the results of crop yield, where zone 1 had relatively adequate soil characteristics represented by low CaCO3 and EC values, fair O.M & pH values and adequate nutrients level. In zone 4, there was a clear deficiency in both macro and micro nutrients. On the other hand, there was a shortage in organic matter content and salinity was high in most samples. Table 2. Characteristic of the investigated soils.

Soil characteristics

Zone 1.

Zone 2

Zone 3

Zone 4

CaCO3% 1.112.75 1.56.32 1.566.63 1.8710.23 Salinity EC dS/m 1.232.63 1.143.21 1.213.15 9.2310.56 pH 1:2.5 extract 7.888.17 7.898.22 7.898.23 7.988.42 O.M.% 1.121.21 0.610.79 0.430.58 0.120.19 Macro nutrients mg/kg N 35.7888.87 16.9840.0 3.8933.76 8.0034.34 P 12.6717.29 7.6712.45 6.6711.45 2.09.45 K 130.20140.52 18.99401.52 101.52320 48.52132.54 Micro nutrients mg/kg

Soil characteristics Fe Mn Zn Cu

Zone 1. 7.839.98 2.433.86 3.565.92 0.751.31

Zone 2 3.59.09 2.716.45 0.432.45 0.330.99

Zone 3 3.14.56 0.713.0 1.444.83 0.441.79

Zone 4 1.010.0 0.864.71 0.062.06 0.111.68

3.2. Second season practices of PF (2009)

3.2.1. PF field scouting At the end of growing season 2008, after a field survey which helped in getting vital information, field scouting depending on interpretation of Landsat ETM+ satellite images, was done as regular examination of the study area to accurately identify yield-limiting factors during the growing season, a field scouting record form was prepared as shown in Table 3. It was necessary to design this field scouting record form to assist in determining all production inputs and evaluating the current and potential stages of crop production. Investigating the abovementioned form, it was noticed that, some practices like selecting maize type, seeding rates, seeding date, some tillage practices and water quality were accepted and followed in the successive season 2009. On the other hand average of soil fertility status, water quantity, texture and drainage management, fertilizers application rate and obtained yield were not convinced and there was an urgent need to develop productivity through the procedures of precision farming. Table 3. Field record form (Zea maize single hybrid 10(S.H.10) cultivated 2008).

Zone numb er

Zone 1.

Zone 2

Zone 3

Zone 4

Total area 3.87 (154.79 acre) Soil taxon omy

82.78

62.31

5.83

Typic Torripsamments (USDA, 2006)

Weighted average of soil fertility status mg/kg N 51.05 34.31 17.23 P 14.43 10.84 7.79 K 175.01 179.5 188.4 Fe 8.92 5.46 3.69 Mn 3.04 4.04 2.02

10.97 3.67 91.8 2.19 1.61

Zone numb er

Zone 1.

Zone 2

Zone 3

Zone 4

Zn 4.51 3.18 1.38 0.87 Cu 0.98 0.91 0.50 0.28 O.M.% 1.17 0.74 0.51 0.15 pH 1:2.5 7.96 8.06 8.11 8.15 extract Average salinity 1.67 1.71 2.14 4.91 dS/m Average of 2.03 3.04 3.41 5.50 CaCO3 % Fall Mulch Tillage. The chisel plow has been the most widely adopted fall mulch tillage tool in El-Salhia area with tandem and Tillage offset discs also being used. Disking often resulted in more favorable soil conditions and higher maize yields than chisel plowing. Variety/ Single hybrid 10(S.H.10) Hybrid Seeding rate 8.57 kg/acre Seeding 15 May 2008 date Row 0.50 m spacing Fertilizer 160 urea (46%) 15 days after planting,60 calcium super phosphate s rate (37.5%) when preparing soil to planting,60 potassium sulfate kg/acre (48%) 21 days after planting. & timing Manure applicati 20 m3 compost/acre on Pivot irrigation system Water quantity 405,696 m3/pivot Water Salinity 450 (mg/l) Yield

Zone numb er

Zone 1.

Zone 2

Zone 3

Zone 4

Harvest 16 August 2008 date Moisture 30% Grain weight 2.200 1.900 1.600 0.800 tonnes/a cre Soil texture is sandy except for some subsoil patches of shale. Notes Drainage system not available.
Full-size table

3.2.2. Grid soil sampling Grid soil sampling provides an initial base of information for developing variable rate applications plans. This technique uses a systematic method to reveal fertility patterns and hard pans. After the maize harvest 2008, soil samples were collected in systematic grid (32 in zone 2, 32 in zone 3, 2 in zone 1 and 2 in zone 4) providing location information that allowed the data to be mapped as shown in Fig. 3. Grid soil sampling aimed mainly at identifying the current status of nutrients and producing maps of potential nutrient requirements.

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Fig. 3. Grid system and soil sampling locations.

3.2.3. Soil mapping based on VRT

Soil mapping based on VRT allowed the project producers to make decisions based on the detailed maps and knowledge of the studied pivot irrigation field in advance. It gave them precise control over how much of a given input is applied to specific areas. However, it involved collecting and processing certain amounts of data, greater amounts of data that were collected over longer periods of time created more accurate maps. Application maps of soil nutrients and soil salinity are shown in Fig. 4ai. These maps which considered as ground-truth were produced through GIS system (geost tistic n ysis- Kriging interpolation technique) to give specific details of required inputs for defined management zone map. In recent studies, soil mapping based on VRT could serve as an effective and easy-to-use tool for those who practice variable rate applications within-field variability ([Fleming et al., 2000], gu et 8] and[Zhang et al., 2009]).

Full-size image (211K)

Fig. 4. Spatial variability of soil characteristics.

3.2.4. Variable rate technology/application (VRT/VRA) In the current work variable rate technology was applied on fertilizers application, irrigation schedule based on water consumption use and drainage system based on soil salinity and/or soil compaction. Differential GPS attached with laptop was used to locate the zones boundary and initial soil samples based upon grid system telling the tractor where specific locations (site specific) within the field were. The GIS system (geostatistical analysis module) used this positional information from the GPS to access data about the field at specific location. Information then was sent to the operator about the field conditions. Using predetermined calculations, the operator then allowed the required amount of fertilizers to be distributed, executed the irrigation scheme and identified the shale patches to deal with throughout the different field zones. VRA could be discussed in the following lines: 3.2.4.1. VRA of fertilizers In the past years (under TF) fertilizer applications were added haphazardly to the pivot irrigation field as a whole with same amounts. In PF, project producers wanted to optimize fertilizers (input) due to the real requirement of specific zones, so zone map based VRT (Fig. 4ag) were produced to decide the varying amounts of inputs and locations of zones that

require management practices. In the current work, on the basis of precision farming, the use of fertilizers was limited to areas of known deficiency, and only the deficient nutrient was applied. Thus, four different application rates across the field were recognized coinciding with management zones. Fertilizer applications were governed by the yield potential of individual zone. Regarding the data obtained from the field scouting form, it was noticed that, applying the same amount of fertilizers to the field as a whole (TF) led to excessive nutrients especially at zones 1, 2 and 3, while applications were unsatisfactory at zone 4. Applying excessive fertilizers in TF led to environmental hazards and economic stress. In PF, fertilizer recommendations were widely different from one zone to another due to precisely requirements, where recommendations for nitrogen were 32.4, 93.6, 154.8 and 176.4 kg N/acre for zones 1, 2, 3, and 4 respectively. The recommendations for phosphorous were 25.2, 40.5, 54, and 72 kg P/acre for zones 1, 2, 3, and 4 successively, meanwhile 59.5, 57.6, 52.2 and 92.6 kg K/acre were added to zones 1, 2, 3, and 4 respectively. [Table 4], [Table 5] and [Table 6] illustrate the variation in NPK recommendations, associated with their costs, for the pivot irrigation field. [Fig. 5], [Fig. 6] and [Fig. 7] show the NPK applications precision and traditional farming. Table 4. Amounts and costs of nitrogen application under PF.

Zone no.

Zone area (acre)

Available N Required Price in soil N (kg/acre) L.E./acre mg/ kg kg/a cre Fertili Un zer it (urea) 70.43 119.74 203.48 345.91 336.52 572.09 383.48 651.91 993.91 1689.65

Price L.E./zone

1 2 3 4 Total

3.87 82.78 62.31 5.83 154.79

51.05 91.89 32.4 34.31 61.76 93.6 154. 17.23 31.01 8 176. 10.97 19.75 4 113.5 457. 204.41 6 2

463.39 28634.43 35646.93 3800.64 68545.39

3

Notes: The data represents the upper 0.30 m. of the soil profile. Nitrogen in kg/acre = soil depth (0.3 m) area soil bulk density nitrogen%. Soil bulk density = 1500 kg/m . 1 kg urea cost 1.7 L.E. Traditional application 160 kg N/acre i.e. 348 kg urea (costs 591 L.E./acre = 91573.76 L.E. for the pivot irrigation field). Total costs with PF application 68545.39 L.E. (Egyptian pound).

Table 5. Amounts and costs of phosphorus application under PF.

Zone no.

Zone area (acre)

Available P in soil

Required P (kg/acre)

Price L.E./acre

Price L.E./zon e

mg/ kg

kg/a cre

U nit

Fertiliz er (Super phosph ate) 201.60 324.00 432.00 576.00 1533.60 780.19 26820.72 26917.92 3358.08 57876.91

1 2 3 4 Total

3.87 82.78 62.31 5.83 154.79

14.43 10.84 7.79 3.67

25.2 168 40.5 270 54 360 72 480 191. 36.73 66.11 1278 7

25.97 19.51 14.02 6.61

Notes: The data represents the upper 0.30 m. of the soil profile. Phosphorus in kg/acre = soil depth (0.3 m) area (1 acre) soil bulk density phosphorus %. Soil bulk 3 density = 1500 kg/m . 1 kg super phosphate cost 1.2 L.E. Total price = price L.E./acre zone area (acre). Traditional application 60 kg P/acre i.e. 400 kg super phosphate (costs 480 L.E./acre = 74299.2 L.E. for the pivot irrigation field). Total costs with PF application 57876.91 L.E.

Table 6. Amounts and costs of potassium application under PF.

Zone no.

Zone area (acre)

Available K in soil

Required K (kg/acre) Fertiliz er (potass ium sulphat e)

Price L.E./acre

Price L.E./zon e

mg/ kg

kg/a cre

U nit

1 2 3 4 Total

3.87 82.78 62.31 5.83 154.79

175.0 179.5 188.4 91.8

315.02 59.5 123.96 323.10 57.6 120.00 339.10 52.2 108.75 165.24 92.7 193.13 1142.4 262. 634.7 545.84 6 0

557.81 540.00 489.38 869.06 2456.25

2158.72 44701.20 30493.27 5066.62 82419.81

Notes: The data represents the upper 0.30 m. of the soil profile. Potassium in kg/acre = soil depth (0.3 m) area (1acre) soil bulk density potassium %. Soil bulk 3 density = 1500 kg/m . 1 kg potassium sulphate cost 4.5 L.E. Total price = price L.E./acre zone area (acre). Traditional application 60 kg P/acre i.e. 125 kg potassium sulphate (costs 563 L.E./acre = 87069.37 L.E. for the pivot irrigation field). Total costs with PF application 82419.81L.E.

Full-size image (32K)

Fig. 5. Nitrogen applications in both precision and traditional farming.

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Fig. 6. Phosphorus applications in both precision and traditional farming.

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Fig. 7. Potassium applications in both precision and traditional farming.

In a comparison between TF and PF, under precision farming, nitrogen application was reduced by 0.494, 5.496, 15.122 tonnes in zones 1, 2 and 3 respectively. On the other hand zone 4 required an excessive amount of nitrogen determined by 0.096 tonnes. Phosphorous application was reduced by 0.135, 1.614, 0.374 tonnes in zones 1, 2 and 3 successively. On the other hand zone 4 required an excessive amount of phosphorous determined by 0.070 tonnes. Finally potassium application was reduced by 0.002, 0.199, 0.486 tonnes in zones 1, 2 and 3. On the other hand zone 4 required an excessive amount of potassium determined by 0.190 tonnes. From the abovementioned lines, it is concluded that, variable rate application of fertilizers saved amounts of 21.02, 2.05, 0.50 tonnes N, P and K respectively for the experimental pivot field (154.79 acre).These results were agreed with what was found by Lan et al. (2008) where fertilizers under VRA for maize were saved by 29 to 32%, the yield was significantly increased by 1133% more than that in the conventional application,

and emphases the VRT of fertilizers on the ecological benefits. Similar results were reported by Wittry et al. (2004), and Xue et al. (2004). The investigated soils contained sufficient levels of micronutrients to meet crop demands. 3.2.4.2. VRA of compacted saline field spots Remote sensing and VRT maps with the aid of GPS led the operator to specific areas that suffering from compaction and/or salinity. Shale deposits (very fine massive clay) associated with salinity represented serious limiting factors affecting root zone aeration, nutrients uptake and water movement through and/or downward into the soil (El Nahry, 2007). Shale deposits were found in small patches in the studied area. Before applying fertilizers or defining the irrigation scheme to the compacted and or/saline spots, vertical drainage was executed as shown in Fig. 8. In the second season, the treated spots showed a higher plant growth as a result of aeration and leaching excessive salts compared by the first one. Although this type of drainage is very simple and too cheap compared by tile drainage, it requires continuous management to be maintained.

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Fig. 8. Vertical drainage.

3.2.4.3. VRA of water consumption use 3.2.4.3.1. SEBAL model (based on satellite images) The surface energy balance algorithm for land (SEBAL) model was used for estimating crop evapotranspiration (ETc) on the experimental pivot irrigation field scale under local climatic conditions of Ismailia governorate. SEBAL is an image processing model comprised of twenty five sub-models for calculating evapotranspiration as a residual of the surface energy balance. SEBAL is an emerging technology and has the potential to become widely adopted and used by water resources and irrigation community (Allen et al., 2002). Applying water in adequate amounts could be considered the cornerstone of variable rate application especially with shortage of irrigation water in such arid regions. First of all land surface temperature (LST) was derived (Eq. (1) and (2)) for all 16 days instantaneous acquired ETM+ images consequently as 31.6, 34.7, 34.2, 34.3, 34.4 and 35.2 for May 28, June 13, June 29, July 15, July 31and August 16. Using the derived LST and metrological data of relative humidity, wind speed and sunshine hours, a daily reference evapotranspiration (ET24) is computed by solving the surface energy balance using

Eq. (3) and (4). Based on the actual cropping calendar, the weighted crop coefficient Kc for different satellite overpass dates was calculated (Eq. (5)) as 0.38, 0.87, 1.20 and 0.75 successively within the phonological stages initial, development, mid-season and endseason. Fig. 9 shows that with 28.5 spatial resolution of ETM+ image, ET24 variable rate of initial stage on May 28 has a value of 4.03 mm. At development stage on June 13, ET24 values were ranged from 5.1 to 5.8.At mid-season stage on 29 June and July 15, ET24 values were ranged from 5.1 to 6.2 mm. At end-season stage on July 31 and August 16, ET24 values were ranged from 5.2 to 6.5 mm. Higher values (dark blue color with ET24 value of 6.5 mm) appear in the centre of the studied pivot; meanwhile, the outer pivot land (yellow color) shows low ET24 values of 3.15 to 4.03 mm. Missing values of ET24 were obtained by daily calculation of reference evapotranspiration (ETo) using the modified PenmanMonteith method.

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Fig. 9. Different date's instantaneous evapotranspiration of maize mm/day.

Solving the Eq. (6) the ET24 was converted into potential crop evapotranspiration (ETc) recording 1.53, 4.87, 5.31, 7.38, 7.56 and 8.53 mm/day. Spatial patterns for various classes that include the outer pivot land and agricultural crops in the experimental pivot irrigation field and adjacent pivots were shown in Fig. 9 as well. Results obtained from using SEBAL with the aid of PenmanMonteith method throughout Cropwat model indicated that, accumulated water consumption use of the investigated pivot, averaged 483 mm for maize grown without water deficit. So it is worthy to say, under PF the total quantities of irrigation water that added to maize growing in the investigated field (154.79 acre) were determined at 311,978 m /growing season against 405,696 m /growing 3 season under TF, saving an amount of water equal to 93,718 m . The obtained results were in an agreement with results obtained by Al-Kufaishi et al. (2006) who found loss of irrigation water was higher for the uniform application than that for the variable rate application (VRA). To demonstrate crop water requirements and irrigation scheme of maize, FAO Cropwat model was used. 3.2.4.3.2. Cropwat model (based on FAO PenmanMonteith approach)
3 3

This approach overcomes shortcomings of the previous FAO Penman method. From the original PenmanMonteith equation and the equations of the aerodynamic and surface resistance, the FAO PenmanMonteith model was used to estimate ETo as follows: - Soil moisture From field measurements that were matched with Cropwat results, the total available soil moisture (field capacity wilting point) was determined at 58.9 mm/meter, maximum rooting depth was determined at 100 cm. Initial available soil moisture was determined at 58.9 mm/meter. There is no initial soil moisture depletion. - Reference evapotranspiration (ETo) The FAO PenmanMonteith method through Cropwat window model was recommended as the sole method for determining ETo. This method explicitly incorporates both physiological and aerodynamic parameters. To determine ETo in the experimental pivot field, daily climatic data within the growing season were used, meanwhile for simplicity, monthly climatic data and associated ETo was displayed in Fig. 10 . Monthly ETo values were determined as 5.84, 6.58, 6.28 and 5.78 mm for the growing season (May, June, July and August 2009 successively). The reference crop evapotranspiration was at peak (5.84 mm/day) at the initial stage; slightly increased at development stage (6.58 mm/day) than at mid season stage (6.28 mm/day), meanwhile it decreases at end-season stage to reach 5.78 mm/day. Decreasing of ETo values may be due to increasing of relative humidity.

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Fig. 10. Monthly climatic data and associated ETo for maize.

3.2.4.3.3. Crop water requirement (CWR) The amount of water required to compensate the evapotranspiration loss from the cropped field is defined as crop water requirement. Although the values for crop evapotranspiration under standard conditions (ETc) and crop water requirement are identical, crop water requirement refers to the amount of water that needs to be supplied, while crop evapotranspiration refers to the amount of water that is lost through evapotranspiration. Crop water requirement were illustrated in Table 7 and Fig. 11 as well. Table 7. Total ETc and irrigation requirements during the growing season of maize.

Mon th

Deca de

Sta ge

Kcco eff

ETc(mm/d ay)

ETc(mm/d ec)

Eff. rain (mm/d ec)

Irrigati on require d (mm/d ec) 10.5 20.9 40.8 71.7 78.4 76.4 70.8 58.7 36.4 14.3 478.9

May 2 May 3 June 1 June 2 June 3 July 1 July 2 July 3 August 1 August 2

Init Dev. Dev. Mid Mid Mid Late Late Late Late

0.3 0.31 0.64 1.07 1.2 1.2 1.13 0.87 0.61 0.41

1.75 1.90 4.08 7.17 7.84 7.64 7.08 5.34 3.64 2.38

10.5 20.9 40.8 71.7 78.4 76.4 70.8 58.7 36.4 14.3 478.9

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

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Fig. 11. Crop water requirements.

As shown in Table 7 and Fig. 11, the initial stage required 10.5 mm/decade of water due to plant limited growth and somewhat climatic conditions. By the end of development stage irrigation water requirements increased to reach 40.8 mm/decade. The highest amount of required irrigation of 78.4 mm/decade was recorded at the third decade of June (mid-season stage) due to the higher plant growth. Needs to water was reduced sharply in the third decade of July (late-season stage) till it reaches the lowest value of 14.3 mm in the second decade of August to encourage the grains maturity. Generally ETc ranged between 1.75 and 7.84 mm/day during the growing season, while total ETc was determined at 478.9 mm/growing season. Reviewing the obtained results from the two used models, it was noticed that, insignificant difference was found between ETc determined by SEBAL (483 mm) and that determined by Cropwat (478.9 mm) .So it is worthy to say using remote sensing with tighten temporal resolution (quick site revisit i.e. daily visit) and GIS to determine ET c is essential, especially in areas that not covered by meteorological stations like Sahara.

3.2.4.3.4. Irrigation schedule of maize Essentially, maize irrigation schedule included calculations, producing a soil water balance on a daily step. Irrigation schedule always rely on gross and net irrigation. Gross irrigation (GI) represents the water depth in mm applied to the field while net irrigation (NI) represents the water depth in mm that is used beneficially. This allowed developing indicative irrigation schedules to improve water management. Table 8 shows that both gross and net irrigation were increased at the initial stage from 23.2 and 16.2 to 56 and 39.2 mm respectively on the 46th day of mid-season stage, then they decreased to reach 51.4 and 36.2 mm successively on the 61st day of the end-season stage. On the 86th day of the end-season, both of GI and NI increased again reaching their maximums of 64.5 and 45.1 mm. More water supplies at end-season stage encouraged grain weight/size. Water depletion increased gradually from initial stage to end season stage to reach its maximum of 75% one day before harvest. Actual evapotranspiration (ETa) recorded 100% at all growing stages because water stress coefficient (Ks) was equal to 1.0 so, ETc adj value equaled ETc. Converting the Gross irrig tion pp ic tion depth into perm nent supp y w s c ed f ow which w s estim ted by 12.64 l/s/he. A remarkable difference between gross irrigation (653.4 mm) and net irrigation (457.4 mm) led to irrigation efficiency of 70%. Table 8. Irrigation schedule (Gross and net irrigation).

Date

Da y

Stag e

Ks frac t. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

ETa %

Depleti on %

Gross irrigati on (mm) 23.2 33.4 40.8 46.8 51.2 55.1 56.0 54.7 54.6 51.4 60.7 61.0 64.5

Net irrigati on (mm) 16.2 23.4 28.5 32.7 35.8 38.5 39.2 38.4 38.2 36.2 42.5 42.7 45.1

Flow (l/s/h a) 0.3 0.39 0.67 1.08 1.18 1.27 1.3 1.27 1.26 1.19 1.17 0.88 0.68

23-May 9 2-June 19 9-June 26 14-June 31 19-June 36 24-June 41 29-June 46 4-July 51 9-July 56 14-July 61 20-July 67 28-July 75 8-August 86 16End August Total

Init Dev Dev Dev Mid Mid Mid Mid Mid End End End End End

100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 0

56 57 58 59 60 64 65 64 64 60 71 71 75 32

653.4

457.4

12.64

3.2.4.3.5. Soil water retention Fig. 12 shows the relationship between soil water retention and days after planting considering readily available moisture (RAM), total available moisture (TAM) and water

depletion. It was noticed that at initial stage within 10 after planting there was a narrow gab between RAM and TAM with low water depletion, where soil water retention fall in the range of 1030 mm,this gab was enlarged to reach its maximum after 35 days from planting (end of development-season stage),then it was stabilized for 25 days at mid-season stage realizing soil water retention in the range of 32.5 and 60 mm and finally at the end-season stage this gab between RAM and TAM was narrowed again to reach soil water retention in the range of 47.5 and 60.0 mm. Water depletion was increasing with time.

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Fig. 12. Relationship between soil water retention and days after planting.

3.2.5. Correlation analysis of NDVI vs. maize yield Remote sensing measures specific wavelengths of light that are reflected from the leaves of plants in the field. In addition to light in the visible spectra, light in the near infrared spectrum (NIR, which is not visible with the naked eye and is reflected by the plant) is measured as well (Martin, 2004). Larger plants with more leaves will reflect more NIR light than smaller plants, just as healthy vigorous plants of a given size will reflect more NIR light than stressed plants of the same size. Reflectance data were measured and used to calculate NDVI, which has been found to be correlated to plant size, vigor and yield of crops. In this study, at different critical periods the correlation between NDVI and yield was derived. Though variations could be observed between NDVI and yield, yet a positive correlation was obtained representing a linear relation,where lower range of NDVI that represented by 0.04 0.17 reflects the lower yield of 1.3 tonnes/acre, meanwhile the higher range of NDVI (0.43 0.57) reflects the higher yield of 3.0 tonnes/acre,[Fig. 13] and [Fig. 14].

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Fig. 13. NDVI under PF.

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Fig. 14. Yield map under PF.

Regression analyses showed a positive relationship between NDVI and grain yield (Fig. 15), 2 where regression equation was represented by: y = 3.9217x + 1.0071 with R up to 0.9743, where x = NDVI.

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Fig. 15. Relationship between NDVI and grain yield.

3.2.6. Change detection of management zones and yield

Factors limiting the productivity of a field often arise suddenly and must be corrected quickly to preserve the full yield potential of the crop (OMAFRA Staff, 2008) The obtained data were transferred to a yield map using ARC MAP software (Fig. 11). It was noticed that, there was a dramatically change in areas of management zone between TF&PF where under PF at least three zones were merged to represent 84.3% of the pivot irrigation field area. On the other hand, yield under TF recorded 2200, 1900, 1600 and 800 kg/acre meanwhile it recorded 2300, 3000, 2400 and 2000 kg/acre under PF achieving a remarkable yield increase of 1000, 2100, 800 and 200 kg/acre in the management zones 1, 2, 3 and 4 respectively.

3.3. Precision farming profitability

Precision farming profitability could be discussed through two approaches: 1, economic profitability and 2, environmental profitability. 3.3.1. Economic profitability Lambert and Lowenberg-DeBoer (2000) reviewed 108 studies regarding precision farming profitability, reporting that 63% of the studies indicated positive net returns for a given PF technology, while 11% indicated negative returns. There were 27 articles indicating mixed results (26%). The economic profitability of precision farming is as variable as the field conditions. In highly uniform fields, better knowledge of soil and plant parameters is not as likely to result in greater economic return as it is in fields with variable conditions. In the experimental pivot return and costs were compared in both TF and PF as illustrated in Table 9. Although costs of applying PF were much higher than TF, total returns increased from 472,773.0 at TF to 784,675.5 LE at PF (65.97%) at PF. The economic profitability (returns-costs) recorded 238,298.42 LE for TF and 284,133.39 LE for PF representing an increase of (29.89%). Table 9. Comparison between returns/costs in both TF and PF.

Traditional farming (TF 2008) Zo ne 2 Zo ne 3 Zo ne 4

Precision farming (PF 2009) Zo ne 2 Zo ne 3 Zo ne 4

Zone 1 Returns (L.E.) Yield/tones Price (LE/tonnes) Acreage (acre) Total returns (L.E.) Costs (L.E.) Grid sampling Chemical analyses 2.200 1750 3.87 472773

Zone 1

1.90 0 1750 82.7 8

1.60 0 1750 62.3 1

0.80 2.300 0 1750 1750 5.83 0.80 784675 .5 2500 6800

3.00 0 1750 130. 49

2.40 0 1750 20.1 9

2.00 0 1750 3.31

Traditional farming (TF 2008) Zo ne 2 Zo ne 3 Zo ne 4

Precision farming (PF 2009) Zo ne 2 Zo ne 3 Zo ne 4

Zone 1 Remote sensing Computer(Laptop) Software's GPS Equipped tractor Chemical fertilizers Total costs (L.E.) Profit (total returns total costs) 252942. 33 252942. 33 219830. 67

Zone 1 21000 5000 50000 5000 200000 208842 .11 499142 .11 285533 .39

Note: LE = Egyptian pound.

3.3.2. Environmental profitability Excessive fertilizers and inadequate quantities of irrigation water applied to plants during crop maintenance may leach into the ground water through deep percolation causing pollution. Nutrient pollution has consistently ranked as one of the top causes of degradation in waters for more than a decade. Excess nutrients lead to significant water quality problems including harmful algal blooms, hypoxia and declines in wildlife and wildlife habitat, especially in Egypt many people still drinking the ground water. From the environmental point of view under PF macro nutrients application decreased by 23.566 tonnes and irrigation water decreased by 93,718 m /experimental pivot area. This decrease in fertilizers use and irrigation water limited the environmental hazards especially pollution caused by excessive nitrate.
3

4. Conclusions
The study aimed to improve land and water use efficiency and to determine the profitability of precision farming practices environmentally and economically against traditional farming practices. The conclusions drawn from this study indicate that, precision agriculture offers the potential to automate and simplify the collection and analysis of information. It allows management decisions to be made and quickly implemented on management zones within the fields. Maize was receptive crop to PF when controlling the variable input of fertilizers, water consumption and management practices. NDVI has been found to be correlated significantly to the yield of crops as at different critical periods the correlation between NDVI and yield was highly significant. NDVI could express the biomass so far and also could define the management zone perfectly. Soils with much variability seemed to be more

responsive to management practices, i.e. optimum fertilizers input in each zone, water consumption and vertical drainage in the scattered spots of subsurface shale layers. Economic and environmental profitability of PF has been achieved by potentially reducing input costs, increasing yields, and reducing environmental impacts (excessive water and fertilizers) through better matching inputs applied to crop needs. Remote sensing has proved that it is a promising tool for determining water consumption use especially in those areas that are not covered by meteorological stations i.e. Sahara. Finally it is worthy to say PF is essential economically by improving revenues or cash flow and environmentally through reducing input losses and increasing nutrient uptake efficiency.

Recommendations
This study recommends that, the database about how to treat different areas in a field requires years of observation and implementation through trial-and-error to get the best results to be adopted by the land users. Today, that level of knowledge of field conditions is difficult to maintain because of the larger farm sizes and changes in areas farmed due to annual shifts in leasing arrangements. However, we would expect that PF would be more feasible with producers who could either spread the technology costs over a large number of acres or could control production practices for more than one input. Finally it is worth to say adopting advanced technologies of precision farming using remote sensing and GIS techniques is the key issue for maximizing the output of the farm production system.

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