EC2254 LINEAR INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

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ST. JOSEPHS COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering Subject : EC 2254 -Linear Integrated Circuits Class : IV Sem ECE
UNIT I : IC FABRICATION & CIRCUIT CONFIGURATION FOR LINEAR ICs PART A 1. What is an IC? An integrated circuit is a miniature, low cost electronic circuit consisting of active and passive components that are irreparably joined together on a single crystal chip of silicon. 2. List the advantages of IC over discrete component circuit. Low cost (due to the large quantities processed) Small size. High reliability. ( All components are fabricated simultaneously and there are no soldered joints) Improved performance. ( Because of the low cost, more complex circuitry may be used to obtain better functional characteristics. ) 3. Classify ICs on the basic of application, device used and chip complexity. Based on application, ICs can be classified as monolithic integrated circuits and hybrid circuits. Based on the active devices used, ICs can be classified as Bipolar (using BJT) and unipolar (using FET). Based on the chip complexity, ICs can be classified as SSI Small Scale Integration, MSI Medium Scale Integration, LSI Large Scale Integration, VLSI Very Large Scale Integration, ULSI Ultra Scale Integration and GSI Giant Scale Integration. 4. Name the technology used for the fabrication of transistors or ICs. Monolithic Integrated Circuit Technology which means a circuit fabricated from a single stone or a single crystal. 5. List the basic processes used in the silicon planar technology. Silicon wafer ( substrate ) preparation. Epitaxial growth Oxidation Photolithography Diffusion Ion implantation Isolation Technique. Metallization Assembly Processing and Packaging

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Explain the word Epitaxy The word epitaxy is derived from Greek word epi meaning upon and taxy is the past tense of the word teinon meaning arranged. Therefore, epitaxy means arranging atoms in single crystal fashion upon a single crystal substrate, so that the resulting layer is an extension of the substrate crystal structure. 7. What is the function of silicon di- oxide on an IC ? Silicon dioxide has the property of preventing the diffusion of almost all impurities through it. It serves two very important purposes. Sio2 is an extremely hard protective coating and is unaffected by almost all reagents except hydrofluoric acid. Thus it stands against any contamination. By selective etching of Sio2, diffusion of impurities through carefully defined windows in the Sio2 can be accomplished to fabricate various components. 8. Photolithography process is used for producing windows and the law that governs the diffusion process is the diffusion law . 9. Name the major crystal growth technique. What are ingots ? The major crystal growth technique is Czochralski crystal growth. Ingots ( 1 to 2 inches in diameter and about 10 inches long ) are grown from a silicon melt with a predetermined number of impurities. 10. What are positive photoresists ? Materials which are more soluble when subjected to light and therefore yield a positive image of the mask are known as positive photoresists. 11. What are negative photoresists ? Materials which are rendered less soluble in a developer solution by illumination, yield a negative pattern of the mask and are called as negative photoresists. 12. What are the two types of capacitors that can be fabricated in IC ? Junction capacitor and Metal Oxide Semiconductor capacitor. 13. What is ion implementation ? Ion implementation is a technique used to introduce impurities into a silicon wafer. 14. List the advantages of ion implantation technique. Ion implantation technique has two important advantages. It is performed at low temperatures, therefore, previously diffused regions have a lesser tendency for lateral spreading. In diffusion process, temperature has to be controlled over a large area inside the oven, whereas in ion implantation technique, accelerating potential and the beam current are electrically controlled from outside. 15. List the various isolation techniques used in ICs. The various isolation techniques used in ICs are PN junction isolation , Dielectric isolation. 16. Name the different types of IC packages . TO 5 glass metal package Ceramic flat package Dual in- Line package (ceramic or plastic type)
6.

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17. What is meant by parasitic capacitance? The isolation regions or junctions are connected by a significant barrier, or transition capacitance CTS to the P type substrate, which capacitance can affect the operation of the circuit. Since CTS is an undesirable by-product of the isolation process, it is called the parasitic capacitance. 18. Explain the need for making isolation islands. Since a number of components are fabricated on the same IC chip, it becomes necessary to provide electrical isolation between different components and interconnections. 19. What is the undesirable by-product of PN diode isolation? The undesirable by-product is the presence of transition capacitance at the isolating p-n junctions, resulting in an inevitable capacitor coupling between the components and the substrate. This parasitic capacitance limits the performance of the circuit at high frequencies. 20. What is the advantage of using Aluminium in metallization? (i). It is relatively a good conductor. (ii) It is easy to deposit aluminium films using vacuum deposition (iii) Aluminium makes good mechanical bonds with silicon. (iv) Aluminium forms low resistance, non-rectifying (ohmic) contact with p-type silicon and the heavily doped n-type silicon. 21.List the types of monolithic capacitors. (i) Junction capacitor (ii) MOS or thin film capacitor 22. What are monolithic ICs? Monolithic is Single stone. Monolithic ICs are made in a single piece of single crystal silicon 23.State the limitations of IC technology. (i) cant be repaired (ii) Fabrication of Inductors with high values, transformers and chokes is difficult. 24. The semiconductor / substrate used for monolithic IC are single crystal silicon and that used for thin film are passive substrate such as glass or ceramic. 25. What are the advantages of pnp transistor over npn transistor in IC technology.

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1. A vertical p-n-p transistor has the disadvantage that its collector has to be held at a fixed negative voltage. 2. Lateral p-n-p transistor has inferior characteristic as the base width is usually larger controlled by lateral diffusion on p-type impurities and photographic limitations during masking and alignment. Therefore p-n-p transistor normally gives current gain as low as 1.5 to 30 compared to 50 to 300 for the n-p-n transistor. 3. Collector region is heated during the base and emitter diffusions, so the diffusion coefficient of the collector impurities should be as small as possible to avoid the movement of the collector junction. Since n-type impurities have smaller diffusion constant than p-type impurities, the n-type collector moves very little while p-type moves appreciably. This makes the n-p-n transistor superior in performance with relatively easier process control. 26. What is meant by hybrid IC? In hybrid circuits, separate component parts are attached to a ceramic substrate and interconnected by means of either metallization pattern or wire bonds. 27. Name some popular ICs. National Semiconductor LM 741, Motorola MC1741, RCA-CA3741, Texas Instruments SN52741, Signetics N5741 28. Give the advantages of Schottky barrier diode over pn junction diode. 1. Less time delay from on to off. 2. Less forward voltage drop(0.3V) when compared to that of p-n diode(0.6V) 29. Define sheet resistance Rs. Rs= /t (ohms per square) resistivity, t-material thickness 30. Explain why inductors are difficult to fabricate? IC devices are essentially two dimensional as the depth dimension is usually very small compared to the lateral dimensions. IC inductors can be made in the form of a flat metallic thin film spirals by successive deposition of conduction patterns. Very small values of inductance of the order of nano henry with low quality factor can be obtained. 31. What is the purpose of a current source in an integrated circuits?

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By improving the CMRR of differential amplifier ,its performance can be improved.. To improve CMRR, common mode gain Ac must be reduced as much as possible..When this happens RE will be tending to infinity. But there are practical limitations in selecting the magnitude of an enormous value of resistance. Use of a constant current bias instead of RE is the practical solution for this problem. Without physically increasing the value of RE ,the transistor operated at a constant current gives the effect of very high value of resistance. This is the importance of a current source in an IC. 32. What is a current mirror ? The circuit in which the output current is forced to equal the input current is called current mirror circuit. Isource
Current mirror

Isink

Isource = Isink 33. In what type of applications Widlar current source is used ? Widlar current source is used in OP-AMPs which require low input current of the order of 5 A . 34. Draw the circuit of a multiple current source.

35. Define offset current. Offset current is defined as the difference between the two input bias currents. Ios = IB+ - IB36. Define offset voltage. Input offset voltage is defined as the differential input voltage that exists between the input terminals of an op-amp. 37. Name the characteristics of ideal op-amp. a) Open loop voltage gain AOL = infinity b) Input resistance RI = infinity c) Output Resistance Ro = Zero d) Bandwidth = infinity e) Zero offset (ie) Vo = 0 when V1 = V2 = 0 38. What is meant by band gap reference voltage ? Zener voltage references can be used where the supply voltage required is of the order of 10V or more. In lower supply voltage operating circuits in the rage of 5V, we

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must use only band gap reference .In a transistor, the base-emitter voltage is highly predictable and depends on voltage corresponding to energy bandgap of the semiconductor used. The Silicon has the energy bandgap voltage of 1.205V. Thus, ib B.G.R circuits,negative temp.co-efficient of VBE is compensated by positive TC of the thermal voltage VT and small reference voltage of the order of 1.2V can be obtained. 39. What is an opamp? List its functions. Definition: The op-amp is a multi terminal device, which internally is quite complex. It is a direct coupled high gain amplifier consisting of one or more differential amplifiers, followed by a level translator and an output stage. Function: Op-amp amplifies the difference between two input signals. 40. List the ideal characteristics of an op-amp. The ideal characteristics of an op-amp are as follows: Open loop voltage gain, AOL = Input impedance, Ri = Output impedance, RO = 0 Bandwidth, BW = Zero offset voltage, i.e. VO = 0 when V1 = V2 = 0; 41. List the essential terminals of an op-amp. Op-amp has five basic terminals, that is, two input terminals, one output terminal and two power supply terminals. Inverting input terminal : Pin 2 Non- inverting input terminal : Pin 3 Output terminal : Pin 6 Power supply terminals : Pin 4& 7 42. What is meant by a dual op-amp? DUAL OP-AMP: When two op-amps are present in a single IC then it is said to be a dual op-amp. The A 747 is a dual 741 and comes in either a 10-pin can or a 14-pin DIP. 43. Explain the virtual ground concept with a suitable example. We know that Vd = Va-Vb = 0; Node B is grounded Therefore Vb = 0; But Vd = 0; Va = Vb ; Node A is at virtual ground. ie since node B is at ground node A is also at ground imaginarily. 44. What are the factors that affect the stability of an op-amp? The factors that affect the stability of an op-amp are closed loop gain and phase shift. 45. What are the various methods available for frequency compensation? There are two types of compensating techniques used for frequency compensation. They are namely External compensation Internal compensation External frequency has two methods for compensation namely

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Dominant pole compensation Pole-zero compensation 46. Explain the roll off gain in op-amp. Ideally, an op-amp should have an infinite bandwidth. This means that, if its open loop gain is 90dB with dc signal its gain should remain the same 90dB through audio and on to high radio frequencies. The practical op-amp gain, however, decreases (rolls-off) at higher frequencies. This decrease in gain is due to the capacitive component in the equivalent circuit of the op-amp. This capacitance is due to the physical characteristics of the device (BJT or FET) and the internal construction of op-amp. 47. Explain the significance of frequency compensation related to op-amp. In applications where one desires large bandwidth and lower closed loop gain, suitable compensating techniques are used. The compensating network alters the open-loop gain so that the roll-off rate is 20dB/decade over a wide range of frequency. 48. Design a circuit using op-amp whose gain is 3. The op-amp inverting amplifier is shown.

Gain =

Rf V0 = = 3 Vi R1

Let R1 = 1k R f = 3 R1 = 3k

49. Mention some applications of op-amp in open loop mode. Some of the applications of op-amp in open loop mode are as follows: Comparator Zero crossing detector. Window detector Time marker generator Phase meter 50. Why are FET op-amps better than BJT op-amps?

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Op-amps using FETs in the input stage offer some very significant advantages over bipolar op-amps, especially in areas as input impedance, input bias and offset currents and slewing rate as shown in table Parameter BJT JFET MOSFET Input resistance Input gate current Input offset current Slewing rate K A 20 nA 1 V/ s 109 1 nA 2 pA 3 V/ s 1012 1 pA 0.5 pA 10 V/ s

51. The feedback circuit connected across the inverting input& the output terminal is called negative feedback. 52. Mention the significance of Rcomp in an op-amp. For 741 op-amp, with a 1M feedback resistor, Vo = 500nA x 1M = 500mV The output is driven to 500mV with zero input because of bias currents. This effect can be compensated by adding a compensating resistor between the non-inverting input terminal and ground. 53. Define input offset current and input offset voltage. INPUT OFFSET CURRENT: The algebraic difference between the currents into the (-) input and (+)input is referred to as input offset current .It is 200Na maximum for 741C. INPUT OFFSET VOLTAGE: It is the voltage that must be applied between the input terminals of an op-amp to nullify the output. Since this voltage could be positive or negative its absolute value is listed on the data sheet. For 741C, maximum value is 6mV. 54. Define input bias current. INPUT BIAS CURRENT: The average of currents entering into the (-) input terminal & (+) input terminal of an op-amp is called input bias current. Its value is 500nA for 741C. 55. Define slew rate. Mention it ideal value expected in an op-amp. SLEW RATE: Slew rate is defined as the maximum rate of change of output voltage caused by a step input voltage and is usually specified is V/ s. An ideal slew rate is infinite which means that op-amps output voltage should change instantaneously in response to input voltage. 56. Define CMRR AND PSRR. Mention their ideal values. CMRR: The relative sensitivity of an op-amp to a difference signal as compared to a common mode signal is called common mode rejection ratio and gives the figure of merit for the differential amplifier.
=
| Ad | | Ac |

Ad = difference mod e gain Ac = common mod e gain

CMRR is typically infinite.

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PSRR: The change in an op-amps input offset voltage due to variations in supply voltage is called supply voltage rejection ratio. It is also termed as power supply rejection ratio or power supply sensitivity. For 741C, SVRR=150 V/V. 57. Explain thermal drift related to an op-amp. THERMAL DRIFT:Bias current, offset current and offset voltage change with temperature. A circuit carefully nulled at 250C may not remain so when the temperature rises to 350C.This is called thermal drift. Often current drift is expressed in nA/0C and offset voltage drift in mV/0C. Part - B
1. With suitable sketches explain the IC fabrication steps such as oxidation, ion implantation,

diffusion, lithography, etching, metallization, bonding and packaging. 2. With neat sketch explain how active and passive devices are realized in IC. 3. Write short notes on thin and thick film technology 4. Write down the various steps involved in the fabrication of a typical circuit.

5. What are the differences between monolithic and hybrid ICs? Explain how resistors and capacitors are fabricated in IC technology? 6. Draw the typical structures of the monolithic transistor with (a) pn junction isolation (b) dielectric isolation and list the different technological process used in both the methods. 7. Explain with a neat diagram how an npn transistor and JFET is fabricated in monolithic IC implementation. 8. (i) Show the cross sectional view of a multi emitter transistor. (ii) What is Schottky transistor? Draw the cross sectional view and explain its operation. 9. (i) Give the various ways for making diodes in ICs. (ii) Explain the operation of a Schottky barrier diode. 10. Draw the circuit diagram of a symmetrical emitter coupled difference amplifier and derive an expression for the differential mode gain Ad and common mode gain Ac. 11.Design a basic bandgap reference circuit with the parameters as TC(Vref)=0; Ic1=Ic3=0.2mA; Ic2=1/5 Ic1 and Is =2*10-5A for all the transistors. Assume room temperature of 27C. 12.Draw the circuit diagram of a Wilson current source and explain its working. 13.Explain Widlar current source with neat circuit diagram 14.Draw the circuit diagram of a Cascode current source and explain its working. UNIT I I: APPLICATIONS OF OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS PART A

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What are the limitations of basic differentiator? At high frequencies, a differentiator may become unstable and break into oscillation. The input impedance (ie., 1/ C1) decreases with increase in frequency, thereby making the circuit sensitive to high frequency noise. 1. What is the limitation of basic integrator? At low frequencies, the feedback capacitor behaves as an open circuit and there is no negative feedback,. The op-amp thus operates in open loop, resulting in an infinite gain. In practice, of course, output never becomes infinite, rather the output of the amplifier saturates at a voltage close to the op-amp positive or negative power supply depending on the polarity of the input dc signal. 3. What is the use of differentiator and integrator circuits? The op-amp differentiator and integrator are useful for signal wave shaping. 4. Define a summing amplifier. A summing amplifier is a circuit whose output is the sum of several input signals. It may be inverting summing amplifier and non-inverting summing amplifier. 5. What is a practical op-amp? Draw its equivalent circuit. A physical amplifier is not an ideal one. The equivalent circuit of an op-amp is shown below:

It can be seen that op-amp is a voltage controlled voltage source and AOL vd is an equivalent Thevenin voltage source and Ro is the Thevenin equivalent resistance looking back into the output terminal of an op-amp. 6. Draw the block schematic of an op-amp.

7. What is an instrumentation amplifier? In a number of industrial and consumer applications, one is required to measure and control physical quantities. Some typical examples are measurement and control of temperature, humidity, light intensity, water flow etc. these physical quantities are usually measured with

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the help of transducers. The output of transducer has to be amplified so that it can drive the indicator or display system. This function is performed by an instrumentation amplifier. 8. What are the features of an instrumentation amplifier? High gain accuracy High CMRR High gain stability with low temperature coefficient Low dc offset Low output impedance. There are specially designed op-amps such as A 725 to meet the above stated requirements of a good instrumentation amplifier. 9. List few monolithic instrumentation amplifier ICs. Monolithic instrumentation amplifier ICs are AD521, AD524,AD624 by analog devices, LH0036,LH0037 by National semiconductor and INA104, 3626,3629 by Burr-Brown.

10.

11.

12. 13.

14.

10.What is the other name for voltage to current converter? What are the uses of V-to-I converters? The other name for voltage to current converter is the transconductance amplifier. The Vto-I converters are useful in low voltage dc and ac voltmeters, LED and zener diode testers. What is the other name for current to voltage converter? What are the uses of I-to-V converters? The other name for current to voltage converter is the transresistance amplifier. The I-toV converters are used for testing photo devices. Photocell, photodiode and photovoltaic cell give an output current that is proportional to an incident radiant energy or light. The current through these devices can be converted to voltage by using a current to voltage converter and thereby the amount of light or radiant energy incident on the photo device can be measured. Define an electric filter. A frequency selective electric circuit that passes electric signals of specified band of frequencies and attenuates the signals of frequencies outside the band is called an electric filter Classify filters. Filters are classified in a number of ways: analog or digital, passive or active , audio or radio frequency. Discuss the disadvantages of passive filters. Passive filters work well for high frequencies, that is, radio frequencies. However, at audio frequencies, inductors become problematic, as the inductors become large, heavy and expensive. For low frequency application, more number of turns of wire must be used which in turn adds to the series resistance degrading inductors performance, ie. Low quality factor, resulting in high power dissipation. Why are active filters preferred? Active filters are preferred over passive filters because they use op-amp as the active element, and resistors and capacitors as the passive elements. The active filters, by

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15.

16.

enclosing a capacitor in the feedback loop, avoid using inductors. In this way, inductor less RC active filters can be obtained. Also, as op-amp is used in non-inverting configuration, it offers high input impedance and low output impedance. This will improve the load drive capacity and load is isolated from the frequency determining network. Because of the high input impedance of the op-amp, large value of resistors can be used, thereby reducing the value (size and cost) of the capacitors required in the design. What are the limitations of active filters? High frequency response is limited by the gain-bandwidth (GBW) product and slew rate of the op-amp. The high frequency active filters are more expensive than the passive filters. List the commonly used filters. The most commonly used filters are low pass filter, high pass filter, band pass filter and band stop or band reject filter.

17.

Define pass band and stop band of a filter. Pass band is a band of frequencies over which a specified range frequencies can be allowed to pass. Stop band is a band of frequencies over which a specified range of frequencies will be attenuated. What is the roll-off rate of a first order filter? A first order active filter consists of only one RC pair & has a roll-off rate of 20dB/decade. The roll-off rate increases with the order of the filter. An n-th order filter has a roll-off rate of 20 n dB/decade. Why do we use higher order filters? An improved filter response can be obtained by using a higher order filter. On what does the damping co-efficient of a filter depend? Damping is determined by the amplifiers gain. Bessel filter is a heavily damped filter ( > 1.7 ). It is very stable, but rolls-off very early in the pass band. Butterworth filters ( = 1.414 ) gives maximally flat pass band. a Chebyshev filters ( < 1.4 ) provides faster initial roll-off rate but gives poorest transient response. What is a Sallen- Key filter? A second order filter consists of two RC pairs and has a roll-off rate of 40 dB/decade. A general second order filter is known as Sallen Key filter. What are the important parameters of a band pass filter? The important parameters of a band pass filter are upper and lower cut-off frequencies (fh and fl ), the bandwidth (BW) , the central frequency (f o), the central frequency gain Ao and selectivity Q. Define a notch filter. The narrow band reject filter is commonly called a notch filter and is useful for the rejection of a single frequency, such as 50Hz power line frequency hum. How do we get a notch filter from a band pass filter?

18.

19. 20.

21. 22.

23. 24.

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25.

26.

There are several ways to make notch filters. One simple technique is to subtract the band pass filter output from its input. What is a comparator? A comparator is a circuit which compares a signal voltage applied at one input of an opamp with a known reference voltage at the other input. It is basically an open loop op-amp with analog inputs and digital output (+ or Vsat = Vcc ) Draw the transfer characteristics of an ideal comparator and a practical comparator.

27. 28.

29. 30. 31.

32.

List the types of comparators. Non-inverting comparator and Inverting comparator. List the applications of comparator. Zero crossing detector Window detector Time marker generator and Phase meter. What is a window detector? A window detector is one which is used to mark the instant at which an unknown input is between two threshold levels. What is zero crossing detector? Zero crossing detector is a comparator with Vref = 0. What is Schmitt trigger? Schmitt trigger is a comparator with positive feedback. In this circuit, the input voltage triggers the output every time it exceeds certain voltage levels called upper threshold VUT and lower threshold VLT. It converts slowly varying waveforms into square wave. What is hysterisis? What parameters determine the hysterisis? If positive feedback is added to the comparator circuit, gain can be increased greatly. Consequently, the transfer curve of comparator becomes more close to ideal curve. Theoretically, if the loop gain - AOL is adjusted to unity, then the gain with feedback, A Vf becomes infinite. This results in an abrupt (zero rise time) transition between the extreme values of output voltage. In practical circuits, however, it may not be possible to maintain loop gain exactly equal to unity for a long time because of supply voltage and temperature variations. So a value greater than unity is chosen. This gives an output waveform virtually
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discontinuous at the comparison voltage. This circuit, however, now exhibits a phenomenon called hysterisis or backlash. Parameters which determine the hysterisis are upper threshold VUT and lower threshold VLT. 33. What is an astable multivibrator? An astable multivibrator is called a free running oscillator, the principle of generation of square wave output is to force an op-amp to operate in the saturation region. 34. What is the other name of one shot? Monostable multivibrator is the other name of one shot. The circuit is useful for generating single output pulse of adjustable time duration in response to a triggering signal. The width of the output pulse depends only on external components connected to the op-amp. 35. State the two conditions of oscillations. For self-sustained oscillation, two conditions must be satisfied: The magnitude of the loop gain AV must be equal to 1. The total phase shift of the loop gain must be 0 degree. 36. Classify the oscillators. There are different types of sine-wave oscillators available according to the range of frequency, namely RC oscillators for audio frequency and LC oscillators for radio frequency range. The phase shift and Wien bridge are the most commonly used sine wave oscillators for audio frequencies. The frequency of oscillation depends upon RC components. 37. How a triangular wave can be generated? A triangular wave can be generated by integrating a square wave. 38. What is a precision diode? A diode in the feedback loop of an op-amp behaves as a precision diode as its cut-in voltage gets divided by the open-loop gain of op-amp. This circuit is called the precision diode and is capable of rectifying input signals of the order of millivolt. 39. List the applications of precision diode. Half-wave rectifier Full-wave rectifier Peak-value detector Clipper Clamper 40. Name the circuit that is used to detect the peak value of the non-sinusoidal waveforms. Mention its applications. The circuit that is used to detect the peak value of the non-sinusoidal waveforms is peak detector circuit. Peak detectors find application in test and measurement instrumentation as well as in amplitude modulation (AM) communication.

Part - B
1. What are the limitations of a basic differentiator? Discuss in detail the practical differentiator highlighting the practical considerations. 2. Explain the DC characteristics of an op-amp. 3. What are the limitations of a basic integrator? Discuss in detail the practical integrator highlighting the practical considerations
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4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Explain the various techniques of frequency compensation in Op-Amp ICs. Derive the different parameters of voltage series feedback amplifier Derive the different parameters of voltage shunt feedback amplifier Derive the expressions of output of Summing amplifier and Adder- subtractor circuits. Sketch and explain the various circuits used for improving CMRR in opamps. Draw the circuits for inverting, non inverting and difference amplifier using opamp. Derive an expression for gain for these three configurations. 10. Derive the expression for the output voltage Vo for the circuit shown below.
RR 1 1 RR 3 3

Vo Vo

V1 V1 V2 V2

R2 R2

11. (a) Explain differential amplifier used in Op-amp with neat diagram and explain CMRR,

ADM and ACM. (b) Derive the gain of inverting amplifier 12. (a) Explain the frequency response of op-amp with neat diagrams. (b) In response to square wave input, the output of an op-amp voltage follower changed from -3V to +3V in 0.25sec. What is the slew rate of the op-amp? 13. (a) The input offset voltage of op-amp is 0.5mV. The bias current is 30pA. Find the value of Rcomp to take care of the effect of IB for a non-inverting amplifier having a gain of 15. (b) In a practical non-inverting amplifier, R1=1k, Rf=10k, AOL=2 X 105, Rin=2M, Ro=75 & fo=5Hz. Supply voltages 12V. Calculate ACL, Rinf, Rof and ff 14. (a)List the various basic requirements of a good instrumentation amplifier (b) Draw and explain the commonly used three op-amp instrumentation amplifier 15. (a) What is band pass filter ? (b) Which are the two types of band pass filters (c ) Explain with neat diagram the working of narrow band pass filter 16 Write short notes on non-linear function generator. 17. Explain the working of positive and negative comparators with neat circuit diagrams and waveforms 18. With circuit diagram, discuss the following applications of operational amplifier (i) V/I converter (ii) Peak detector (iii) Monostable multivibrator. 19. Draw the circuit of a second order Butterworth active low pass filter and derive its transfer function. (ii) Design a second order active high pass filter for a cut-off frequency of 1 KHz.
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20. (i) Explain the concept of Schmitt trigger and also design a Schmitt trigger for UTH= +0.5V and LTH= -0.5V. (ii) Explain how a comparator can be used as a zero crossing detector. 21. With neat diagrams explain the following (i) Clippers (ii) Clampers (iii) Window detector 22. (i) Design a fourth order Butterworth low pass filter whose bandwidth is 1 kHz. Select all capacitors equal to 1000nF. (ii) What is hysteresis? What parameters determine the hysteresis? 23. (i) Draw the circuit of a second order Butterworth active High pass filter and derive its transfer function. (ii) Draw the first order LPF and derive its transfer function. 24. With neat schematic derive the transfer function, Qo and bandwidth of narrow band pass filter and wide band pass filter. 25. Draw the Notch filter Schematic and find its bandwidth.

UNIT III: ANALOG MULTIPLIER AND PLL PART A

1. List the basic building blockS of a PLL.

The basic building block of a pll are: Phase detector,Low pass filter ,Error amplifier and a Voltage controlled oscillator. 2. Define Capture range,Lock in range and Pull in time . Capture range : The range of frequencies over which the Pll can acquire lock with an i/p signal is called the capture range. Lock in range: The range of frequencies over which the Pll can maintain the lock with the incoming signal is called lock-in-range. Pull-in-time: The total time taken by the Pll to establish lock is called pull in time.This depend on the initial phase and frequency difference b/w the two signals as well as on the overall loop gain and loop filter characteristics. 3. Which is greater Capture range or Lock in range? Lock in range is greater than capture range . 4. List the applications of the PLL. Some applications of PLL are: Frequency multiplier,divider,AM and FM demodulator,FSK demodulator . 5. What is Modulation? Modulation is defined as the process of changing amplitude,phase and frequency of the characteristics of a carrier wave in accordance with the intensity of the signal. 6. What do you understand by VCO? Voltage controlled oscillator (VCO) is a free running multivibrator and operates at a set frequency fo .It is determined by an external timing capacitor and resistor .The frequency is

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shifted by applying a dc voltage Vc and is proportional to it. Hence it is called voltage controlled oscillator. 7. Explain the basic principle of PLl. PLL is a frequency selective circuit designed to synchronise with an incoming signal and maintain sychronisation in spite of noise or variations in the incoming signal frequency. 8. Write two important feature of variable transconductance multiplier. The two important features of multiplier are accuracy and linearity. 9.Draw the block diagram of AM demodulator using PLL.

10. List the applications of an analog mulitplier. Analog multipliers are used in applications like frequency doubling,frequency shifting, phase angle detection, real power computations, multiplication of two signals ,dividing and squaring of signals etc. 11. What is a multiplier? A multiplier produces an o/p Vo proportional to the product of two i/ps Vx and Vy. Vo=K Vx Vy Where K is the scale factor. 12.What is a four quadrant multiplier? A multiplier that accepts i/p of either polarity and preserves the correct polarity relationship at the o/p is called a four quadrant multiplier. 13.List the advantages of a varible transconductance technique. Provides very good accuracy. Reduced erroe at least by 10 times. Provides high speed of operation. Economical. 14.Define voltage to frequency conversion factor. An important parameter for VCO is the voltage to frequency conversion factor. (Kv) is defined as Kv = ( fo/ Vc) Where Vc is the modulating voltage required to produce the frequency shift fo for a VCO.

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15.What is a phase detector? What are its types? Phase detector is a multiplier which produces the sum(fs+fo) and difference (fs-fo) components at its o/p.There are two types of phase detector namely, Analog and digital . 16.Explain the use of LPF in PLL. LPF is used in PLL to Remove high frequency components and noise. Control the dynamic characters (capture range ,lock range band width& transient response) provide a short time memory(given by the charge on the filter capacitor) Provides a high noise immunity and locking stability. 17.Explain the features of 566 VCO Wide supply voltage range 10V to 24V. High temperature stability. Linear modulation charactertics. Frequency can be controlled by means of current, voltage ,resistor or capacitor. 18.What is Frequency shift keying (FSK) ? In digital data communication, binary data is transmitted by means of a carrier frequency. It uses two different carrier frequencies for logic 1 and logic 0 states of binary data signal. This type of data transmission is called frequency shift keying(FSK). 19. A PLL frequency translator has a center frequency f and i/p frequency f1, what will be the o/p frequency? The o/p frequency fo is given by fo = f +f1 20.Draw the pin diagram of IC 565 PLL.

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21.Draw the block schematic of the PLL.

22.What does the Ics AD 533 AD 534 refer to ? The IC AD 533 and IC AD 534 are multiplier ICs by Analog Devices.IC AD 533 is low cost integrated circuit comprising a transconductance multiplying elment, stable reference and an o/p amplifier, on a monolithic silicon chip. IC AD 534 ia a monolithic laser trimmed four quadrant multiplier , having a maximum error of +0.25% or 0.25%. 23.What are the applications of PLL as voltage o/p and as frequency o/p? Voltage o/p is used in frequency discriminator applications where as the frequency o/p in used in signal conditioning, frequency synthesis or clock recovery applications. 24. How voltage o/p can be used as frequency discriminator? When PLL is locked to an i/p frequency, the error voltage Vc(t) is proportional to (fsfo).If the i/p frequency is varied as in the case of FM signal, Ve will also vary in order to maintain the lock. Then the volt o/p serves as a frequency discriminator which converts the i/p frequency changes to voltage changes. 25.Draw the input frequency versus VCO control voltage characteristics of PLL showing capture range and lock in range.

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PART-B
1.

Explain a four quadrant multiplier and derive the expression VZ = K V X VY 2. Explain the working of VCO IC NE/SE 566 with pin diagram and internal block diagram and derive the expression for KV 3. Explain the working of PLL IC NE/SE 565 with pin diagram and internal block diagram and derive the expression for lock in range. 4. Explain the working of different types of Phase detector with neat waveforms UNIT IV ANALOG TO DIGITAL AND DIGITAL TO ANALOG CONVERTERS PART A 1.Why do we prefer digital form rather than analog form ? For processing, transmission and storage purposes, it is more convenient to express information carrying signals such as voltage, current, pressure (analog form) in digital form. When expressed in digital form, they provide better accuracy and reduce noise. 2.Explain the necessity of a sample and hold circuit ? For accurate analog to digital conversion the analog input voltage should be held constant during the conversion cycle. If the analog input voltage changes by more the +1/2LSB an error can occur in the digital output code. To minimize the occurrence of error, sample and hold circuits are used. 3.Write the basic principle of sample and hold circuits . The sample and hold circuit samples the value of the input signal in response to a sampling command and hold it at the output until arrival of the next command. It samples an analog input voltage in a very short period and holds the sampled voltage level for an extended period. 4. Draw the S/H (sample and hold ) circuit .

5. State the various performance parameters of S/H circuits ? 1. Acquisition time 2. Aperture time 3. Aperture uncertainty 4. Hold mode settling time 5. Hold step 6. Feed through 7. Voltage droop 6. Define acquisition time of S/H circuit ?
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The acquisition time of a S/H is the time required for the holding capacitor C H to charge up to a level close to the input voltage during sampling. The acquisition time for S/H circuit should be as low as possible. 7. Give the advantages of S/H circuit ? The primary use of the S/H circuit to hold the sampled analog input voltage constant during conversion time of A/D converter. It reduces the crosstalk in the MUX. 8. Give the applications of the S/H circuit ? 1. Digital interfacing 2. A/D converter circuits 3. Pulse modulation systems 4. In analog DEMUX 9. State the performance parameters of DAC ? 1. Resolution 2. Accuracy 3. Monotonicity 4. Conversion time 5. Settling time 6. Stability 10. Define resolution of a DAC. Resolution is the number of different analog output values that can be provided by a DAC. For an n-bit DAC Resolution=2n Resolution is also defined as the ratio of a change in output voltage resulting from a change of 1LSB at the digital inputs. For an n-bit DAC Resolution=VOFS / (2n-1) VOFSFull scale output voltage 11. Define accuracy of a DAC. Accuracy is a comparison of actual output voltage with expected output. It is expressed in percentage. Ideally the accuracy of the DAC should be, at worst + LSB. Accuracy = VOFS / ((2n-1)* 2 ) 12. Define conversion time of a DAC. Conversion time is the time required for conversion of analog signal into its digital equivalent. This is also called setting time. 13. Define settling time of a DAC. Settling time is time required for the output of the DAC to settle to within + LSB of the final value for a given digital input i.e. 0 to full scale. 14. Give the basic techniques for analog to digital conversion. Binary weighted resistor D/A converter. R/2R ladder D/A converter. 15.What are current driven DACs?

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In binary weighted resistor and R/2R ladder D/A converter, the shunt resistors are used to generate n binary weighted currents. These currents are added according to switch positions controlled by the digital input and then converted into voltage to give analog voltage equivalent to the digital input. Therefore such D/A converters are called current driven converters. 16. What are the drawbacks of binary weighted resistor D/A converter? Wide range of resistor values are required. It is impracticable to fabricate large values of resistor in IC and voltage drop across such large resistors due to this bias current also affects accuracy. 17. Give the advantages of R/2R ladder DAC. Easier to build accurately as only two precision metal film resistors are required. No. of bits can be expanded by adding more sections of same R/2R values. In inverted R/2R ladder DAC node voltages remain constant with changing input binary words. This avoids any slow down effects by stray capacitances. 18. What are the sources of errors in DAC? Linearity error. Offset error. Gain error. 19. Give the performance parameters of ADC. Resolution Quantization error Conversion time 20. Write the basic conversion techniques in ADCs. Single ramp or Single slope Dual slope Successive approximation Flash Delta modulation Adaptive Delta modulation 21. Write the principle involved in successive approximation ADC. In this technique the basic idea is to adjust the DACs input code such that its output is within + LSB of the analog input Vi to be A/D converted. The successive approximation method uses very efficient code searching strategy called binary search. It completes searching process for n bit conversion in just n clock periods. 22. Which type of ADC is the fastest and why? Flash A/D converter also known as the simultaneous or parallel comparator is the fastest of all ADCs because the fast conversion speed is accomplished by providing 2n - 1 comparators and simultaneously comparing the input signals with unique reference levels spaced one LSB apart. 23. What are the disadvantages of delta modulation? Granular noise: The granular noise occurs when the step size is too large when compared to small variations in the input signal. Slope overload distortion: The slope overload distortion occurs when the rate of change of the analog waveform is too high for the staircase waveform to follow.

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24. What are the advantages of Adaptive delta modulation over delta modulation? The signal to noise ratio is better than ordinary delta modulation because of the reduction in slope overload distortion and granular noise. Because of the variable step size the dynamic range of ADM is wide. Utilization of bandwidth is better than delta modulation. 25. Give the typical specifications of VFC. Wide dynamic range. Ability to operate to relatively high frequencies. High Scale factor accuracy. Stability with temperature and supply voltage. 26. Give the types of VFCs. According to the method of conversions, there are two types of VFCs. Wide sweep multi vibrator. Charge balancing VFC. PART-B 1. With a neat block diagram explain the operation of Dual slope A/D converter. Compare it with other types of ADCs. 2. (i) Explain the working of weighted resistor D/A converter. (ii) Explain successive approximation A/D converter 3. (i) Explain Dual slope ADC with neat diagrams. (ii) Design a 4 bit binary weighted resistor D/A converter for the following specifications. Use LM741 op-amp R=10 Kohms. Vref= 2.5 V. Full scale output=5V. 4. (i) Explain the working of R-2R ladder DAC. (ii)Explain the working of successive approximation ADC. 5. (i)A dual slope ADC uses a 16 bit counter and a 4 MHz clock rate. The maximum input voltage is +10V. the maximum integrator output voltage should be -8V when the counter has recycled through 2n counts. The capacitor used in the integrator is 0.1 microfarad. Find the value of R of the integrator. (ii)Describe the various types of electronic switches used in D/A converter. 6. (i) Explain the important specifications of D/A and A/D converters. (ii) Explain the parallel comparator(flash) A/D converter. UNIT V- WAVEFORM GENERATORS AND SPECIAL FUNCTION ICs PART A 1. What are the types of packages available for timer? 8-pin circular style TO 99 can or 8-pin mini DIP or as 14-pin DIP 2. How do you use timer IC for frequency division operation? A continuously triggered monostable circuit when triggered by a square wave generator can be used as a frequency divider, if the timing interval is adjusted to be longer than the time period of the triggering square wave input signal. 3. 555 timer is compatible with both TTL and CMOS logic circuits. 4. What are the modes of operation of timer?

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Astable mode Monostable mode 5. Draw an astable multivibrator using a timer IC with normally ON load

6. Draw the circuit of Schmitt trigger with one timer one capacitor and two resistors

7. Name the four parts of op-amp regulator reference voltage circuit error amplifier series pass transistor feedback network 8. What is the value of reference voltage of 743 IC? The value of reference voltage of 743 IC is 7 volts

9. Differentiate between linear and switching regulator linear regulator Here the pass transistor is operated in its linear region to provide a switching regulator Here the pass transistor is used as controlled switch and is

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controlled voltage drop across with a steady dc current flow .

operated at either cutoff or saturated state. Hence the power transmitted across the pass device is discrete pulses rather than a steady current flow

Name some applications of a multiplier frequency doubling frequency shifting phase angle detection real power computation dividing and squaring of signals 11. What is frequency shifting? In radio communication circuits, it is often necessary to shift a carrier frequency fc with its accompanying side frequencies down to a lower intermediate frequency f if. This shift of each frequency is accomplished with the multiplier connections. This is known as frequency shifting. 12. What is the maximum current rating of IC 723 ? The maximum current rating of IC 723 voltage regulator is approximately 150mA and with a boost transistor, the limit can be increased as required 13. How can a three terminal voltage regulator IC ckt be modified to provide variable voltage output? To provide variable voltage output the ground terminal of the fixed three terminal voltage regulator is floating 14. What are the various protection circuits provided in IC voltage regulators? current limit and current foldback are the various protection circuits provided in IC voltage regulators 15. What are precision voltage supplies? They are those, which provide a dc voltage independent of the load current, temperature and ac line voltage variations. 16. What is a three terminal regulator? 78XX series are three terminal positive fixed voltage regulators. there are seven output voltage options available such as 5,6,7,8,12,15,18 and 24V . in 78XX the last two XX indicate the output voltage .
10.

17. What is frequency doubling? The multiplication of two sine waves of the same frequency but of possibly different amplitudes and phase is called frequency doubling 18. What is the function of a voltage regulator? The function of a voltage regulator is to provide a stable dc voltage for powering other electronic circuits. 19. List and explain the characteristics of a three terminal voltage regulator IC.

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1.Output voltage Vo: The regulated output voltage is fixed at a value as specified by the manufacturer. There are a number of models available for different output voltages, for example, 78XX series has output 2.|Vin| >= |V0| + 2V 3.Io max 4.thermal shut down 20. Explain the current limiting features of 723 regulator. Current limiting refers to the ability of a regulator toprevent the load current from increasing above a preset value. The characteristic curve of a current limited power supply is shown below. The o/p voltage remains constant for load current below I limit. As current approaches the limit, the output voltage drops. The current limit Ilimit is set by connecting an external resistor Rsc between the terminals CL and CS terminals shown below. The CL terminal is also connected to the output terminalVo and CS terminal to the load. The load current produces a small voltage drop Vsense across Rsc. This voltage Vsense is applied directly across the base emitter junction of Q2. When this voltage is approximately 0.5V, Q2 begins to turn ON. Now a part of the current from error amplifier goes to the collector of Q 2, thereby decreasing the base current of Q1. This In turn , reduces the emitter current of Q1. So any increase in the load current will get nullified. Similarly, if the load current decreases, VBE of Q2 drops, repeating the cycle in such a manner that the load current is held constant to produce a voltage across RSC sufficient to turn ON Q2. This voltage is typically 0.5 V. So, Ilimit = Vsense/ Rsc . This method of current limiting is also referred to as current sensing technique. 21. What is the use of current limit protection? The use of current limit protection is to prevent the load current from increasing above a preset value. 22. What is the principle of SMPS? The pass transistors in SMPS are switched ON and OFF at 20khz or faster. the output level is controlled by varying the pulse width of the switching waveform. Operating at this frequency allows the use of smaller transformers, capacitors and inductors. 23. What is the advantage of a switched capacitor filter ? In a switched capacitor filter, large value of a resistor is realized by switching a capacitor. 24. What are the advantages and disadvantages of tuned amplifiers ? ADVANTAGES: (i) They amplify defined frequencies (ii) S/N ratio at output is good. (iii) Well suited for radio transmitters and receivers (iv) Band of frequencies over which amplification is required can be Varied. DISADVANTAGES: (i) The circuit is bulky and costly, as they use inductors and capacitors as tuning elements (ii) Design becomes complex, if the band of frequency is increased. (iii) They are not suitable to amplify audio frequencies. 25.What are the design considerations to be followed for video amplifiers ?

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For a video amplifier, all the frequencies must be amplified equally to maintain the same relative amplitudes. And the relative phases of all the frequency components in the output must be the same as at input.. So the design considerations are: 1. To increase the BW, the gain must be reduced by decreasing RL. 2. The load capacitance should be as small as possible 3. Use one or more negative feedback loops to increase the bandwidth of the amplifier. 4. Use CE-CB cascode pair as an amplifier because its high frequency is better than the CE amplifier. 5. Choose the transistor having high value of f T and low value of base spreading resistor rbb 26. Give performance parameters or important characteristics for opto-isolators. (i) Current Transfer Ratio (CTR) (ii) Isolation voltage between input and output (Viso) (iii) Response Time (iv) Common mode rejection (v) VCE(max) (vi) IL(max) (vii) Bandwidth 27. How are optocouplers superior to electrical coupling ? A circuit connected to the input of an optocoupler can be electrically fully isolated from the output circuit. So, a potential difference of 100s or 1000s of volts can safely exists between two circuits without adversely influencing the optocoupler action.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

PART-B How is 723 IC configured for a high voltage regulator circuit? Calculate the values of Ri and R2 in this circuit to get an output of 28V. Show and explain the standard representation of three terminal fixed voltage regulators. List and discuss the four characteristics of three terminal IC voltage regulators. What is switching regulator? Explain its working with neat diagram. Explain the internal circuit diagram of LM 380 audio amplifier. Design a current limit circuit for a 723 regulator to limit the current to 60 mA. Design an adjustable voltage regulator (3V to 28V) with a short circuit limit of 60mA using a 723 regulator. Draw and explain the following protection circuits, (i) Short circuit protection (ii) Fold back current limiting (i) Draw and explain the functional block diagram of a723 regulator. (ii) Explain Isolation amplifier IC with neat diagram (i) Draw the schematic of function generator IC 8038 and explain its functions. (ii) What are the different types of opto electronic ICs available? and Explain. Write short notes on (i) Fiber optic IC (ii) Opto coupler 11.(i) Draw the circuit of an astable multivibrator using op-amp and derive an expression for its frequency of oscillation
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(ii) Using 741 op-amp, design an astable multivibrator for a frequency of 1 KHz. 12.Explain the following (i) I/V converter (ii) Triangular wave generator. 13.Explain any two types of sine wave oscillators and derive the condition for getting oscillations. 14.(i) Design a monostable multivibrator with trigger pulse shaping which will drive a LED ON for 0.5 Sec each time it is pulsed. (ii) Explain how a non-symmetrical square wave can be obtained 15.With a neat circuit diagram and internal functional diagram explain the working of 555 timers in astable mode. 16. Draw the circuit of an monosatble multivibrator using IC 555and derive an expression for pulse width.

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