Management Process and Organization Behavior

Unit 5

Unit 5
Structure: 5.1 Introduction Learning Objectives 5.2 Personality Determinants 5.3 Personality Theories William Sheldon Catells 16 PF MBTI Big Five personality Model Type A Type B 5.4 Achieving Personality Fit 5.5 Summary 5.6 Terminal Questions 5.7 Answers

Personality

5.1 Introduction
The term 'personality' has been derived from the Latin term 'persona' which means to 'speak through'. The Latin word denotes the masks worn by actors in ancient Greece and Rome. Therefore, a very common meaning of the term personality is the role which the person (actor) displays in the public domain at large. Personality is a dynamic concept describing the growth and development of a persons whole psychological system-it looks at some aggregate whole that is greater than the sum of the parts. For psychologists, personality includes: i) ii) iii) Eternal appearances and behaviour The inner awareness of self as a permanent organizing force, and The particular organization of measurable traits, both inner and outer.

Allport (1937) defined personality as the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his unique adjustments to his environment.

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Learning Objectives After studying this unit you should be able to: State the determinants of personality Describe the personality theories Discuss the personality fit

Personality traits are the key antecedent of an individuals cognitions and affective states that may influence his or her task and interpersonal or socioemotional role behavior (in teams). (Moynihan and Peterson, 2001) Personality can be defined as a dynamic and organized set of characteristics possessed by a person that uniquely influences his or her cognitions, motivations, and behaviors in various situations. (Ryckman, 2004) According to Cattell (1965) that which permits a prediction of what a person will do in a given situation. Personality is the organized, developing system within the individual that represents the collective action of that individuals major psychological subsystems (Mayer, 2007). Personality refers to those characteristics of the person that account for consistent patterns of feelings, thinking, and behaving (Pervin, Cervone & John, 2005). Personality is the set of psychological traits and mechanisms within the individual that are organized and relatively enduring and that influence his or her interactions with, and adaptations to, the intrapsychic, physical, and social environments (Larson & Buss, 2005). J.B Kolasa(1978) defines personality as "Personality is a broad, amorphous designation relating to fundamental approaches of persons to others and themselves. To most psychologists and students of behaviour, this term refers to the study of the characteristic traits of an individual, relationships between these traits and the way in which a person adjusts to other people and situations".

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According to Gluck(1968) "Personality is a pattern of stable states and characteristics of a person that influences his or her behaviour toward goal achievement. Each person has unique ways of protecting these states". James D Thompson and Donald Van Houten(1967) define personality as "a very diverse and complex psychological concept. The word 'personality' may mean something like outgoing, invigorating interpersonal abilities ... but we must also recognize and explain the fact that development results in man acquiring a distinctiveness or uniqueness which gives him identity that enables him and us to recognize him as apart from others. These distinguishing characteristics are summarized by the term 'personality'. From the above definitions we can say that personality is a very diverse and complex psychological concept. It is concerned with external appearance and behaviour, self, measurable traits, and situational interactions.

5.2 Personality Determinants

The factors affecting personality development are illustrated below: 1. Heredity The relationship of heredity with personality is a well-accepted fact. Traits like physique, eye color, hair color, height, temperament, energy level, intelligence, reflexes, etc. are generally referred to describe the influence of heredity in developing personality. The heredity approach argues that the ultimate explanation of an individuals personality is the molecular structure of the genes, located in the chromosomes. Robbins (2003) has argued that the three different streams of research lend some credibility to the argument that heredity plays an important part in determining an individual's personality. The first looks at the genetic underpinnings of human behavior and temperament among young children. The second addresses the study of twins who were separated at birth and the third examines the consistency in job satisfaction over time and across situations. 2. Environment Environment comprises of culture, family, social and situational factors. The environmental factors influence personality of an individual since they provide the basis of certain experiences which determine the individuals view about life, both positive and negative.
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3. Culture Culture establishes norms, attitudes and values that are passed on from generation to generation and create consistencies over time. Every culture expects and trains its members to behave in the ways that are acceptable to the group. People from different cultural groups have different attitudes towards independence, aggression, competition, cooperation, artistic talent, etc. However, on the basis of culture, an individuals personality cannot be always assessed, since individuals within the same culture (but from different family and sub-cultural background) have been seen to differ in their behavior. To a marked degree, the child's cultural group defines the range of experiences and situations he is likely to encounter and the values and personality characteristics that will be reinforced and hence learned." Culture requires both conformity and acceptance from its members. 4. Family One of the most important determinants of the personality of a person is the immediate family. Families influence the behavior of a person especially in the early stages of life. The nature of such influence will depend upon the socio-economic level of the family, family size, race, religion, parent's educational level and geographic location. The parents play an especially important part in the identification process, which is important to the person's early development. According to Mischel, the process can be examined from three different perspectives. i. Identification can be viewed as the similarity of behaviour including feelings and attitudes between child and model. Parents being the first model. ii. Identification can be looked at as the child's motives or desires to be like the model. iii. It can be viewed as the process through which the child actually takes on the attributes of the model. From all three perspectives, the identification process is fundamental to the understanding of personality development.

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5. Situation Situational factors also play a crucial role in determining the personality of a person. Every individual goes through different type of experiences and events in his/her life. Some of the events and experiences, which an individual goes through in his/her life, can serve as important determinants of his/her personality. A trauma suffered by a person in the childhood can sometime change the structure of his/her own personality. 6. Social Factors There is increasing recognition given to the role of other relevant persons, groups and especially organizations, which greatly influence an individual's personality. This is commonly called the socialization process. Socialization involves the process by which a person acquires, from the enormously wide range of behavioural potentialities that are open to him or her, those that are ultimately synthesized and absorbed. Socialization starts with the initial contact between a mother and her new infant. After infancy, other members of the immediate family father, brothers, sisters and close relatives or friends, then the social group: peers, school friends and members of the work group - play influential roles. Self Assessment Questions 1. The heredity approach argues that the ultimate explanation of an individuals personality is the molecular structure of the _____________ 2. One of the most important determinants of the personality of a person is the________ family

5.3 Personality Theories

5.3.1 William Sheldon, 1940's William Sheldon (1940, 1942, cited in Phares, 1991) classified personality according to body type. He called this a persons somatotype.

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Sheldon identified three main somatotypes:

Table 5.1 Sheldons Classification of Personality Types. Sheldon's Somatotype Endomorph [viscerotonic] Character relaxed, sociable, tolerant, comfort-loving, peaceful Shape plump, buxom, developed visceral structure Sample Picture

Mesomorph [somatotonic]

active, assertive, vigorous, combative

muscular

Ectomorph [cerebrotonic]

quiet, fragile, restrained, lean, delicate, poor non-assertive, sensitive muscles

Somatotypes In the 1940s, Sheldon proposed a theory about how there are certain body types ("somatotypes") that are associated with certain personality characteristics. William Sheldon (1898-1977) was an American psychologist who devoted his life to observing the variety of human bodies and temperaments. He taught and did research at a number of U.S.universities and is best known for his series of books on the human constitution. He was a keen observer of animals and birds as a child, and he turned this talent to good effect by becoming an avid people-watcher, and out of his observations he gradually elaborated his typology.He claimed that there are three such somatotypes: endomorphy, mesomorphy, and ectomorphy. Endomorphy focused on the digestive system, particularly the stomach (endoderm); has the tendency toward plumpness, corresponds to Viscerotonia temperament tolerant, love of comfort and luxury, extravert.
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Mesophorphy focused on musculature and the circulatory system (mesoderm), has the tendency towards muscularity, corresponds to the Somatotonia temperament courageous, energetic, active, dynamic, assertive, aggressive, risk taker. Ectomorphy focused on the nervous system and the brain (ectoderm) the tendency towards slightness, corresponds to Cerebrotonia temperament artistic, sensitive, apprehensive, introvert. On this basis, Sheldon created his very interesting Atlas of Men (Macmillan Pub Co; 1970) in which all possible body types are graded in a scale from 1 (low) to 7 (high), based on the degree to which they matched these types; with 4 as average). Each type is represented by a series of photos, and is given a comical or descriptive name, like "saber tooth tiger" for extreme mesomorph, "Baluchitherium" (the largest prehistoric land mammal) for mesomorph and endomorph, "Male Mosquito" for the extreme ectomorph, and so on. On this scale, the extreme or pure mesomorph has a score of 1-7-1, the pure endomorph 7-1-1, and the pure ectomorph 1-1-7. Most people of course are a combination of types. a. Endomorphic Body Type: soft body underdeveloped muscles round shaped over-developed digestive system Associated personality traits: love of food tolerant evenness of emotions love of comfort sociable good humoured relaxed need for affection b. Mesomorphic Body Type: hard, muscular body overly mature appearance
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rectangular shaped thick skin upright posture

Associated personality traits: adventurous desire for power and dominance courageous indifference to what others think or want assertive, bold zest for physical activity competitive love of risk and chance c. Ectomorphic Body Type: thin flat chest delicate build young appearance tall lightly muscled stoop-shouldered large brain Associated personality traits: self-conscious preference for privacy introverted inhibited socially anxious artistic mentally intense emotionally restrained Sheldon measured the proportions of hundreds of juvenile delinquent boys and concluded that they were generally mesomorphs (Ornstein, 1993).

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Body types have been criticized for very weak empirical methodology and are not generally used in psychology. The use of somatotyping (using different taxonomies) is used more often in alternative therapies and Eastern psychology and spirituality. Traits are underlying tendencies to behave in a consistent and distinctive style and they describe the frequency or intensity of a person's feelings, thoughts, or behaviors. Possession of a trait is, therefore, a matter of degree. Some of the most important research works on personality traits are mentioned below: 5.3.2 Cattells 16 Personality Factor Model Early research on personality traits resulted in isolating large numbers of traits, which made it impossible to predict behavior. Cattells (1973) is one of the most important personality trait theory, where the number of traits have been reduced. Cattell referred to these 16 factors as primary factors. Primary Factors and Descriptors in Cattell's 16 Personality Factor Model (Adapted From Conn & Rieke, 1994).
Table 5.2 Cattlels 16 Primary Factors.
Descriptors of Low Range 1 Reserve, impersonal, distant, cool, reserved, impersonal, detached, formal, aloof (Sizothymia) Concrete thinking, lower general mental capacity, less intelligent, unable to handle abstract problems (Lower Scholastic Mental Capacity) Primary Factor Warmth Descriptors of High Range Warm, outgoing, attentive to others, kindly, easy going, participating, likes people (Affectothymia) Abstract-thinking, more intelligent, bright, higher general mental capacity, fast learner (Higher Scholastic Mental Capacity)

Reasoning

Reactive emotionally, changeable, affected by feelings, emotionally less Emotional Stability stable, easily upset (Lower Ego Strength) Deferential, cooperative, avoids conflict, submissive, humble, obedient, easily led, docile, accommodating (Submissiveness) Dominance

Emotionally stable, adaptive, mature, faces reality calm (Higher Ego Strength) Dominant, forceful, assertive, aggressive, competitive, stubborn, bossy (Dominance)

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Serious, restrained, prudent, taciturn, introspective, silent (Desurgency) Expedient, nonconforming, disregards rules, self indulgent (Low Super Ego Strength) Shy, threat-sensitive, timid, hesitant, intimidated (Threctia) Utilitarian, objective, unsentimental, tough minded, self-reliant, nononsense, rough (Harria) Trusting, unsuspecting, accepting, unconditional, easy (Alaxia) Grounded, practical, prosaic, solution orientated, steady, conventional (Praxernia) Forthright, genuine, artless, open, guileless, naive, unpretentious, involved (Artlessness) Self-Assured, unworried, complacent, secure, free of guilt, confident, self satisfied (Untroubled) Traditional, attached to familiar, conservative, respecting traditional ideas (Conservatism) Group-oriented, affiliative, a joiner and follower dependent (Group Adherence) Tolerated disorder, unexacting, flexible, undisciplined, lax, selfconflict, impulsive, careless of social rues, uncontrolled (Low Integration) Relaxed, placid, tranquil, torpid, patient, composed low drive (Low Ergic Tension)

Liveliness

Lively, animated, spontaneous, enthusiastic, happy go lucky, cheerful, expressive, impulsive (Surgency) Rule-conscious, dutiful, conscientious, conforming, moralistic, staid, rule bound (High Super Ego Strength) Socially bold, venturesome, thick skinned, uninhibited (Parmia) Sensitive, aesthetic, sentimental, tender minded, intuitive, refined (Premsia) Vigilant, suspicious, skeptical, distrustful, oppositional (Protension) Abstract, imaginative, absent minded, impractical, absorbed in ideas (Autia) Private, discreet, nondisclosing, shrewd, polished, worldly, astute, diplomatic (Shrewdness) Apprehensive, self doubting, worried, guilt prone, insecure, worrying, self blaming (Guilt Proneness) Open to change, experimental, liberal, analytical, critical, free thinking, flexibility (Radicalism) Self-reliant, solitary, resourceful, individualistic, self sufficient (Self-Sufficiency) Perfectionistic, organized, compulsive, self-disciplined, socially precise, exacting will power, control, self sentimental (High Self-Concept Control) Tense, high energy, impatient, driven, frustrated, over wrought, time driven. (High Ergic Tension)

RuleConsciousness

Social Boldness

Sensitivity

Vigilance

10

Abstractedness

11

Privateness

12

Apprehension

13

Openness to Change

14

Self-Reliance

15

Perfectionism

16

Tension

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5.3.3 The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator The MBTI classifies human beings into four opposite pairs (dichotomies), base on their psychological opposites. These four opposite pairs result into 16 possible combinations. In MBTI, Individuals are classified as (McCrae and Costa, 1989) : a. Extroverted or introverted (E or I). b. Sensing or intuitive (S or N). c. Thinking or feeling (T or F). d. Perceiving or judging (P or J). These classifications are then combined into sixteen personality types. For example: a. INTJs are visionaries. They usually have original minds and great drive for their own ideas and purposes. They are characterized as skeptical, critical, independent, determined, and often stubborn. b. ESTJs are organizers. They are realistic, logical, analytical, decisive, and have a natural head for business or mechanics. They like to organize and run activities. c. The ENTP type is a conceptualizer. He or she is innovative, individualistic, versatile, and attracted to entrepreneurial ideas. This person tends to be resourceful in solving challenging problems but may neglect routine assignments. Activity 1 Visit the following site to get more details about using MBTI. http://www.myersbriggs.org/

5.3.4 The big five model Many researchers argue that five basic dimensions underlie all other personality dimensions (e.g; McCrae and Costa, 1990; Digman, 1997). The five basic dimensions are: 1. Extraversion. Comfort level with relationships. Extraverts tend to be gregarious, assertive, and sociable. Introverts tend to be reserved, timid, and quiet.
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2. Agreeableness. Individuals propensity to defer to others. High agreeableness people cooperative, warm, and trusting. Low agreeableness people cold, disagreeable, and antagonistic. 3. Conscientiousness. A measure of reliability. A high conscientious person is responsible, organized, dependable, and persistent. Those who score low on this dimension are easily distracted, disorganized, and unreliable. 4. Emotional stability. A persons ability to withstand stress. People with positive emotional stability tend to be calm, self-confident, and secure. Those with high negative scores tend to be nervous, anxious, depressed, and insecure. 5. Openness to experience. The range of interests and fascination with novelty. Extremely open people are creative, curious, and artistically sensitive. Those at the other end of the openness category are conventional and find comfort in the familiar. Extraversion Extraversion (also "extroversion") is marked by pronounced engagement with the external world. Extraverts enjoy being with people, are full of energy, and often experience positive emotions. They tend to be enthusiastic, action-oriented individuals who are likely to say "Yes!" or "Let's go!" to opportunities for excitement. In groups they like to talk, assert themselves, and draw attention to themselves. Introverts lack the exuberance, energy, and activity levels of extraverts. They tend to be quiet, low-key, deliberate, and less dependent on the social world. Their lack of social involvement should not be interpreted as shyness or depression; the introvert simply needs less stimulation than an extravert and more time alone to re-charge their batteries. Sample Extraversion items I am the life of the party. I don't mind being the centre of attention. I feel comfortable around people. I start conversations. I talk to a lot of different people at parties. I am quiet around strangers. (reversed)
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I don't like to draw attention to myself. (reversed) I don't talk a lot. (reversed) I have little to say. (reversed) I keep in the background. (reversed)

b. Agreeableness Agreeableness reflects individual differences in concern with cooperation and social harmony. Agreeable individuals value getting along with others. They are therefore considerate, friendly, generous, helpful, and willing to compromise their interests with others. Agreeable people also have an optimistic view of human nature. They believe people are basically honest, decent, and trustworthy. I am interested in people. I feel others emotions. I have a soft heart. I make people feel at ease. I sympathize with others feelings. I take time out for others. I am not interested in other peoples problems. (reversed) I am not really interested in others. (reversed) I feel little concern for others. (reversed) I insult people. (reversed) c. Conscientiousness Conscientiousness concerns the way in which we control, regulate, and direct our impulses. Impulses are not inherently bad; occasionally time constraints require a snap decision, and acting on our first impulse can be an effective response. Also, in times of play rather than work, acting spontaneously and impulsively can be fun. Impulsive individuals can be seen by others as colourful, fun-to-be-with, and zany. Conscientiousness includes the factor known as Need for Achievement (NAch). The benefits of high conscientiousness are obvious. Conscientious individuals avoid trouble and achieve high levels of success through purposeful planning and persistence. They are also positively regarded by others as intelligent and reliable. On the negative side, they can be compulsive perfectionists and workaholics. Furthermore, extremely conscientious individuals might be regarded as stuffy and boring.
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Unconscientious people may be criticized for their unreliability, lack of ambition, and failure to stay within the lines, but they will experience many short-lived pleasures and they will never be called stuffy (i.e. dull, boring, unimaginative). Sample Conscientiousness items I am always prepared. I am exacting in my work. I follow a schedule. I get chores done right away. I like order. I pay attention to details. I leave my belongings around. (reversed) I make a mess of things. (reversed) I often forget to put things back in their proper place. (reversed) I shirk my duties. (reversed) d. Neuroticism Neuroticism, also known inversely as Emotional Stability, refers to the tendency to experience negative emotions. Those who score high on Neuroticism may experience primarily one specific negative feeling such as anxiety, anger, or depression, but are likely to experience several of these emotions. People high in Neuroticism are emotionally reactive. They respond emotionally to events that would not affect most people, and their reactions tend to be more intense than normal. They are more likely to interpret ordinary situations as threatening, and minor frustrations as hopelessly difficult. Their negative emotional reactions tend to persist for unusually long periods of time, which means they are often in a bad mood. These problems in emotional regulation can diminish a neurotic's ability to think clearly, make decisions, and cope effectively with stress. At the other end of the scale, individuals who score low in Neuroticism are less easily upset and are less emotionally reactive. They tend to be calm, emotionally stable, and free from persistent negative feelings. Freedom from negative feelings does not mean that low scorers experience a lot of positive feelings; frequency of positive emotions is a component of the Extraversion domain.

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Sample Neuroticism items I am easily disturbed. I change my mood a lot. I get irritated easily. I get stressed out easily. I get upset easily. I have frequent mood swings. I often feel blue. I worry about things. I am relaxed most of the time. (reversed) I seldom feel blue. (reversed) e. Openness to Experience Openness to Experience describes a dimension of personality that distinguishes imaginative, creative people from down-to-earth, conventional people. Open people are intellectually curious, appreciative of art, and sensitive to beauty. They tend to be, compared to closed people, more aware of their feelings. They therefore tend to hold unconventional and individualistic beliefs, although their actions may be conforming (see agreeableness). People with low scores on openness to experience tend to have narrow, common interests. They prefer the plain, straightforward, and obvious over the complex, ambiguous, and subtle. They may regard the arts and sciences with suspicion, regarding these endeavours as abstruse or of no practical use. Closed people prefer familiarity over novelty; they are conservative and resistant to change. Sample Openness items I am full of ideas. I am quick to understand things. I have a rich vocabulary. I have a vivid imagination. I have excellent ideas. I spend time reflecting on things. I use difficult words. I am not interested in abstract ideas. (reversed) I do not have a good imagination. (reversed) I have difficulty understanding abstract ideas. (reversed)
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Causes of Openness Openness is heritable, like all of the major personality dimensions, with estimates clustering around 0.4. One environmental cause of increased openness appears to be exposure to tertiary (College) education. Locus of control A persons perception of the source of his/her fate is termed locus of control. Locus of control was formulated within the framework of Rotter's (1954) social learning theory of personality. Rotter (1975) pointed out that internality and externality represent two ends of a continuum, not an either/or typology. Internals tend to attribute outcomes of events to their own control. Externals attribute outcomes of events to external circumstances. For example, college students with a strong internal locus of control may believe that their grades were achieved through their own abilities and efforts, whereas, those with a strong external locus of control may believe that their grades are the result of good or bad luck, or to a professor who designs bad tests or grades capriciously; hence, they are less likely to expect that their own efforts will result in success and are therefore less likely to work hard for high grades. Individuals who rate high in externality are less satisfied with their jobs, have higher absenteeism rates, are more alienated from the work setting, and are less involved on their jobs than are internals. Internals, facing the same situation, attribute organizational outcomes to their own actions. Internals believe that health is substantially under their own control through proper habits; their incidences of sickness and, hence, of absenteeism, are lower. Internals generally perform better on their jobs, but one needs to consider differences in jobs. Internals search more actively for information before making a decision, are more motivated to achieve, and make a greater attempt to control their environment, and hence, internals do well on sophisticated tasks. Internals are more suited to jobs that require initiative and independence of action and want autonomy and independence in their jobs. Externals are more compliant and willing to follow directions and be led, and do well on jobs that are well structured and routine and in which success depends heavily on complying with the direction of others.

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Activity 2 Visit the following site to identify your Big Five http://similarminds.com/big5.html Machiavellianism Machiavellianism is the term that some social and personality psychologists use to describe a person's tendency to deceive and manipulate others for personal gain. The concept is named after Renaissance diplomat and writer Niccol Machiavelli, who wrote Il Principe (The Prince). Christie and Geis (1970) developed a test for measuring a person's level of Machiavellianism. This eventually became the MACH-IV test, a twentystatement personality survey that is now the standard self-assessment tool of Machiavellianism. An individual high in Machiavellianism is pragmatic, maintains emotional distance, and believes that ends can justify means. High Machs manipulate more, win more, are persuaded less, and persuade others more. High Mach outcomes are moderated by situational factors and flourish when they interact face to face with others, rather than indirectly, and when the situation has a minimum number of rules and regulations, thus, allowing room for improvisation. High Machs make good employees in jobs that require bargaining skills or that offer substantial rewards for winning. Self-esteem ( SE) Self-esteem is defined as the degree to which people like or dislike themselves (Robbins, 2003). Individuals with high self-esteem tend to take more risks in job selection and are more likely to choose unconventional jobs in contrast to people with low self-esteem. Low SEs are more susceptible to external influence than are high SEs. Low SEs are dependent on the receipt of positive evaluations from others. In managerial positions, therefore, low SEs will tend to be concerned with pleasing others. Self-monitoring It refers to an individuals ability to adjust his or her behavior to external, situational factors. Individuals high in self-monitoring show considerable adaptability. They are highly sensitive to external cues, and are capable of behaving differently in different situations, and presenting striking
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contradictions between their public persona and their private self. Low selfmonitors cannot disguise themselves in that way. They tend to display their true dispositions and attitudes in almost every situation resulting in a high behavioral consistency between who they are and what they do. High selfmonitors tend to pay closer attention to the behavior of others. High selfmonitoring managers tend to be more mobile in their careers and receive more promotions. High self-monitor is capable of putting on different faces for different audiences. 5.3.5 Type A and Type B personality Type A personality is a set of characteristics that includes, being impatient, excessively time-conscious, insecure about one's status, highly competitive, hostile and aggressive, and incapable of relaxation (Friedman & Rosenman 1974). i. Are always moving, walking, and eating rapidly: ii. Feel impatient with the rate at which most events take place; iii. Strive to think or do two or more things simultaneously; iv. Cannot cope with leisure time; and v. Are obsessed with numbers, measuring their success in terms of how much of everything they acquire. Type B personality is rarely hurried by the desire to obtain an increasing number of things or participate in events demanding an ever-decreasing amount of time (Friedman & Rosenman, 1974). Never suffer from a sense of time urgency with its accompanying impatience; i. Feel no need to display or discuss either their achievements or accomplishments unless such exposure is demanded by the situation; ii. Play for fun and relaxation, rather than to exhibit their superiority at any cost; and iii. Can relax without guilt. Self Assessment Questions 3. Cattell referred to these 16 factors as _____________ factors. 4. The MBTI classifies human beings into _____________ opposite pairs 5. Locus of control was formulated within the framework of Rotter's ___________ theory of personality
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5.4 Achieving Personality-Job- Fit

According to Holland (1997), workers are not passive victims of their environments, but actively seek potentially compatible work environments. If an individuals personality and the work environment fitthat is, if the personality is congruent with the work environmentthe individual will most likely enjoy the work and develop and grow in the career. Matching people to the organizational culture at the time of hiring should result in higher employee satisfaction and reduced turnover. Holland has proposed Six themes of people and work environments, within which all jobs can be classified: 1. Realistic 2. Investigative 3. Artistic 4. Social 5. Enterprising 6. Conventional The above-mentioned classification is shown in more details in the following chart:
Table 5.3: Personality Job Fit
Type Realistic: Prefers physical activities that require skill, strength, and coordination Investigative: Prefers activities that involve thinking, organizing, and understanding Social: Prefers activities that involve helping and developing others Conventional: Prefers ruleregulated, orderly, and unambiguous activities Enterprising: Prefers verbal activities in which there are opportunities to influence others and attain power Artistic: Prefers ambiguous and unsystematic activities that allow creative expression Personality Characteristics Shy, genuine, persistent, stable, conforming, practical Analytical, original, curious, independent Sociable, friendly, cooperative, understanding Conforming, efficient, practical, unimaginative, inflexible Congruent Occupation Mechanic, drill press operator, assembly-line worker, farmer Biologist, economist, mathematician, news reporter Social workers, teacher, counselor, clinical psychologist Accountant, corporate manager, bank teller, file clerk

Self-confident, Lawyer, real estate agent, ambitious, public relations specialist, energetic, domineering small business manager Imaginative, disorderly, Painter, musician, writer, interior decorator idealistic, emotional, impractical

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Self Assessment Questions 6. Holland has proposed _________ themes of people and work environments, within which all jobs can be classified 7. _____________ person prefers verbal activities in which there are opportunities to influence others and attain power.

5.5 Summary
Let us sum up what we have discussed in this unit: The term 'personality' has been derived from the Latin term 'persona' which means to 'speak through'. The factors affecting personality development are Heredity, Environment, Culture, Family, and Situation. Personality Traits are underlying tendencies to behave in a consistent and distinctive style and they describe the frequency or intensity of a person's feelings, thoughts, or behaviors. Possession of a trait is, therefore, a matter of degree. Early research on personality traits resulted in isolating large numbers of traits, which made it impossible to predict behavior. According to Sheldon(1940) there is a link between physiological traits and characteristics of an individual with his behavior. There are basically three types-endomorph, mesomorph and ectomorph. Cattells (1973) is one of the most important personality trait theory, where the number of traits have been reduced. Cattell referred to these 16 factors as primary factors. The MBTI classifies human beings into four opposite pairs (dichotomies), base on their psychological opposites. These four opposite pairs result into 16 possible combinations. Many researchers argue that five basic dimensions underlie all other personality dimensions (e.g; McCrae and Costa, 1990; Digman, 1997). The five basic dimensions are Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Emotional stability, and openness to experience. A persons perception of the source of his/her fate is termed locus of control. Locus of control was formulated within the framework of Rotter's (1954) social learning theory of personality. Rotter (1975) pointed out that internality and externality represent two ends of a continuum, not an either/or typology. Internals tend to attribute outcomes of events to their own control.

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Unit 5

Machiavellianism is the term that some social and personality psychologists use to describe a person's tendency to deceive and manipulate others for personal gain. Self-esteem is defined as the degree to which people like or dislike themselves (Robbins, 2003). Self-monitoring refers to an individuals ability to adjust his or her behavior to external, situational factors. Individuals high in self-monitoring show considerable adaptability. Type A personality is a set of characteristics that includes, being impatient, excessively timeconscious, insecure about one's status, highly competitive, hostile and aggressive, and incapable of relaxation. Type B personality is rarely hurried by the desire to obtain an increasing number of things or participate in events demanding an ever-decreasing amount of time. According to Holland (1997), workers are not passive victims of their environments, but actively seek potentially compatible work environments. If an individuals personality and the work environment fit that is, if the personality is congruent with the work environment the individual will most likely enjoy the work and develop and grow in the career. Matching people to the organizational culture at the time of hiring should result in higher employee satisfaction and reduced turnover.

5.6 Terminal Questions

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Describe the determinants of personality. Explain The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. Explain the personality dimensions mentioned in big five model. Explain Type A and Type B personality. Based on Hollands approach, explain personality-job-fit.

5.7 Answers
Answers to Self Assessment Questions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Genes Immediate Primary Four Social learning Six Enterprising
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Management Process and Organization Behavior

Unit 5

Answers to Terminal Questions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Refer section 5.2 Refer section 5.3 Refer section 5.3 Refer section 5.3 Refer section 5.4

Glossary
Words Agreeableness Culture Meaning A person's ability to get along with others. Broadly, social heritage of a group (organized community or society). It is a pattern of responses discovered, developed, or invented during the group's history of handling problems which arise from interactions among its members, and between them and their environment The quality of being comfortable with relationships; the opposite extreme, introversion, is characterized by more social discomfort Social unit of two or more persons related by blood, marriage, or adoption and having a shared commitment to the mutual relationship. See also household The extent to which people believe their circumstances are a function of their own actions versus external factors beyond their control The relatively stable set of psychological attributes that distinguish one person from another.

Extraversion Family

Locus of control Personality

Suggested Reading Read the book The Prince. (Penguin-London) by Machiavelli, Niccolo (2004) Additional References http://www.thepersonalitysystem.org/PFAAssets/Miscellaneous/Assertin g%20the%20definition%20of%20personality.pdf http://dakota.fmpdata.net/PsychAI/PrintFiles/PersTheories.pdf http://similarminds.com/big5.html http://www.myersbriggs.org/ http://www.kheper.net/topics/typology/somatotypes.html
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